Unit Three – Cognitive Development

“The goal of education is not to increase the amount of knowledge

but to create the possibilities for a child to invent and discover.”
Jean Piaget

This module explores the fundamental concepts and theories related to cognitive development in
children and adolescents. It aims to provide preservice teachers with a comprehensive
understanding of how cognitive abilities evolve and how this knowledge can inform educational
practices. By examining key theories, individual differences in intelligence, and factors affecting
cognitive and language development, this module will enable future educators to design
developmentally appropriate teaching approaches that consider learners' gender, needs, strengths,
interests, and experiences.
I. Theories in Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term
changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive
development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget
studied how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically.
Piaget believed that learning was proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new
experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences).
The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, but also to long-term
developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive
theory.
After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages
from birth through the end of adolescence. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns
with four key features:
1. The stages always happen in the same order.
2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporates the earlier stages.
Basically, this is a “staircase” model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive
development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3)
concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with
an age period of childhood, but only approximately.
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years Old)
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
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through sensory experiences and manipulating
Major characteristics and developmental
objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest
changes during this stage:
period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes,
senses, and motor responses. 1. Know the world through movements
and sensations
During the sensorimotor stage, children go
2. Learn about the world through basic
through a period of dramatic growth and
actions such as sucking, grasping,
learning. As kids interact with their
looking, and listening
environment, they continually make new
3. Learn that things continue to exist
discoveries about how the world works.
even when they cannot be seen
The cognitive development that occurs during (object permanence)
this period takes place over a relatively short 4. Realize that they are separate
time and involves a great deal of growth. beings from the people and objects
Children not only learn how to perform physical around them
actions such as crawling and walking; they also 5. Realize that their actions can cause
learn a great deal about language from the things to happen in the world
people with whom they interact. Piaget also around them
broke this stage down into substages. Early
representational thought emerges during the
final part of the sensorimotor stage.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point
of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their
own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to
objects.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
The foundations of language development may
Major characteristics and developmental
have been laid during the previous stage, but
changes during this stage:
the emergence of language is one of the major
hallmarks of the preoperational stage of 1. Begin to think symbolically and
development. learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play
2. Tend to be egocentric and struggle to
but still struggle with logic and taking the point
see things from the perspective of
of view of other people. They also often struggle
others
with understanding the idea of constancy.
3. Getting better with language and
Children become much more skilled at pretend thinking, but still tend to think in
play during this stage of development, yet they very concrete terms
continue to think very concretely about the
world around them.

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For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give
a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact
ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape looks larger, the
preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same
size.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)
While children are still very concrete and literal
Major characteristics and developmental
in their thinking at this point in development,
changes during this stage:
they become much more adept at using
logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage 1. Begin to think logically about
begins to disappear as kids become better at concrete events
thinking about how other people might view a 2. Begin to understand the concept of
situation. conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
While thinking becomes much more logical
that in a tall, skinny glass, for
during the concrete operational state, it can
example
also be very rigid. Kids at this point in
3. Thinking becomes more logical and
development tend to struggle with abstract and
organized, but still very concrete
hypothetical concepts.
4. Begin using inductive logic, or
During this stage, children also become less reasoning from specific information
egocentric and begin to think about how other to a general principle
people might think and feel. Kids in the
concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares
their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 and Up)
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an Major characteristics and developmental
increase in logic, the ability to use deductive changes during this stage:
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract 1. Begins to think abstractly and
ideas. At this point, adolescents and young reason about hypothetical problems
adults become capable of seeing multiple 2. Begins to think more about moral,
potential solutions to problems and think more philosophical, ethical, social, and
scientifically about the world around them. political issues that require
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and theoretical and abstract reasoning
situations is the key hallmark of the formal 3. Begins to use deductive logic, or
operational stage of cognitive development. The reasoning from a general principle
ability to systematically plan for the future and to specific information
reason about hypothetical situations are also
critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

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 Things to Remember
 Schema - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of
obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to
modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.
 Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our already existing
schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we
tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs.
 Accommodation – This is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new
information. New schemas may also be developed during this process.
 Equilibration - As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it
is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in
cognitive development. Vygotsky (1978) proposed that higher mental functions are developed
through social interactions and are influenced by cultural tools.
Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are
responsible for developing the brain's higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, human
development relies on social interaction and, therefore, can differ among cultures.
Sociocultural theory stresses the role that social interaction plays in psychological development.
It suggests that human learning is largely a social process, and that our cognitive functions are
formed based on our interactions with those around us who are "more skilled."
According to the sociocultural perspective, our psychological growth is guided, in part, by people
in our lives who are in mentor-type roles, such as teachers and parents. Other times, we develop
our values and beliefs through our interactions within social groups or by participating in cultural
events.

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Sociocultural theory focuses on how mentors and peers influence individual learning, but also on
how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.
The Zone of Proximal Development
An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development.
According to Vygotsky, this is "the distance between the actual development level (of the learner)
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable
peers."
Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform independently but can learn with guidance.
As children are allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is
slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone.
Key Differences: Piaget vs Vygotsky
Piaget Vygostky
 Childhood interactions and explorations  Social factors influence development
influence development  Development can differ between
 Development is largely universal cultures

II. Intelligences and Individual Differences

Charles Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)
General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to a
general mental ability that, according to Spearman,
underlies multiple specific skills, including verbal,
spatial, numerical, and mechanical.
Charles Spearman, an English psychologist, established
the two-factor theory of intelligence back in 1904
(Spearman, 1904). To arrive at this theory, Spearman
used a technique known as factor analysis.
Factor analysis is a procedure through which the
correlation of related variables is evaluated to find an
underlying factor that explains this correlation.
In the case of intelligence, Spearman noticed that those
who did well in one area of intelligence tests (for example,
mathematics) also did well in other areas (such as
distinguishing pitch; Kalat, 2014).
In other words, there was a strong correlation between performing well in math and music, and
Spearman then attributed this relationship to a central factor, that of general intelligence (g).
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Spearman concluded that there is a single g-factor that represents an individual’s general
intelligence across multiple abilities and that a second factor, s, refers to an individual’s specific
ability in one particular area (Spearman, as cited in Thomson, 1947).
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data from 56 different tests
of mental abilities, he identified a number of primary mental abilities that comprise intelligence
as opposed to one general factor.
The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone’s model are verbal comprehension, verbal fluency,
number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive reasoning
(Thurstone, as cited in Sternberg, 2003).
Mental Ability Description
Ability to use words quickly and fluency in performing such tasks as
Word Fluency
rhyming, solving anagrams, and doing crossword puzzles.
Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.
Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly compute answers to problems.
Spatial Visualization Ability to visualize and manipulate patterns and forms in space.
Ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and accurately and to
Perceptual Speed
determine similarities and differences between stimuli.
Ability to recall information such as lists or words, mathematical
Memory
formulas, and definitions.
Ability to derive general rules and principles from the presented
Inductive Reasoning
information.
Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence altogether, he instead
theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of specific abilities, paving
the way for future research that examined the different forms of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed that there is no
single intelligence, but rather distinct,
independent multiple intelligences exist, each
representing unique skills and talents relevant
to a certain category.
Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven
multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal,
and he has since added naturalist intelligence.
Gardner holds that most activities (such as
dancing) will involve a combination of these

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multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-
kinesthetic intelligences). He also suggests that
these multiple intelligences can help us
understand concepts beyond intelligence, such as
creativity and leadership.
And although this theory has widely captured the
attention of the psychology community and the
greater public, it does have its faults.
There have been few empirical studies that
actually test this theory, and this theory does not
account for other types of intelligence beyond the
ones Gardner lists (Sternberg, 2003).

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

In 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of intelligence, integrating
components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based on the definition of
intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your personal standards and your
sociocultural context.
According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical
(Sternberg, 1985).
Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to intelligence that is
applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what a traditional IQ test
measures.
Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting ideas.
This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation, and problem-solving.
Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life when
a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment.

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Adapting to the demands of the environment involves either utilizing knowledge gained from
experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the
environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new environment in which to work (selection).

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Cognitive Information Processing Theory

The Cognitive Information Processing Theory, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), focuses
on how information is processed, stored, and retrieved. The model includes three main
components:
1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.
2. Short-term Memory (Working Memory): Limited capacity storage for active
processing.
3. Long-term Memory: Permanent storage of information.
What Are the Four Stages
of Information Processing
Theory?
Information processing
theory proposes that
cognitive processes
happen in four distinct
stages, each with its own
purpose and functionality.
1. Encoding: This is
the process of taking in information from the environment and assigning meaning to it. It
involves perceiving or attending to stimuli before they can be stored in short-term
memory.
2. Storage: This is when information is held temporarily in short-term memory while it is
processed or transferred into long-term memory for more permanent storage.
3. Retrieval: This stage focuses on accessing previously stored information from either short-
term or long-term memory in order to utilize it for a current task.
4. Transformation: The final stage involves transforming information into a more useful
form, such as organizing it in different ways or using reasoning and problem-solving skills
to come up with a solution.

III. Factors affecting in Cognitive Development

Genetics Nutrition Environmental Socioeconomic Status
Stimulation
The findings of the Adequate nutrition, The quality and Socioeconomic status
twin studies and especially in early richness of a child's can have a profound
adoption studies childhood, is crucial environmental influence on cognitive
indicate an for optimal brain experiences can have development through
individual's genetic development and a significant impact various mechanisms.
makeup plays a cognitive functioning.
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substantial role in  Malnutrition and on their cognitive  Access to resources:
shaping their undernutrition in development. Children from
cognitive potential early life can have  Children raised in higher-SES families
and intellectual detrimental effects environments with have greater access
development. on brain structure limited stimulation, to educational
However, it is and function, leading such as in resources, such as
important to note that to cognitive deficits orphanages or books, educational
genes do not and developmental institutional toys, and enrichment
determine cognitive delays. settings, tend to activities, which can
abilities in isolation;  Certain nutrients, show delays in foster cognitive
they interact with such as iron, zinc, cognitive development.
environmental factors and omega-3 fatty development and  Parental education
to influence overall acids, are lower IQ scores and involvement:
cognitive particularly compared to children Higher parental
development. important for brain raised in enriched education is
development and home environments. associated with more
cognitive processes  Providing children cognitively
like memory, with opportunities stimulating
attention, and for exploration, play, interactions and
problem-solving. and intellectual greater involvement
 Ensuring a stimulation can in their children's
balanced, nutritious enhance their learning.
diet during critical cognitive abilities,  Environmental
periods of brain problem-solving stress: Poverty and
development skills, and overall associated stressors
(prenatal, infancy, academic can negatively
and early childhood) performance. impact brain
can promote optimal  The effects of development and
cognitive outcomes. environmental cognitive
enrichment are most functioning.
pronounced during  Health and
critical periods of nutrition: Lower-
brain development, SES children are
such as in early more likely to
childhood. experience
nutritional
deficiencies and
health problems,
which can hinder
cognitive growth.

Education Culture Health

Formal education plays a Cultural practices and values Physical health, including
crucial role in developing can shape cognitive factors like sleep, exercise, and
cognitive skills and development and the the absence of disease, can

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influencing intellectual expression of cognitive significantly impact cognitive
abilities. abilities. development.
 Schooling can lead to  Different cultures may  Regular physical activity and
substantial gains in IQ emphasize and promote higher levels of physical
scores, particularly during distinct cognitive skills, such fitness are associated with
the early years of education. as spatial reasoning, verbal improved executive function,
 The effects of education on abilities, or practical attention, and academic
IQ are most pronounced in problem-solving. performance in children.
areas that are directly  Culturally-specific learning  Sleep plays a crucial role in
related to the content and environments and memory consolidation,
skills taught in school, such socialization practices can learning, and cognitive
as verbal and mathematical foster the development of functioning. Insufficient or
abilities. particular cognitive poor-quality sleep can
 The quality and duration of strengths. negatively affect cognitive
education are important  The way in which cognitive development.
factors, with more years of abilities are defined and  Certain health conditions,
high-quality education valued may vary across such as chronic illness,
generally associated with cultures, leading to malnutrition, or exposure to
higher IQ scores. differences in how environmental toxins, can
intelligence is measured and impair brain development
expressed. and cognitive abilities.

IV. Theories in Language Development

Noam Chomsky’s Nativism and Language Acquisition Device
This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is genetically
programmed. This is known as nativism and was advocated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested
that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred to as language acquisition device
(LAD), which makes infants ready for language. The LAD allows children, as their brain develop,
to derive rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore,
language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement
required for language to develop. Instead, language learning comes from a particular gene, brain
maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.

Piaget’s Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggest that children both use assimilation and
accommodation to learn a language. Assimilation is the process of changing one’s environment to
place information into an already-existing schema. Accommodation is the process of changing one’s
schema to adapt to the new environment. Piaget believes that children need to first develop
mentally before language acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create mental
structures within the mind and from these schemas, language development happens.

Interactionist Theory
Interactionist theory has its basis in social interaction theory and posits that language is acquired
and perfects through interactions with more experienced linguistic figures.
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V. Factors affecting Language Development
Biological Environmental Social Education Individual
Interaction Differences
Genetic Quality and The quality and Formal and Factors such as
predispositions, quantity of frequency of informal learning styles,
neurological linguistic input, social educational motivation, and
development, socioeconomic interactions, experiences personality can
and physical status, and particularly with shape cognitive influence
health can cultural practices caregivers, and linguistic cognitive and
influence play crucial roles. significantly skills. language
cognitive and impact language development.
language acquisition and
development. cognitive
development.

VI. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

Recent research continues to refine our understanding of cognitive development and its
implications for education:
Neuroscience and Education: Advances in neuroimaging have provided insights into brain
development and learning, informing educational practices (Goswami, 2006).
Executive Function: Research on executive functions (e.g., working memory, inhibitory control)
has implications for classroom management and instructional design (Diamond, 2013).
Metacognition: Studies on metacognitive skills highlight the importance of teaching students
how to monitor and regulate their own learning (Flavell, 1979).
Cognitive Load Theory: This theory informs instructional design by considering the limitations of
working memory in learning (Sweller, 1988).
Growth Mindset: Research on mindset suggests that beliefs about intelligence can influence
academic achievement and motivation (Dweck, 2006).
Pedagogical Applications:
1. Differentiated Instruction: Tailoring instruction to individual cognitive profiles and
developmental levels.
2. Scaffolding: Using Vygotsky's concept to provide appropriate support for learning within
the ZPD.
3. Multisensory Learning: Engaging multiple cognitive processes to enhance learning and
memory.
4. Cooperative Learning: Utilizing peer interactions to support cognitive development and
language acquisition.
5. Technology Integration: Using educational technology to support cognitive development
and personalized learning.
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 6. Formative Assessment: Regularly assessing students' cognitive development to inform
instructional decisions.
7. Metacognitive Strategies: Teaching students strategies for planning, monitoring, and
evaluating their own learning.
Understanding cognitive development is crucial for effective teaching. By applying knowledge of
cognitive theories, individual differences in intelligence, and factors affecting cognitive and
language development, educators can create learning environments and experiences that are
truly developmentally appropriate. As research in this field continues to evolve, it is essential for
educators to stay informed and adapt their practices accordingly, always striving to support the
diverse cognitive needs and potentials of their students.

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