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POLITICAL forIDEAS
A-level
SECOND EDITION

Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism,

Multiculturalism, Nationalism,
Ecologism
Richard Kelly • Charlie Pearson
Neil McNaughton
SERIES EDITOR:
Eric Magee
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Learning Key terms

outcomes Chapter 3 Like liberals and socialists, conservatives see change as inevitable Concise

Chapter 3 Conservatism
Key term
and indeed essential. What matters for conservatives is that
Change to conserve change occurs in a certain manner; one that will draw upon, rather
A summary of Conservatism
This is the fundamental
principle of conservatism
and one that distinguishes
than dismiss, concepts like tradition, experience and continuity.
Furthermore, conservatives assert that change, when conducted
definitions
in a certain way, is the only way to conserve what is best about

the learning Learning outcomes

This chapter will enable students to:
a conservative from a
reactionary. It indicates a
belief that, for something
the status quo. As Edmund Burke (Key thinker 2) observed: ‘A
state without the means of change … is without the means of its of key terms
conservation’.
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

objectives for where they

■ understand the contrast between conservatism and the
valuable to be preserved,
To understand this paradox, we need only recall that few
two other ‘core’ ideologies it has to be continuously
updated and maintained. things survive by remaining unchanged: much of what endures
■ understand there is more to conservatism than conserving
will have had ongoing attention, nurture and renewal. For this

each chapter first appear

■ understand that conservatism is an ideology that bends
reason, Michael Oakeshott (Key thinker 3) liked to describe
according to circumstance conservatism as a ‘doctrine of maintenance’; a philosophy
■ understand the continuities between ‘ancient’ and
that rejects iconoclasm (the destruction of that which has
‘modern’ conservative thinkers.
traditionally been respected and praised) but which nonetheless
embraces reform. What distinguishes most conservatives is
their belief that change should be about repair and careful
Key thinkers adjustment, rather than breezy demolition and a wish to start
This chapter will frequently reference the key conservative from scratch. As Oakeshott explained:

Key thinker thinkers cited in A-level exam specifications:

■ Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
■ Edmund Burke (1729–97)
The preservation of an ancient building, or perhaps a
venerable vehicle, will not be achieved through inaction and
inertia … preservation demands constant attention, harnessed

Feature
■ Michael Oakeshott (1901–90) to a keen awareness of what has gone before.
■ Ayn Rand (1905–82)
■ Robert Nozick (1938–2002).
Another paradox to consider is that conservatism is not
always the same as Conservatism. In other words, conservatism,

boxes giving Introduction: a paradoxical

particularly the orthodox or ‘traditional’ conservatism described
later in this chapter – is not always synonymous with the
ideas of the UK Conservative Party. However, it is useful to

details of the ideology

As we shall see in the course of this chapter, conservatism is a
understand why this is the case. One of the most important
reasons is that the Conservative Party advocates not just the
principles of traditional conservatism (outlined below) but
durable ideology that has responded to a series of remarkable
key people changes over two centuries. Yet, despite its durability,
conservatism is widely misunderstood. This may arise from
also many of the ideas previously championed by classical
liberalism. This distinction, between the philosophical principles
of orthodox conservatism and the party-political principles of
a number of paradoxes that are worth explaining at the outset.

covered in the
Conservatism, became especially marked during the mid-to-late
The first paradox is that conservatism is a form of change.
twentieth century when the Conservative Party exploited the
In other words, conservatism is not just about conserving; and
decline of the UK Liberal Party by absorbing many of the ideas
it is certainly not about avoiding change at all costs. Instead,

chapter
associated with nineteenth-century Liberal politicians – notably
it champions the cause of changing to conserve. In this
support for individual freedom and free-market economics.
sense, it is useful to distinguish between conservative politics
That said, the advent of New Right conservatism in the
and reactionary politics: whereas the latter seeks to resist
1970s (also outlined later in this chapter) did reflect to some
all change, to restore what has been lost and ‘turn back the
extent the union of liberal and conservative values within the
clock’, conservatism argues that such objectives are futile and
Conservative Party.
88 counterproductive. 89

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Further
USA, producing fresh concerns for some of those who prize
reading
Chapter 4 Multiculturalism

Further reading
liberal democracy. The UK’s Brexit vote in 2016, the election
of Donald Trump as US president, and his lasting impact upon Politics Review articles
the US Republican Party, were among the developments
that revived liberal fears of the ‘tyranny of the majority’,
Heywood, A. (2016) ‘Multiculturalism – a recipe for tension and conflict?’, Politics Review, vol. 25,
no. 4.
Websites,
where tolerance and pluralism are again threatened. If such Kelly, R. (2019) ‘Focus on multiculturalism’, Politics Review, vol. 29, no. 2.
populist trends persist, then future generations of liberals and
‘progressives’ may see multiculturalism – with its inherent
Tuck, D. (2022) ‘Focus on cosmopolitan multiculturalism’, Politics Review, vol. 31, no. 3.
books and
Knowledge stress on diversity and minority rights – as a valuable ally in Books
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

the battle against conservative ‘majoritarianism’.

As the twenty-first century progresses, culturally diverse
Halse, C., and Kennedy, K. (2021) Multiculturalism in Turbulent Times, Routledge.
Kelly, R., and Crowcroft, R. (2012) ‘From Burke to Burkha: conservatism, multiculturalism and the articles that
checks Knowledge check societies seem an irreversible reality. Consequently, the debate Big Society’, in J. Edwards (ed.), Retrieving the Big Society, Wiley-Blackwell.

are relevant to
about how such societies should be governed is unlikely to Lentin, A. and Titley, G. (2011) The Crises of Multiculturalism: Racism in a Neoliberal Age, Zed.
33 How might terrorism
strengthen the case for subside and may well intensify. This should ensure that both

Putting multiculturalism? multiculturalism, and its alternatives, remain pressing and

the chapter
controversial topics for students of political ideology.
Exam-style questions
learning into Summary: key themes and key thinkers
Human nature The state Society The economy
AQA
Essay questions

practice
1 ‘Multiculturalism promotes discord rather than harmony.’ Analyse and evaluate this
Charles Taylor Humans naturally The state must Stable and successful Laissez-faire capitalism
seek their identity, practise the politics societies comprise may have to be statement with reference to the multiculturalist thinkers you have studied. (25 marks)
which is shaped and of recognition, a wide variety of moderated to protect 2 ‘Multiculturalism is a discredited ideology.’ Analyse and evaluate this statement

Isaiah Berlin
developed by their
communities.
Individuals seek
thus validating its
communities.
The state must
communities.

The best societies

communitarian
interests.
Capitalism may clash
with reference to the multiculturalist thinkers you have studied.
3 ‘Multiculturalism has no clear and consistent strategy for achieving its aims.’
(25 marks)
Exam-style
questions
autonomy, but mirror practise value practise value with certain absolute Analyse and evaluate this statement with reference to the multiculturalist thinkers
the absolute values pluralism and let pluralism and thus moral values, such as
extolled by cultures. communities decide allow tolerance and equality.
you have studied. (25 marks)
which values are freedom. In your answers you should draw on material from across the whole range of your course of

Revision
paramount.
study in Politics.
Will Kymlicka Individuals adore The state must offer Society is defined Multiculturalism
choice but are group differentiated by cultures, which enhances capitalism Edexcel
confused without the rights in order to often transcend by energising
‘anchorage’ provided secure the consent of
by their culture.
Bhikhu Parekh Humans are
diverse cultures.
The state should
geographical areas.

The ideal society

individuals from
diverse backgrounds.
Multiculturalism
Essay questions
4 To what extent can multiculturalism be reconciled to national unity? You must use
appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and consider differing
questions at
‘culturally embedded’ recognise cultural

the end of
is one hosting checks capitalism views in a balanced way. (24 marks)
but are able to alter pluralism by allowing an ongoing by promoting values
and improve the some legal and conversation other than those of 5 To what extent does multiculturalism support the ‘politics of difference’? You must
cultures concerned. governmental between and within economic liberalism. use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and consider

each chapter
diversity. various cultures.
differing views in a balanced way. (24 marks)
Tariq Modood Individuals find Citing its various Culturally pluralistic Multiculturalism
comfort and security cultures, the state societies help softens capitalist 6 To what extent does multiculturalism promote segregated rather than integrated
in the history of their should foster a reconcile citizens to inequalities by societies? You must use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your
culture. narrative that their nation’s diverse providing the ‘safety
answer and consider differing views in a balanced way. (24 marks)
promotes unity history. net’ of secure
through diversity. communities.
158 159

3
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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 1 Liberalism 10

Introduction: an influential ideology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The origins of liberalism and the influence of the

Enlightenment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

The core ideas of liberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Different types of liberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Conclusion: liberalism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 2 Socialism 49
Introduction: a controversial ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The origins of socialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The core ideas of socialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Different types of socialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Conclusion: socialism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 3 Conservatism 88

Introduction: a paradoxical ideology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

The origins of conservatism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

The core ideas of conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Different types of conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Conclusion: conservatism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120


Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 4 Multiculturalism 127

Introduction: a misunderstood ideology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

The origins of multiculturalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

The core ideas of multiculturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Different types of multiculturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Conclusion: multiculturalism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155


Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter 5 Nationalism 160

Introduction: a ‘chameleon’ ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

The origins of nationalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

The core ideas of nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Different types of nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Conclusion: nationalism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

4
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Chapter 6 Ecologism 198

Introduction: a radical political philosophy?. . . . . . . . . . . . 199

The origins of ecologism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

The core ideas of ecologism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Different types of ecologism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Conclusion: ecologism today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Summary: key themes and key thinkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Index 237
Answers to the exam-style questions at the end of each
chapter can be found at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/
political-ideas-multiculturalism

5
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Introduction
This book is aimed at those teaching and studying the ‘political
ideas’ components of A-level Politics specifications. But what,
exactly, do we mean by both ‘political ideas’ and ‘political
ideologies’? And how do we distinguish them from political
policies? We are used to discussing specific political policies but
these refer largely to short term, pragmatic decisions made by
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

politicians, parties and pressure groups. Policies are developed

to deal with particular problems which arise from time to time.
Ideas and ideologies, on the other hand, look at longer term
issues and consider fundamental solutions to such questions.
Furthermore, they are based on strongly held principles, rather
than pragmatic responses to short term issues. Two examples
can help here.
Let us consider the levels of taxation in a society. A
policy to reduce income tax may be a short-term method of
pumping more money into the economy, increasing spending
and boosting economic growth. It cannot be undertaken
permanently but it solves a problem in the meantime. On the
other hand, a party or group of politicians might believe that tax
levels are generally too high, are a threat to people’s economic
liberty and individualism, and are a disincentive to work and
enterprise; so they should be kept to as low a level as possible in
the long term. A low tax society is therefore a political idea.
Political ideologies are a stronger phenomenon altogether.
Ideologies are sets of related political ideas which come
together to create a vision of some kind of idealised society.
Ideologies are based on strongly held, permanent principles
and interlocking doctrines. In our example, the idea of a low
tax society connects with related doctrines such as opposition
to high levels of welfare which may be a disincentive to hard
work as much as high taxes, and free, unregulated markets
which foster business enterprise. Put these three aims together –
low taxation, low welfare and free markets – and we have an
ideology, usually known as neo-liberalism.
We can now apply the same analysis to another set of ideas.
These concern dealing with poverty and inequality:
■ Raising the minimum wage is a short-term policy to reduce
poverty.
■ Reducing the gap in living standards between the rich and
poor in the long term is a political idea.

6
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■ Creating a more generally equal society with equal rights,

empowerment for the working classes, intervention by
the state to avoid the ‘excesses’ of capitalism, and public
ownership of major industries to spread the fruits of their
production more evenly, are interlocking ideas, forming an
ideology, which we know as socialism.
This book deals with political ideas and political ideologies,
but not with policies. Put another way, policies come and go,
while political ideas and ideologies have more permanence.
There are three ‘core ideologies’ and five ‘optional’ ideologies.
Apart from the fact that students must study all three core
ideologies to be able to tackle the examination questions,
but only have to study one of the options, there is another
distinction to be borne in mind:
The core ideologies – liberalism, conservatism and socialism –
have dominated Western civilisation for over two hundred years.
Political discourse and conflict have therefore largely been based
on these three. However, they are predominately based on
Western civilisation. Today we must look further afield in our
study of political ideas, taking a world view and also considering
those ideas that shape the relationships between minorities and
the perspectives of alienated sections of society.
The optional ideologies – feminism, anarchism,
multiculturalism, nationalism and ecologism – have generally
shorter histories than the core ideologies but often take their
inspiration from different forms of consciousness of the world,
ranging from Eastern mysticism to gender awareness to modern
scientism. Some aspects of the optional ideas have also challenged
the traditional ideas associated with liberalism, conservatism and
socialism and, as such, can also be described as post modern.

Five themes
In each chapter, these five themes will enable us to analyse,
evaluate and compare political ideas, with a view to helping
students prepare for examination questions. As a starting point,
these themes should be considered in the following ways:
Human nature. This concerns beliefs about the fundamental
nature of mankind’s relationship with other people and with
the world. In the political ideas presented here we will see that
various thinkers have described human nature in enormously
varied ways, from egocentric to social, from fundamentally
good to fundamentally competitive, from gender obsessed to
androgynous (having no gender identity) or from dominant over
7
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the natural world (anthropocentric) to claiming to be only an

equal part of nature.
State. Nearly all people live under the jurisdiction of one
state or another. Political ideas and ideologies, therefore, have
adopted principles about the nature of the state, what part
(if any) it should play in society, how it should be controlled and
whether it is a force for good or evil.
Society. All societies have a particular structure which has
either evolved naturally or been imposed by the state and
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

those who govern the state. Most ideologies have, therefore,

developed some kind of vision of what their ideal society would
look like. Sometimes this is very specific, as is the case with
socialism, some forms of multiculturalism and certain types of
collectivist anarchism. Sometimes it is more vague, as is the
case with conservatism.
Economy. Not all political ideas and ideologies contain a strong
economic perspective, but some do and this should be reflected
in analysis where it applies. Again, socialism is a clear example,
while neo-liberals, as described above, base most of their ideas on
economics and economic principles. Even some socialist feminists
have been able to link most of their analysis to economic relations
between the sexes. Many ecologists also see capitalism as the
main culprit in the degradation of the natural environment and so
propose to control or even abolish it.
Different types. All of the ideologies covered in this book
are somewhat ambiguous, in that they all have various
interpretations and prescriptions. For example, socialism is seen
as both a revolutionary and non-revolutionary doctrine, while
liberalism advocates both a reduction and extension of state
activity. Students will thus be made aware of what both unites
and divides each ideology’s key thinkers.

Key thinkers
There are five or six key thinkers identified for each of the
political ideologies in the specification. This book describes
their main work, beliefs and importance in the development of
political ideas. They are not exhaustive, and you may benefit
from knowing something of other important writers within
the ideology concerned. However, we strongly advise that you
refer to each ideology’s 5 or 6 key thinkers in your examination
answers – as long as such references are relevant and accurate.
As indicated above, each ideology contains different
themes and variations. Often, the different thinkers in the text
illustrate these variations most effectively. Thus the distinction
8
369184_FM_PiAL_Lib_Fe_2e_TD_001-009.indd Page 9 06/03/23 7:28 PM user /103/HO02753/work/indd/369184_Book%202

between, for example, the liberals John Stuart Mill and John
Rawls tells us a great deal about how liberalism evolved
between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Similarly,
Marx’s revolutionary version of socialism tells us much of how
dramatically the ideology has been transformed by more recent,
moderate, left-wing thinkers such as Anthony Crosland and
Anthony Giddens.

Political Vocabulary
As we have said, accurate and appropriate political vocabulary
should be used wherever possible. Fortunately, both this book
and the examination specification itself contain key terms with
their meanings. You should take time to understand these and
practise using them wherever you can. They can also save you
time in your writing as they have specific meanings which will
reduce the need for lengthy explanations.
You are strongly advised to learn those aspects of vocabulary
with which you are not already familiar, while ensuring you are
able to use them in the correct context.

9
369184_01_PiAL_Lib_Fe_2e_TD_010-048.indd Page 10 27/02/23 5:53 PM F-0120 /103/HO02753/work/indd/369184_Book%202

Chapter 1
Liberalism
Learning outcomes Key thinkers
This chapter will enable students to:
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

This chapter will frequently reference the

■ understand the core values of liberalism
key liberal thinkers cited in A-level exam
as a political ideology specifications:
■ understand how liberal thinking has ■ John Locke (1632–1704)
evolved since the seventeenth century ■ Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97)
■ understand the various strands of ■ John Stuart Mill (1806–73)
liberalism and how they compare. ■ Thomas Hill Green (1836–82)
■ John Rawls (1921–2002)
■ Betty Friedan (1921–2006).

10
369184_01_PiAL_Lib_Fe_2e_TD_010-048.indd Page 11 25/02/23 9:31 AM F-0120 /103/HO02753/work/indd/369184_Book%202

Chapter 1 Liberalism
Introduction: an influential ideology
Most commentators agree that liberalism is the most important
and influential ideology in the world today. According to a
United Nations survey in 2000, almost two-thirds of states
around the world could be classed as ‘liberal democracies’, a
seven-fold increase since 1945. The advance of liberal ideas, it
seemed, was unstoppable.
This view has since been challenged by developments during
the twenty-first century, but liberalism remains an immensely
powerful ideology, central to an understanding of modern
politics. But what do liberal societies and liberal states embody?
How are ‘liberals’ different from, say, ‘moderate’ socialists
or ‘centrist’ conservatives? As we shall see, liberalism is not
straightforward, and its practitioners are a mixed bunch in terms
of their politics.
Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez: American
In the UK and USA, for example, ‘liberalism’ is usually seen as
liberal or American socialist?
a ‘centre-left’ doctrine, challenging the values of conservatism.
As a result, self-proclaimed American liberals – such as Joe
Biden and Hillary Clinton – find themselves in the same party as
self-proclaimed socialists such as Bernie Sanders and Alexandria
Ocasio-Cortez, all opposing the supposed conservatism of the
Republican Party.
In the states of the southern hemisphere and western Pacific,
the term ‘liberal’ has rather different connotations. In Australia,
for example, the Liberal Party is seen as the main opposition to
the Labor Party and has a strong appeal to those rejecting leftist
or progressive politics.
Clearly, liberalism is both influential and ambiguous. To
help us understand this crucial yet complex ideology, it is first
necessary to examine how it emerged.

The origins of liberalism and the influence of

the Enlightenment
The roots of liberalism lie in the Reformation, a religious
movement affecting much of northern Europe in the late
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Led by religious protestors
such as Martin Luther, the founders of ‘protestant’ Christianity
argued that individuals need no longer rely on priests, popes and
other intermediaries. Instead, Christianity should assume a more
individualistic character, with each man and woman undertaking
their own individual communication with God.

11
369184_01_PiAL_Lib_Fe_2e_TD_010-048.indd Page 12 25/02/23 9:31 AM F-0120 /103/HO02753/work/indd/369184_Book%202

However, it was the Enlightenment that extended these

religious ideas into the political and secular world. The
Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged
in the mid-1600s, and one that continued to exert a powerful
influence during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
It was defined by reason rather than religion, free thinking rather
than blind faith and rational scrutiny rather than spirituality. Put
literally, it was a movement that aimed to shed ‘light’ on the
assumptions of what some term the Dark Ages (a description
Political Ideas for A Level: Liberalism, Socialism, Conservatism, Multiculturalism, Nationalism, Ecologism

sometimes applied to the medieval era) and to replace those

assumptions with more tolerant and inquiring attitudes.
Through philosophers such as John Locke (Key thinker 1),
often seen as the ‘father of liberalism’, the Enlightenment
John Locke: Enlightenment icon and inspired a range of radical ideas, such as:
classical liberal
■ that every individual has an ability to think freely
■ that an individual’s life should be determined by his or her
own judgements
■ that the relationship between individuals and governments
should be re-examined, in a way that improves the status of
the individual.
These ideas are not unusual today, but in the seventeenth
century they were revolutionary, with Locke considered an
Key term incendiary figure in both England and America. Until then, it had
Mechanistic theory Linked been assumed:
■ that the natural form of government was autocratic
to the writings of John
Locke, this argues that (dominated by a single individual)
human beings are rational ■ that an autocratic ruler, usually a monarch, had been

and can build a state that appointed by God

reflects their needs (e.g. ■ that the monarch’s wishes should therefore be automatically
the need for freedom and accepted by his ‘subjects’ – a doctrine known as ‘the divine
self-fulfilment). It rejected right of kings’.
ideas such as the ‘divine
Yet the philosophers of the Enlightenment, and Locke in
right of kings’, which
particular, disputed such medieval attitudes, arguing that
argued that a state should
‘ordinary’ individuals should create, by themselves and for
reflect God’s wishes and
themselves, a political system based on reason rather than
that obedience to such a
state was a religious duty. tradition and superstition – a principle which some political
scientists now refer to as mechanistic theory.

Knowledge check
1 What was the ‘Enlightenment’?
2 What was the ‘divine right of kings’ and why was it at odds
with Enlightenment values?

12
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Chapter 1 Liberalism
Key thinker 1

John Locke (1632–1704)

John Locke is usually seen as the father of ■ For Locke, the ‘state of law’ would be legitimate
liberal philosophy, with his book Two Treatises of only if it respected natural rights and natural
Government (1690) regarded as the cornerstone laws, ensuring that individuals living under
of liberal thought. He is also seen as the central formal laws were no worse off than in the state
figure in the original version of liberalism, of nature. The state’s structures must therefore
usually referred to as classical liberalism. Locke’s embody the natural rights and natural liberties
importance to classical liberalism lies in the that preceded it. Similarly, Locke’s ideal state
questions he raised about human nature and the would always reflect the principle that its
type of state that was therefore appropriate. citizens had voluntarily consented to accept
the state’s rulings, in return for the state
■ Locke denied the traditional, medieval principle
improving their situation (a principle which
that the state was part of God’s creation. He
later became known as ‘social contract theory’).
disputed that the state had been created by a
■ Because of its ‘contractual’ nature, the state
celestial power, involving monarchs who had a
would have to embody the principle of
‘divine right’ to govern. For the same reason, he
limited government – in other words, limited
rejected the notion that ordinary people were
to governing within pre-agreed rules and
‘subjects’ of the state, with a quasi-religious
always requiring the ongoing consent of the
obligation to obey the monarch’s rulings.
governed. The state’s limited character would
He argued that a ‘legitimate’ state would be
be confirmed by its dispersal of powers. The
one created by mankind to serve mankind’s
executive and legislative branches of the state,
interests and would arise only from the
for example, would therefore be separate, while
consent of those it would govern.
its lawmakers (i.e. parliamentarians) would
■ Locke asserted that, prior to the state’s
be separated from its law enforcers (i.e. the
existence, there was a ‘natural’ society which
judiciary).
served mankind’s interests reasonably well.
Locke described this natural society as the Key terms
state of nature. However, Locke’s state of
State of nature A notion of what life
nature was very different from the ‘nasty and
was like before the emergence of a
brutish’ version depicted by conservative thinker
state. It was used by John Locke – and,
Thomas Hobbes (see Chapter 3). Owing to
before him, Thomas Hobbes – to
Locke’s upbeat view of human nature, and his
justify the different types of state they
belief that it was guided by rationalism, he also
were proposing and why such states
believed the state of nature was underpinned by
would be an improvement upon the
‘natural rights’ (such as the right to property),
state of nature.
‘natural laws’ and ‘natural justice’ and was
Limited government The opposite of
therefore not one that people would desperately
arbitrary rule, as practised by medieval
wish to leave. The alternative ‘state of law’ (in
monarchs, this relates to Locke’s
other words, the modern state as we know
assertion that the state should be
it) was therefore designed to improve upon
‘limited’ – in terms of what it can do
an essentially tolerable situation, by resolving
and how it can do it – by a formal
disputes between individuals more efficiently
constitution.
than was the case under the state of nature.
13
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