LECTURE 6 747

- Largest aircraft of Boeing

AIRCRAFT manufacturers
MANUFACTURERS - Length: 250 ft 2 inches, Wingspan:
224 ft 5 inches, Height: 63 ft 6 inches,
21 countries in the world that
Seat (3 class): 410
manufacture aircraft
- It has two decks: upper (single aisle)
Boeing and Airbus are like Apple and
and lower deck (twin aisle).
Samsung competing with each other
Narrow Body Aircraft
● Boeing - can accumulate one aisle only
● American aerospace company between passenger seats
● Airplanes and military Boeing Widebody Aircraft
aircraft, Space rockets, - accommodate two passenger aisles
telecommunications equipment, Three Assignment Classes of Seat
and missiles worldwide. 1. First Class – best and most
Helicopters, vehicles and luxurious way, offer free flight drink,
satellites, meal, full flatbed etc.
● Founded in 1916 in Seattle, 2. Business Class –wider seat, greater
Washington by William pitch and luggage allowance
Boeing currently, its depending on airline
headquarters is located in 3. Economy Class – cheapest seat,
Chicago limited legroom
After World War II, the company Prices of Boeing
decided to develop an airliner powered ●B-737 = 89.1M Dollars
by Turbo Jet with enough range to ●B-747 = 418.4M Dollars
cross the North Atlantic.
Airbus
In 1958, Boeing 707 was created.
- European manufacturer aircraft
Boeing 707
- European Union worked together
- a four engine plane that went into
created Airbus industries in 1967
commercial service on a Pan
- The main office is located in
American Transatlantic Route
Toulouse, France
- won over passengers for its shorter
- Manufacture airplane for public use,
flight time and smoother ride.
military aircrafts, and helicopter
- it helped revolutionize air travel
Airbus A300
- 707 was followed by 727 Trijet and
- Back in 1960, the European and
737 Twinjet which entered service in
American airlines needed airplanes
1964 and 1968.
that could accommodate 250
- 737 was developed into a modern
passengers.
family of planes and by the end of 20th
- Airbus company created A300 that
century it became the world’s
was supposed to carry 300
best-selling commercial aircraft
passengers but there is a problem with
- Boeing 737 MAX (airline usage), BBJ
the design of the airplane and can only
(consumption of the private sector), C
carry 250 passengers.
(Clipper)-40 (military use)
Airbus A320 - Canadian aircraft manufacturing
- Become one of the most popular company
airlines in history - It was founded by Joseph-Armand
- First commercial jet to use a fly by Bombardier in 1986
wire system -Flybywire–is where the - Its headquarters is located in
computer processes pilot control Quebec, Canada
inputs to determine surface-controlled - Started as manufacturer of
movements. snowmobiles
Airbus A380 - The history of the company started in
- Largest commercial aircraft January 1934
- Can carry up to 850 passengers - The blizzard prevented Joseph from
- Has two decks: Upper and Lower, reaching the nearest hospital in time to
both with twin aisles save his 2 year-old son who died from
- Overall length: 238 ft, 6.9 inches, Appendicitis complicated by
Height: Peritonitis.
79ft, 0.4 inches - His invented snowmobile became
Prices of Airbus A320 Family: popular and he became rich and
● A318 CEO (CURRENT ENGINE bought aviation manufacture company
OPTION) – named Bombardier Aviation
$77.4 million - The company manufactures
●A321 NEO (NEW ENGINE OPTION) business jet aircraft: Challenger 300
– $129.5 million (9 passengers) and Challenger 600
●A320 – $101 million ●A320 NEO - (19 passengers).
$110.6 million ATR (Avions de Transport
Embraer Regional)
- Third largest aircraft manufacturing - Joint company of Aerospatiale of
company after Airbus and Boeing France and Aeritalia of Italy
- It was founded in 1969, São Paulo, - Aerospatiale – a French state owned
Brazil aerospace manufacturer
- It started as government owned - Aeritalia – an aerospace engineering
corporation which was later on sold to corporation based in Italy.
private investors - The two company banded together to
- Focus on manufacturing regional and create ATR in 1981 in Blagnac,
domestic aircraft France - ATR manufactures two
- Last 2013, Embraer launched E-JET models of airplanes: ATR 72 and ATR
E2 Family as a successor to the 42
original E-JET ATR 72
- The E-JET E2 Family features - Can carry up to 70 passengers
redesigned wings, introduced new ATR 42
pilots, landing gear, horizontal - Seating capacity of 48
stabilizer, cabin, cabin air system, and
new fly by wire system.
Bombardier LECTURE 7
 AIRPLANE - to disseminate loads evenly
across fuselage
Aircraft Stress
❖ Stringers
● Tension – (stretch/pulling) pull apart
- shorter than longerons
● Compression – (move towards each
2. Wings
other) squeeze
- it consists of Parts, and the main
● Torsional – (twisting force) twist
lifting surfaces that support the
● Shear - (two laminated materials
airplane in flight.
tend to separate).
Installation, and Planform
● Bending – (tension and compression
PARTS
combined) also called combination
★ Spar
because it squeezes and stretch
- pillar/beam
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN
★ Ribs
AIRPLANE
- shape and provides strength
1. Fuselage
★ Stringers
- the central body of an airplane which
- distribute stress across the
designed to accommodate the crew,
wings
passengers, and cargo
★ Aileron
- it consists of Truss (Warren
- control roll about the
Truss),Monocoque,Semi-Monoc oque
longitudinal axis
TRUSS - fuselage design made up of
★ Wing Flap
supporting structural members that
- to generate more lift at slower
resist deformation by applied loads.
airspeed
MONOCOQUE - shell like fuselage
★ Fuel Tank
design in which the stressed outer skin
- for weight balance
is used to support the majority of
★ Wing Tip
imposed stress. French- single shell
- farthest to fuselage
SEMI-MONOCOQUE - fuselage
★ Skin
design that includes a substructure of
- to carry part of the flight and
bulkheads and/or formers, along with
ground loads
stringers, to support flight loads and
★ Wing Root
stresses imposed on the fuselage.
- attach the fuselage
❖ Longerons
WING INSTALLATION
- main beam of an aircraft
Low wing configuration - low part of
❖ Formers
the fuselage
- provide shapes
Mid wing configuration - middle part of
❖ Bulkhead
the fuselage
- practically a dividing wall
High wing configuration - top part of
between cabins on long haul
the fuselage
flights.
PLANFORM
- is therefore a divider which
1. tapered leading edge, straight
separates the classes or
trailing edge
sections of a plane.
2. tapered leading edge and
❖ Struts
trailing edge
 3. delta wing 2. TAIL WHEEL GEAR or
4. sweptback wing CONVENTION GEAR
5. straight leading and trailing - 1 wheel at the back, 2 wheels at
edge front
6. straight leading edge, tapered KINDS:
trailing edge 1. FIXED LANDING GEAR
3. Empennage = the tail section of an 2. RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
airplane (Empenner = to feather an 5. Powerplant
arrow) engine of an airplane
- tail section of an airplane includes both engine and
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER (elevator) propeller
- a movable surface, typically located The primary function of an
at the back of the aircraft, that helps engine is to provide the power
the plane stay level to turn the propeller.
VERTICAL STABILIZER (rudder) converts chemical energy to
- prevents side-to-side, or yawing, mechanical energy which
motion of the aircraft nose. creates the forward motion or
KINDS OF EMPENNAGE: thrust.
1. TWIN BOOM (H TAIL) - has 2 TWO CATEGORIES OF AN ENGINE:
nacelle boom 1. Reciprocating Engine
2. TWIN TAIL - derived from back and forth or
3. V TAIL - butterfly tail reciprocating movement of pistons
4. T TAIL - this motion produces the mechanical
5. CONVENTIONAL (INVERTED T energy needed to accomplish work.
TAIL) - involve the conversion of chemical
6. STABILATOR - combination of energy in the form of fuel into
elevator and horizontal stabilizer. mechanical energy
Moves up and down TOP DEAD CENTER (TDC)- the
2. TAIL WHEEL GEAR or position of the piston at the highest
CONVENTION point in an engine cylinder.
4. Landing Gear BOTTOM DEAD CENTER (BDC)- the
- principal support of the airplane when position of the piston at the lowest
parked, taxiing, taking off, or landing point in an engine cylinder.
TYPES:
1. Landing Skids - land in a snowy TYPES:
region. Put skis on the airplane ● In-line Engine
2. Landing Floats - landing on the ● V-type Engine
bodies of water ● W-type Engine
LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION: ● OPPOSED CYLINDER
1. NOSE WHEEL GEAR or TRICYCLE ENGINE
GEAR ● RADIAL ENGINE
- 1 front nose wheel, 2 back main - it occurs within the cylinders of the
landing gear engine through a process
known as FOUR STROKE - needed to let the fuel/air into the
OPERATING CYCLE: cylinder
1. INTAKE STROKE 2. Exhaust Valve
- begins as the intake valve opens and - needed to let the exhaust gases out
the fuel and air mixture is drawn into 3. Cylinder
the cylinder - forms a part of the chamber in which
- piston is found at the top dead center, the fuel is compressed and burned.
moving downward as the piston 4. Piston
reaches the bottom dead center, the - moving within the cylinder, forms one
intake stroke ENDS of the walls of the combustion
2. COMPRESSION STROKE chamber.
- it begins when the intake valve - it has the rings which seal the gases
closes and the piston starts moving in the cylinder, preventing any loss of
upwards to the top dead center, while power around the sides of the piston.
the piston is moving up, it compresses 5. Connecting Rod
the fuel and air mixture - this phase is - forms a link between the piston and
used to obtain much greater power the crankshaft
output from the fuel and air mixture 6. Crankshaft
once it is ignited - including the connecting rod, they
- once the piston reaches the top dead both change the straight-line motion of
center, this stroke ENDS the piston to a rotary turning motion.
3.COMBUSTION/POWER STROKE - absorbs the power or work
- during this stroke, compressed fuel from all the cylinders and transfers it to
and air is ignited by the spark plug. the propeller
- it causes tremendous pressure 7. Crankcase
increase in the cylinder and forces - the housing in a piston engine that
pistons downward away from the surrounds the crankshaft
cylinder head creating the power that 8. Spark Plugs
turns the crankshaft. - ignites, burning the fuel and air
- the revolving crankshaft then mixture during combustion stroke.
transfers this energy to the aircraft’s in order to obtain a high exhaust
propeller. velocity.
4. EXHAUST STROKE 2. Jet or Turbine
- it starts when the exhaust valves typical jet engine is divided into two
open, the piston moves upward to areas: HOT AND COLD
purge the cylinder of the burned The HOT section is where combustion
gases. occurs by adding fuel to the airflow
- once the exhaust valve closes, the provided by the intake of the COLD
intake valve opens and the piston section.
moves down again, repeating the
cycle. PARTS:
PARTS: 1. INLET
1. Intake Valve - brings free steam of air into the
engine.
- decelerate the incoming air. ● it is best suited for landing and
2. COMPRESSOR taking off at shorter runways
- used to increase air pressure before 3. TURBOFAN
it enters the combustor ● most modern variation of the
- some compressors consist of several basic gas turbine
rows of rotors and stators, which are a ● modern airlines used turbofan
series of airfoils. engines to propel their airplanes
- ROTORS are the moving parts of the through the air, this is due to
compressor while STATORS are the their higher thrust and fuel
fixed part. efficiency
3. BURNER/COMBUSTION 4. TURBOSHAFT
- sits between the compressor and ● variant of jet engine that has
turbine been optimized to produce shaft
- in here, the fuel is mixed with high power, to drive machinery
pressure air and burned to create a instead of producing thrust.
high temperature exhaust gas, that ● most commonly used in
turn the power turbine and produce applications that require a small
thrust but powerful lightweight engine
4. TURBINE inclusive of helicopters
- comparable to a compressor
because it also consists of several LECTURE 8
rows of rotors and stators
- converts thermal energy to kinetic MINOR COMPONENTS
energy by expanding through OF AN AIRPLANE
NOZZLES then into rotational
• Fore - located at the front
mechanical energy in a spinning rotor
• Aft - located at the back
5. NOZZLE
• Airframe - any part of the plane
- convert thermal energy from the
excluding the powerplant
exhaust gases into kinetic energy in 4
• Cockpit (flight deck) - where the pilot
TYPES OF TURBINE/JET ENGINES:
controls the plane
1. TURBOJET
• Cargo hold (aircraft belly) - where the
● is the simplest and first type of
check in baggage located
gas turbine engine.
• Cabin - where the passengers were
● type of engine that generates its
sitting
thrust by burning 100% of the
• Radome - a dome protects
air it sucks.
weather/radar antenna
● usually used for jet fighters
• Windshield - use by the pilot in order
2. TURBOPROP
to see outside the plane, also protects
● type of jet engine that provides
the pilot and provide vision
more efficiency when flying at
• Pitot tube - measures the speed of
lower speeds
the airplane
● this engine is used for some big
• Aircraft antenna - to transmit and
cargo planes
received valuable data and information
• Galley - where the food is prepared improve communication between
• Overhead bin/ overhead stowage - different organizations involved in the
where the carry-on baggage located aviation industry.
• Lavatory - comfort room of the Chapter 27: Flight Controls
airplane This chapter covers the maintenance
• Winglet/sharklet - use to reduce the requirements for all of the aircraft’s
drag-on wingtip flight controls, including the ailerons,
• Flap track fairings/Anti - shock elevator rudder and other control
bodies/With comb bodies - houses the surfaces. It also includes the
mechanism used by flap when mechanical and hydraulic systems that
extending operate these controls.
• Pylons - it serves a link by aircraft Chapter 32: Landing Gear
wings to engine This chapter deals with the
• Auxiliary power unit/ APU - Jet maintenance of an aircraft’s landing
engine but doesn’t provide thrust gear. It includes the wheels, tire,
- provide electrical power for the brakes, shock absorbers, and other
aircraft system component that help support the
- provide bleed air or air conditioning aircraft during takeoff and landing.
while on the ground Chapter 35: Oxygen
ATA CHAPTERS This chapter covers the maintenance
AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION and operation of an aircraft’s oxygen
ATA is a company that represents the system, including cylinders, masks,
airliners of North America. It is regulators, and other associated
renamed and operating now as components.
Airlines for America. The ATA 100 Chapter 44: Cabin Systems
chapters were created by the Air This chapter deals with the
Transport Association in 1956. maintenance of the various systems
PURPOSE OF ATA STANDARDS that operate within the aircraft’ s cabin.
Increased Safety This includes the air conditioning,
ATA standards and specifications help heating, lighting, water supply, waste
to ensure that aircraft are properly disposal, and entertainment systems.
maintained and that their components Chapter 52: Doors
are functioning properly. This chapter covers the maintenance
Reduced Costs of the various doors on the aircraft,
ATA standards and specifications can including passenger and cargo doors,
help to emergency exits, and the associated
reduce the cost of aircraft maintenance systems that operate these doors.
by providing a standard reference Chapter 53: Fuselage
system for technicians. This chapter provides a detailed
Improved Communication explanation of the various components
ATA standards and specifications can and systems that
help to makeup the fuselage, as well as their
functions and importance.
Chapter 55: Stabilizers
This chapter covers the maintenance ● Aircraft Safety - keeping its
of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers airworthiness and in compliance with
on an aircraft, including the associated air safety standards.
control systems.
Chapter 56: Windows ● Keep Aircraft in Service - availability
This chapter deals with the and operability of the aircraft.
maintenance and repair of the various
● Maximize Value of Assets –
windows on an aircraft, including
including airframes, engine, and
windshields, passenger windows, and
components. It provides opportunities
emergency escape windows.
for restoration when deterioration
Chapter 57: Wings
occurs; keeping their functionality.
This chapter covers the maintenance
of an aircraft's wings, including the Aircraft maintenance is carried out
various control surfaces such as flaps often and follows a continuous
and ailerons, as well as the systems inspection schedule.
that support these structures.
Chapter 71: Powerplant ● Pre-Flight Inspection
This chapter deals with the
maintenance and repair of an aircraft’s ● Routine Inspection
engines and their associated systems,
● Detailed Inspection
including fuel, lubrication, ignition, and
cooling systems. Airline and Aviation authorities refer to
detailed inspections as "checks," that
include specific maintenance routines
Maintenance, Repair, & Overhaul
and tasks, and must be carried out
MRO services are crucial for industries regularly.
that utilizes equipment like aviation.
The common types are: A, C, & D
MRO ensures safety and airworthiness
Checks
of all aircrafts by adhering to
international standards. Line Maintenance or Light Checks
Maintenance Can be carried out during turnarounds
while the aircraft remains in its
Maintenance is crucial for aircraft
operating environment. Line
safety, reliability, and operational
maintenance tasks involve routine
readiness. It ensures prime condition,
inspections, daily checks,
prevents issues, and identifies
troubleshooting, and rectifications.
potential problems before they become
serious. Base/Heavy Maintenance
According to Lam (2002), the reasons every 18 months - 6 years depending
for carrying out maintenance are: on type & age.
The removal of an aircraft from service - Inspection of tires and breaks for
involves in-depth, long-lasting tasks in damage.
a hangar, requiring specialized tools
and equipment. These tasks include - Checking of avionics systems and
structural work, defect removal, aircraft’s flight controls.
technology upgrades, corrosion
- Checking aircraft engines and
prevention, interior refurbishment, and
associated systems.
major component replacement.
- Inspection of landing gears and
The A, C, D of Maintenance A-Check
associated systems.
– is under LINE MAINTENANCE or
Light Checks - Inspection of structural components. -
Inspection of electrical systems.
It is done either every 8 to 10 weeks,
every 400– 600 hours of flights, or D-Check – is under BASE/HEAVY
200-300 flights, depending on aircraft. MAINTENANCE
It is usually done within 10-24 hours.
It is also known as structural check;
Typical tasks during A-Checks are: the most extensive and undergoes
complete inspection and overhaul.
- Inspection of aircraft exterior for signs
of damage or wear & tear. Occurs every 6 years and takes 4-6
weeks to be completed where the
- Checking the aircraft's fluid levels.
aircraft is basically dismantled and
undergoes meticulous inspection,
- Inspection of tires and breaks for overhaul, replacement, and
damage. maintenance.

- Checking of avionics systems and Typical tasks during D-Checks are:

aircraft’s flight controls.
- Inspection of aircraft exterior for signs
C-Check – is under BASE/HEAVY of damage or wear & tear.
MAINTENANCE
- Checking the aircraft's fluid levels.
It is carried out every 18 months to 2
- Inspection of tires and breaks for
years and takes about 3 weeks &
damage.
6,000 man-hours to be completed.
- Checking of avionics systems and
Typical tasks during C-Checks are:
aircraft’s flight controls.
- Inspection of aircraft exterior for signs
- Checking aircraft engines and
of damage or wear & tear.
associated systems.
- Checking the aircraft's fluid levels.
- Inspection of landing gears and
associated systems.
- Inspection of structural components. using recommended practices in ICAO
Annexes 6 and 8.
- Inspection of electrical systems.
Repair Classification
- Complete overhaul of aircraft
systems. Major Repair - that if improperly done
might appreciably affect weight,
Repair- may be during maintenance balance, structural strength,
activities. It is necessary to perform performance, power-plant, operations,
when components are already broken. flight characteristics, or other qualities
affecting airworthiness
Repairs need to be carried out when
there are failed instruments, controls, Minor Repair - Any repair that does not
systems, or components that are not fall under the major repair category,
responding or performing as expected, meaning the repair has a negligible
structural issues like dents or damages effect on the airworthiness of the
to the external skin, stringers, former, affected product.
etc.
Major Alteration - a type design
Repair vs Alteration Repair change not listed in the aircraft, aircraft
engine or propeller specifications that
The goal is to restore aircraft parts to
has an appreciable effect on the
airworthy condition, ensuring
weight, balance, structural strength,
compliance with design aspects for
performance, power- plant, operations,
issuance of the type certificate for the
flight characteristics, or other qualities
respective aircraft type, after it has
affecting airworthiness.
been damaged or subjected to wear.
(ICAO Annex 6 definition). Minor Alteration - An alteration that
has an appreciable, other than
Alteration or Modification - It is done
negligible, effect on the airworthiness
to improve current aircraft design or
of an aeronautical product.
performance standards. It may also
include installation of equipment on the Overhaul
aircraft for specialized purposes or
upgrades on parts.A supplemental Overhaul involves restoring an aircraft
type certificate (STC) is an FAA using approved methods, techniques,
approved data that can be used to and practices, including disassembly,
perform aircraft alterations. cleaning, inspection, repair,
reassembly, and testing in accordance
Classification of Repairs & Alterations with approved standards and technical
data, or in accordance with current
The Civil Aviation Regulation (CAR)
standards and technical data
Part 5: Airworthiness provides the
acceptable to the Authority.
regulatory requirements of aircrafts
expected to operate in the Philippines Overhaul involves returning an aircraft
to likenew condition by disassembling,
repairing, replacing out-of-specification the center of gravity and out to the
parts, reassembling, testing, and lower section of the fuselage.
returning it to service. Movement: Yaw movement (yawing)
(left & right)
MODULE 7 FLIGHT Stability: Directional Stability

CONTROLS AILERONS
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL - the - is a horizontal control surface that
one responsible for directing the enables the aircraft to bank or roll
aircraft and it is required to be installed along the longitudinal axis
in an aircraft - located at the outboard section of the
PRIMARY CONTROL SYSTEM: aircraft’s wings
∙ Ailerons 􏰀 if the left aileron goes up, the
∙ Elevator (or stabilator) right aileron goes down 􏰀 if the
∙ Rudder right aileron goes up, the left aileron
goes down
IMAGINARY LINES - it passes to the
center of gravity (CG), which is the CONTROL WHEEL or CONTROL
point when the aircraft is perfectly COLUMN - lever or a pillar supporting
balanced. hand wheel that operates the elevator
THREE IMAGINARY LINES: and aileron controls - also called
∙ Longitudinal Axis “joystick” or “stick”
∙ Lateral Axis ELEVATOR
∙ Vertical Axis - movable control surface attached to
the horizontal stabilizer of an aircraft
LONGITUDINAL AXIS - an imaginary - used to control pitch along the lateral
straight line that passes through the axis
nose section of the airplane going to - always do the same direction
the center of gravity to the tail section - pull - upward; push - downward
of the fuselage. RUDDER
Movement: Roll or Bank Movement - mounted at the back end of the
(Rolling or Banking) vertical stabilizer
Stability: Lateral Stability - used to control yaw along the vertical
LATERAL AXIS - an imaginary straight axis
line that passes through the wing tip - left pedal - left yaw; right pedal - right
section of an airplane going to the yaw
center of gravity and out the other wing SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
tip section of an airplane. Flaps - the most common high-lift
Movement: Pitch movement (up & devices used on aircraft. These
down) surfaces, which are attached to the
Stability: Longitudinal Stability trailing edge of the wing, increase both
VERTICAL AXIS - an imaginary lift and induced drag for any given
straight line that passes through the AOA.
upper section of the fuselage going to TYPES OF FLAPS
Plain Flap - simplest of the four types. of an airplane’s wing. It’s a form of
It increases the airfoil camber, airfoil modification. Leading edge cuffs
resulting in a significant increase in the modify an airplane’s wings by
coefficient of lift (CL) at a given AOA. enhancing them with adjustable
Split Flap - deflected from the lower surfaces.
surface of the airfoil and produces a SPOILERS - high drag device.
slightly greater increase in lift than the Deployed from the to spoil smooth
plain flap. airflow reducing lift and increasing
Slotted Flap - The most popular flap on drag.
aircraft today. Variations of this design TRIM SYSTEMS
are used for small aircraft, as well as The trim system assists in maintaining
for large ones. Slotted flaps increase the desired attitude and reducing
the lift coefficient significantly more control forces required by the pilot. It
than plain or split flaps. allows the pilot to
Fowler Flaps - Are complex flaps that adjust the control surfaces' neutral
extend backward and downward when position to counteract any
deployed. They increase both the aerodynamic forces or moments that
wing’s surface area and its camber, would cause the aircraft to deviate
providing higher lift coefficients and from its desired flight path. The trim
increased drag. system typically includes trim tabs or
Leading Edge Devices - High-lift adjustable stabilizers that can be
devices also can be applied to the adjusted manually or through an
leading edge of the airfoil. The most automatic system.
common types are fixed slots, movable MODULE 8
slats, leading edge flaps, and cuffs.
Fixed Slot - These are stationary THEORY OF FLIGHT
surfaces permanently attached to the (HOW AIRPLANES FLY)
wing's leading edge. They effectively
4 FORCES:
increase the camber of the wing,
- LIFT
allowing it to generate more lift at
- THRUST
lower speeds.
- DRAG
Automatic and Powered Slats - These
- WEIGHT
are leading edge slats that deploy
LIFT
automatically at low speeds and retract
- the upward force created by the
at higher speeds. They provide
wings
additional lift when needed and reduce
- the lift created must be greater than
drag at higher speeds.
the weight of the plane to leave the
Krueger Flaps - These are hinged
ground
surfaces located at the leading edge of
WEIGHT
the wing.
- the downward force that is directed
Leading Edge Cuffs - are commonly
towards the center of the earth
found on airplanes. Also known as
- combined load of the airplane itself,
drooped leading edges (DLEs), it’s an
the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or
adjustable surface on the leading edge
baggage - weight exists due to the 􏰀 caused by the shape and the size of
force of gravity the object
THRUST 􏰀 usually comes from the antennas,
- forward force which is produced by landing gear, and other parts of the
the propeller or the turbine engine aircraft that are not airfoil-shaped
(powerplant) 􏰀 portion of parasite drag generated
- artificially created and is used to by the aircraft due its shape and
overcome drag and sustain lift airflow around it.
- also used to accelerate and gain INTERFERENCE DRAG
altitude 􏰀 comes from the intersection of
DRAG airstreams that creates eddy currents,
- retarding force and is caused by turbulence or restricts smooth airflow
disruption of airflow by the wing, 􏰀 air flowing around the fuselage
fuselage, and other protruding objects collides with air flowing over the wing,
- basically the force of the air that merging into a current of air different
pushes against the plane therefore from the two original currents.
slowing the plane down SKIN FRICTION DRAG
- pilot must overcome drag with thrust 􏰀 aerodynamic resistance due to the
to gain speed contact of moving air with the surface
TYPES OF DRAG: of an aircraft.
INDUCED DRAG 􏰀 even though a surface may look
􏰀 result of an airfoil developing lift 􏰀 smooth, it has a rough and ragged
type of drag on an airfoil that arises surface when viewed under a
from the development of lift 􏰀 microscope. This nonsmooth surface
Whenever the wings generate lift, it causes an interruption in airflow and
creates high pressure below the wings more drag (Ex. Screws and Rivets
and low pressure above. At the wing produce SFD)
tip of the airplane, these two different AIRFOIL
pressures meet creating wingtip - a surface which is shaped to produce
vortices or induced drag. more lift than drag when moved
through the air.
PARASITE DRAG PARTS OF AN AIRFOIL:
􏰀 all forces that work to slow an ➔ Leading Edge
aircraft's movement 􏰀 The foremost edge of an
􏰀 called parasite because it is in no airfoil section
way functions to aid flight ➔ Trailing Edge
􏰀 any drag that is not caused directly 􏰀 The aft edge of an airfoil or a
from the aircraft producing lift wing
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PARASITE ➔ Chord line
DRAG: 􏰀 A straight line directly across
∙ Form Drag the airfoil from the leading edge
∙ Interference Drag to the trailing edge
∙ Skin Friction Drag ➔ Mean line
FORM DRAG
 􏰀 a line joining the leading edge FLIGHT PATH - path where the plane
and the trailing edges of an travels along. - opposite direction of
airfoil equidistant from the upper relative wind.
and lower surface RELATIVE WIND - the airflow that
􏰀 similar to the chord line but flows around the airplane as it travels
the mean line is equidistant with through the air - opposite direction of
the upper and lower surface flight path.
➔ Upper Camber ANGLE OF ATTACK - (angle) that is
􏰀 refers to the curve on the created by the wings chord line and
upper surface of an airfoil the aircrafts relative wind
➔ Lower Camber - plays a significant role in explaining
􏰀 refers to the curve of the how an airplane generates lift
lower surface - An increase in angle of attack results
The design of an airfoil is to take in an increase in both lift and induced
advantage of the natural response drag.
of airflow when disrupted.
TWO PERSPECTIVE
Newtonian Explanation
- tilt of the wings - this theory predicts that as the
- acceleration of the airstream - airstream passes by, it is deflected
deflation of air stream downward
NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION AND Although all the three laws of motion
FORCE (Isaac Newton - English are applicable to flight, the third law is
mathematician and physicist) the most significant to lift production
First Law: LAW OF INERTIA - a body Bernoulli’s Principle
at rest tends to remain at rest, and a - shape of the wing
body in motion tends to remain moving - speeds and pressures in the
at the same speed and in the same airstream
direction. - pressure imbalances
Second Law: LAW OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE (Daniel
ACCELERATION - when a body is Bernoulli - 18th century Swiss
acted upon by a constant force, its scientist)
resulting acceleration is inversely - the fluid’s velocity is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body proportional to the pressure
and is directly proportional to the - if the speed of a moving fluid
applied force. increases, the pressure decreases and
Third law: LAW OF CONSERVATION when the speed of a moving fluid
OF MOMENTUM (LAW OF decreases, the pressure increases
INTERACTION) - when an object is - (pressure differential) high pressure
given a certain momentum in a given seeks low pressure, and that makes
direction, some other body will receive the aircraft fly
an equal momentum in the opposite FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
direction provide information about the most
important parameters to consider when
flying an airplane. The six basic Groundspeed (GS) - the actual speed of
instruments is also referred to as "six the airplane over the ground. It is TAS
pack" due to their arrangement. adjusted for wind. GS decreases with a
Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, Vertical headwind and increases with a tailwind.
Speed Indicator - Air pressure ALTIMETER - is an instrument that
Attitude Indicator, Turn Coordinator, measures the height of an aircraft above a
Heading Indicator - Gyroscopic given pressure level. Since the altimeter is
principles the only instrument that is capable of
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM indicating altitude, this is one of the most
The pitot-static system is a combined vital instruments installed in the aircraft.
system that utilizes static air pressure and HOW ALTIMETER WORKS
dynamic pressure due to the motion of the The pressure altimeter is an aneroid
aircraft through the air. barometer. uses static pressure as its
● Static pressure also known as source of operation. measures the
ambient pressure is always pressure of the atmosphere at the level
present whether an aircraft is where the altimeter is located and
moving or at rest. It is simply the presents an altitude indication in feet.
barometric pressure in the local 29.92 InHg (inches of mercury) -
area. standard sea level barometric pressure.
● Dynamic pressure is present only Kollsman window barometric pressure
when an aircraft is in motion. It can setting window - allows adjustments for
be thought of as a pressure due to nonstandard pressures by setting the
motion. corrected pressure providing a means to
Wind also generates dynamic pressure. adjust the altimeter a knob is located at
The pitot tube is utilized to measure the the bottom of the instrument for this
total combined pressures that are present adjustment.
when an aircraft moves through the air. TYPES OF ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI) - a Altitude is vertical distance above some
sensitive, differential pressure gauge that point or level used as a reference.
measures and promptly indicates the Indicated altitude - read directly from the
difference between dynamic pressure and altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the
static pressure. measures dynamic current altimeter setting.
pressure; therefore TOTAL PRESSURE True altitude - the vertical distance of the
(-) STATIC PRESSURE = DYNAMIC aircraft above sea level the actual altitude.
PRESSURE pitot tube - total pressure It is often expressed as feet above mean
(dynamic + static pressure) static port - sea level (MSL). e.g. Airport, terrain, and
static pressure obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts
TYPES OF AIRSPEED are true altitudes.
Indicated airspeed (IAS) - the direct Absolute altitude - the vertical distance
instrument reading obtained from the ASI, of an aircraft above the terrain, or above
uncorrected for variations in atmospheric ground level (AGL).
density, installation error, or instrument Pressure altitude - the altitude indicated
error. when the altimeter setting window is
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) - IAS adjusted to 29.92 inHg.
corrected for installation error and Density altitude - pressure altitude
instrument error. corrected for variations from standard
True airspeed (TAS) - CAS corrected for temperature.
altitude and nonstandard temperature. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The VSI is sometimes called a vertical shows only the rate of turn in degrees per
velocity indicator (VVI) indicating whether second. rotates in the vertical plane
the aircraft is climbing, descending, or in corresponding to the aircraft's longitudinal
level flight. The rate of climb or descent is axis.
indicated in feet per minute (fpm). Turn Coordinator
➢ Trend information shows an is mounted at an angle, or canted, so it
immediate indication of an can initially show roll rate. When the roll
increase or decrease in the stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn.
aircraft's rate of climb or descent. INCLINOMETER
➢ Rate information shows a is used to depict aircraft yaw, which is the
stabilized rate of change in side-to-side movement of the aircraft's
altitude. nose. coordination is achieved by referring
- The time period from the initial change in to the inclinometer.
the rate of climb, until the VS displays an ATTITUDE INDICATOR
accurate indication of the new rate, is gives an instantaneous indication of even
called the lag/lag error. Some aircraft are the smallest changes in attitude with its
equipped with an instantaneous vertical miniature aircraft and horizon bar, displays
speed indicator (IVSI), which incorporates a picture of the attitude of the aircraft.
accelerometers to compensate for the lag HOW ATTITUDE INDICATOR WORKS
in the typical VSI. The gyro in the attitude indicator is
GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS mounted in a horizontal plane and
Gyroscopic Principle any spinning object depends upon rigidity in space for its
exhibits gyroscopic properties. a wheel or operation.
rotor designed and mounted to utilize ATTITUDE INDICATOR -Artificial Horizon
these properties is called a gyroscope. Instrument that measures the attitude
TWO FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF (inclination) of the aircraft in relation to the
GYROSCOPIC ACTION horizon in terms of pitch and bank (roll).
Rigidity in Space HEADING INDICATOR
the principle that a gyroscope remains in a a mechanical instrument designed to
fixed position in the plane in which it Is facilitate the use of the magnetic compass.
spinning. by mounting this wheel, or HOW HEADING INDICATOR WORKS
gyroscope, on a set of gimbal rings, the heading indicator depends upon the
gyro is able to rotate freely in any principle of rigidity in space the rotor turns
direction. in a vertical plane and fixed to the rotor is
Precession the tilting or turning of a gyro a compass card
in response to a deflective force. This WHY NOT USE COMPASS ALONE?
principle allows the gyro to determine a - Compass indicates it suffers from
rate of turn by sensing the amount of significant errors during turns,
pressure created by a change in direction. acceleration, and turbulence.
the rate at which the gyro processes is - The design of it causes the compass
inversely proportional to the speed of the card to move in the opposite direction to
rotor and proportional to the deflective the turn that makes it difficult.
force.
TURN INDICATORS
Aircraft use two types of turn indicators: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
both instruments indicate turn direction METALLIC MATERIALS
and coordination.
Turn-and-Slip Indicator
ALLOYS - composed of two or more radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips,
metals. The metal present in the alloy antenna covers, and flight controls.
in the largest amount is called the Reinforced plastic has a high
base metal. All other metals added to strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant
the base metal are called alloying to mildew and rot. Reinforced plastic is
elements. a sandwich-type material.
ALUMINUM - are widely used in COMPOSITE AND CARBON FIBER
modern aircraft construction. MATERIALS - are constructed by
Aluminum alloys are valuable because using several layers of bonding
they have a high strength- to-weight materials (graphite epoxy or boron
ratio. Aluminum alloys are corrosion epoxy). These materials are
resistant and comparatively easy to mechanically fastened to conventional
fabricate. substructures. Another type of
MAGNESIUM - world's lightest composite construction consists of thin
structural metal. It is a silvery-white graphite epoxy skins bonded to an
material that weighs two-thirds as aluminum honeycomb core. Carbon
much as aluminum. Magnesium is fiber is extremely strong, thin fiber
used to make helicopters. made by heating synthetic fibers.
Magnesium's low resistance to PROPERTIES OF METAL
corrosion has limited its use in ● HARDNESS - Hardness refers
conventional aircraft. to the ability of a material to
TITANIUM - a lightweight, strong, resist abrasion, penetration,
corrosion-resistant metal. Recent cutting action, or permanent
developments make titanium ideal for distortion.
applications where aluminum alloys ● STRENGTH - One of the most
are too weak and stainless steel is too important properties of a
heavy. material is strength. Strength is
STEEL ALLOYS - used in aircraft the ability of a material to resist
construction have great strength, more deformation. Strength is also
so than other fields of engineering the ability of a material to resist
would require. Another type of steel stress without breaking.
used extensively is stainless steel. ● TENSILE STRENGTH - When
Stainless steel resists corrosion and is a piece of sheet metal is pulled
particularly valuable for use in or near from each end, the resultant
water. force is called tension. The
NONMETALLIC MATERIALS ability to withstand tension is
TRANSPARENT PLASTIC called tensile strength, and is
Transparent plastic is used in measured in pounds per square
canopies, windshields, and other inch. Tensile strength of 70,000
transparent enclosures. At PSI IS WRITTEN AS 70 KSI.
approximately 225°F, transparent ● YIELD STRENGTH - The ability
plastic becomes soft and pliable. of a metal to resist deformation
REINFORCED PLASTIC - Reinforced is called its yield strength.
plastic is used in the construction of
● SHEAR STRENGTH - Shear ● TOUGHNESS - A material that
strength describes a metal's possesses toughness
ability to resist opposing forces. withstands tearing or shearing
A rivet holding two or more and may be stretched or
sheets of metal together otherwise deformed without
resisting the force of the sheets breaking. Toughness is a
trying to slide apart is an desirable property in aircraft
example of a shear load. metals.
● BEARING STRENGTH - ● BRITTLENESS - Brittleness is
Bearing strength is the ability of the property of a metal that
a joint to withstand any form of allows little bending or
crushing or excessive deformation without shattering.
compressive distortion. Material A brittle metal is apt to break or
under a compression load crack without change of shape.
usually fails by buckling or ● FUSIBILITY - Fusibility is the
bending. ability of a metal to become
● DENSITY - Density is the liquid by the application of heat.
weight of a unit volume of a Metals are fused in welding.
material. In aircraft work, the Steels fuse around 2,600 °F
specified weight of a material and aluminum alloys at
per cubic inch is preferred since approximately 1,100 °F.
this figure can be used in ● CONDUCTIVITY - Conductivity
determining the weight of a part is the property that enables a
before actual manufacture. metal to carry heat or electricity.
● MALLEABILITY - A metal that ● THERMAL EXPANSION -
can be hammered, rolled, or Thermal expansion refers to
pressed into various shapes contraction and expansion that
without cracking, breaking, or are reactions produced in
leaving some other detrimental metals as the result of heating
effect, is said to be malleable. or cooling. Heat applied to a
● DUCTILITY - Ductility is the metal causes it to expand or
property of a metal that permits become larger.
it to be permanently drawn, COMPOSITE MATERIALS
bent, or twisted into various - Two or more materials that are
shapes without breaking. This combined to form a structure that is
property is essential for metals much stronger than the individuals’
used in making wire and tubing. components. (Bonding substance &
● ELASTICITY - Elasticity is a Reinforce Material)
property that enables a metal to FIBERGLASS (GLASS CLOTH) -
return to its original size and Fiberglass is made from small strands
shape when the force that of molten silica glass (about 2,300° F)
causes the change of shape is that are spun together and woven into
removed. cloth.
ARAMID - An aramid, or aromatic A tightly woven edge produced by the
polyamide fiber, is usually weaver to prevent the edges from
characterized by its yellow color, raveling is referred to as the selvage
light weight, tensile strength, and edge. It is parallel to the warp threads.
remarkable flexibility. UNIDIRECTIONAL
CARBON / GRAPHITE - Carbon fiber, Fiber orientation in which all of the
also known as graphite fiber, is a very major fibers run in one direction, giving
strong, stiff reinforcement. For many strength in that direction, are known as
years, American manufacturers used unidirectional.
the term graphite, while European BIDIRECTIONAL
manufacturers used the term carbon. OR MULTIDIRECTIONAL
CERAMIC - Ceramic fibers are used This type of fiber orientation calls for
when a high temperature application is fibers to run in two or more directions
needed. This form of composite retains (bidirectional).
most of its strength and flexibility at MATS
temperatures up to 2,200°F. Chopped fibers that are compressed
FIBER USAGE together are often called mats. These
As composite materials gain use, new mats typically are used in combination
reinforcing fibers may be developed. with other 2-11 woven or unidirectional
Currently, the most frequently used layers of fabric.
reinforcing fibers are fiberglass.
aramid, and carbon.
FIBER PLACEMENT
The strength of a reinforcing material
in a matrix is dependent on the weave
of the material, the wetting process
how the matrix is applied), filament
tensile strength, and the design of the
part.
FIBER SCIENCE
The selective placement of fibers
needed to obtain the greatest amount
of strength in various applications is
known as fiber science.
WARP
The threads that run the length of the
fabric as it comes off the bolt are
referred to as the warp. The warp
direction is designated at 0°.
WEFT (FILL)
Weft threads are those that run
perpendicular to the warp fibers. They
are designated as 90°.
SELVAGE EDGE