AP Language Terms and Definitions

Rhetorical Appeals
Rhetorical Appeals – dominant persuasive strategies speakers/writers uses to deliver messages
Definitions Identifying the Appeal
Appeal to Ethos (credibility) – Writers and speakers often have to build ethos by explaining their
a persuasive strategy in which a speaker/ writer credentials or background to their readers, or by emphasizing shared
appeals to the audience’s sense of trust values to gain the reader’s trust.
Appeal to Logos (reason) – Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas.
a persuasive strategy in which a speaker/ writer Look for and use: facts, data/statistics, scientific facts, literal or
appeals to the audience’s sense of logic historical analogies, definitions, and quotations.
Appeal to Pathos (emotion) – An effective speaker or writer understands the power of evoking an
a persuasive strategy in which a speaker/ writer audience’s emotions by using such tools as figurative language,
appeals to the audience’s sense of emotion personal anecdotes, and vivid images.
Argument Essay Terms
Argument – a process of reasoned inquiry (def: perceptive thinking); it is a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent
and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion
Claim – also known as an assertion or proposition, a claim states the argument’s main idea or position; claim differs
from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable
Thesis – a statement of the main idea of the argument
Evidence – once a writer has established a claim and developed a thesis statement, the next step is to support it with
effective evidence; it the proof that supports the thesis of an argument
Counterargument – an opposing to the one a writer is putting forward; rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong
writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation
Concession – an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable; in a strong argument, a
concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument
Refutation – a denial of the validity of an opposing argument; in order to sound reasonable, a refutation often follows a
concession
Definitions Examples
Induction – it is a logical process wherein you Regular exercise promotes weight loss.
reason from particulars to universal, using specific Exercise lowers stress levels.
cases in order to draw a conclusion Exercise improves mood and outlook.
Generalization: Exercise contributes to better health.
Deduction – it is a logical process wherein you The process of deduction is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism.
reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle Major Premise: Exercise contributes to better health.
or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to Minor Premise: Yoga is a type of exercise.
a specific case (a minor premise) Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

Argument Structure
Classical Argument – an argument that incorporates the five parts of a discourse that ancient teachers of rhetoric
believed were necessary for persuasion
Five-Part Classical Argument Structure
Introduction (exordium) – introduces the reader to the subject under discussion; the speaker warms up to the audience,
establishes rapport, and announces the general theme or thesis of discussion
Narration (narratio) – provides factual information and background material, or context, on the subject at hand, thus
beginning the development paragraphs, or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing; the first two
parts of the classical argument, the introduction and narration, are often run together
Confirmation (confirmatio) – usually the major part of the text, includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case –
containing the most specific and concrete detail in the text; where you present the claims and evidence that back up or
substantiate the thesis of your argument
Refutation (refutatio) – addresses the counterargument, or opposing viewpoints; it is a bridge between the writer’s
proof and conclusion
Conclusion (peroratio) – brings the essay to a satisfying close where the speaker wraps up the various arguments into a
summary statement, and amplifies the force of arguments already made; writers should remember the classical
rhetoricians’ advice that the last words and ideas of a text are those the audience is most likely to remember
Conferti,  S.  2014;  Adapted  from  Walter  Beale,  Real  Writing,  2nd  edition,  1986;  Robin  Dissin  Aufses,  Renee  H.  Shea,  Lawrence  Scanlon,  Conversation  in  
Literature,  1st  edition,  2014  
Rhetoric Terminology
Style – the manner of expression of a particular writer, produced by choice of words (diction), grammatical structures
(syntax), use of rhetorical devices, and all the possible parts of language use
Diction – word choices by the speaker/writer
Denotation – literal definition of a word
Connotation – an additional emotion associated with a word; usually expressed in a positive and negative way
Syntax – sentence structure; the way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical
structure
Tone – the author’s attitude toward a subject
Rhetorical Devices
Rhetorical Devices – specific rhetorical tools writers use to convey specific messages
Figurative Language – writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be
imaginative and vivid
 

SCHEMES – artful syntax; a deviation from the normal order of words

Definition Example Effect
Rhetorical Question – asking a “In this age of modernity, can we really A rhetorical question is used to
question in which the answer is merely condone such horrific acts?” provoke the reader to respond
implied or to think, or to lead them to
the next idea.
Hypophora - asking a question, then “How do we know this to be true? We A hypophora is used to lead a
proceeding to answer it have observed it in the lab.” reader directly to a conclusion.
Periodic Sentence – a sentence that After a long, bumpy flight and multiple A periodic sentence is used to
presents its central meaning in a main delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport. add emphasis and structural
clause at the end variety.
Repetition – the repeating of any In August, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. Repetition is used to create a
element of language, such as a word, gave us one of the richest speech examples memorable, powerful effect
phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical for repetition. This includes “I have a and/or to reinforce an idea.
pattern; dream …” and many other repetition-laden
passages
Parallel Structure – there is the same “The manor—designed for beauty and Parallel structure creates a
general organizational structure for grace, built for durability and strength, and memorable, powerful effect and
multiple parts of a sentence located for privacy and safety—was the is used to reinforce an idea.
ideal home for those three children.”
Antithesis – the juxtaposition of “I speak not from ignorance, but from Using antithetical statements
contradicting language by keeping the experience.” brings out a contrast in ideas
same sentence structure, but use and is a fairly simple way to
contrasting words show a complex thought.
Juxtaposition – placing two things side Juxtaposition is often used to
by side, usually to show contrast call attention to extremes or
contrast ideas

TROPES – artful diction; expresses ideas through playing with or changing the meaning of words
Definition Example Effect
Simile – compares two unlike things by “The shower room, steamy like a Similes emphasize similarities and
using the terms like or as; this device Louisiana summer, rang with the dissimilarities through comparison.
emphasizes similarities and dissimilarities athletes’ jubilant laughter.”
Metaphor – compares two unlike things, “Dr. King was truly a king Metaphors emphasize similarities and
stating one thing is another thing; among men.” dissimilarities through comparison.
Allusion – a direct or indirect reference to “You don’t have to be Holden Allusions reference something famous
something which is presumably commonly Caulfield to appreciate a good to subtly show the depth of a topic and
known, such as an event, book, myth, allusion.” to clarify explanations.
place, or work of art; allusions can be
historical, literary, religious, topical, or
mythical
Conferti,  S.  2014;  Adapted  from  Walter  Beale,  Real  Writing,  2nd  edition,  1986;  Robin  Dissin  Aufses,  Renee  H.  Shea,  Lawrence  Scanlon,  Conversation  in  
Literature,  1st  edition,  2014  
 TROPES (continued)
Analogy – a comparison between two like “The desire for wealth, when Analogies clarify arguments by
or similar things used in explaining unchecked, can lead only to substituting a simple argument for a
difficult concepts; substitutes a simple great evil. For though a man more complex one.
argument for a more complex argument may begin without restraint, the
and then the argument builds on the urge will grow until one day he
similarities is a drunkard, blinded to all but
his need, taking whatever steps
are needed to find his fix.”
Hyperbole – exaggerating some part of “At these words, the people Hyperboles exaggerate details to elicit
your statement in order to give it emphasis became so silent you could hear a reaction from the audience and to
and focus; often used to expose truths a beating heart from across the focus the audience’s attention.
room.”
Understatement – a rhetorical form in “Whatever his faults, Sir Isaac Understatements prompt readers to
which the force of a descriptive statement Newton did have a fairly good think how much more could be said—
is less than what one would normally mind for science.” and by making them come to the
expect conclusion themselves, you make that
conclusion all the more powerful.
Paradox – an apparently contradictory “Keep your friends close and The effect of using a paradox is to
statement that nevertheless contains a your enemies closer.” point out an apparent contradiction.
measure of truth
Imagery — sensory details or figurative  
language used to describe, arouse emotion,
or represent abstractions; often times,
imagery is used with other figurative
language

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Conferti,  S.  2014;  Adapted  from  Walter  Beale,  Real  Writing,  2nd  edition,  1986;  Robin  Dissin  Aufses,  Renee  H.  Shea,  Lawrence  Scanlon,  Conversation  in  
Literature,  1st  edition,  2014  
NEUTRAL      
Tone  Words     Synonyms   Sorrow-­Fear-­Worry  Tone/Attitude  Words  
1. Indifferent     impersonal;  emotionless    
2. Confident     certain;  assured   Aggravated               Embarrassed       Morose             Resigned  
3. Unbelievable   amazing;  dubious   Agitated                     Fearful                     Mournful                     Sad  
4. Ironically     strangely;  curiously   Anxious                     Foreboding               Nervous                     Serious  
5. Wondrous     astonishment;  amazement   Apologetic                    Gloomy                     Numb                             Sober  
6. Composed     calm;  detached   Apprehensive   Grave                             Ominous                   Solemn  
7. Sincere     truthful;  straightforward   Concerned                  Hollow               Paranoid                     Somber  
8. Desirable     comfortable;  alluring   Confused                     Hopeless                     Pessimistic               Staid  
9. Bizarre     fantastic;  grotesque   Dejected                     Horrific                     Pitiful                             Upset  
10. Taciturn     reserved;  subdued   Depressed                  Horror                             Poignant  
11. Picturesque   detailed;  unusual   Despairing             Melancholy             Regretful  
12. Sublime     lofty;  magnificent   Disturbed                     Miserable                     Remorseful  
13. Provocative   provoking;  stimulating    
14. Passionate     intense;  amorous    
15. Courageous   audacious;  fearless    
16. Exquisite     pleasing;  delicate    
17. Exotic     strange;  intriguing    
18. Satiric     mocking;  bantering    
19. Anxious     uncertain;  apprehensive    
20. Shocked     astonished;  surprised    
   
POSITIVE      
Tone  Words                                Synonyms       NEGATIVE    
1. Whimsical     fanciful;  imaginary   Tone  Words     Synonyms  
2. Lighthearted   carefree;  happy   1. Demoralizing   depressing;  perverting  
3. Convivial     lively;  jolly   2. Indignant     enraged;  furious  
4. Optimistic     positive;  affirmative   3. Melancholy   pensive;  gloomy  
5. Compassionate   tender;  merciful   4. Disgruntled   discontented;  dissatisfied  
6. Sympathetic   warm;  considerate   5. Lugubrious     mournful;  sorrowful  
7. Benevolent     humane;  charitable   6. Disparaging   sarcastic;  critical  
8. Jovial     contented;  cheerful   7. Inflamed     irate;  provoked  
9. Felicitous     appropriate;  desirable   8. Haughty     arrogant;  condescending    
10. Carefree     lighthearted;  happy-­go-­lucky   9. Menacing     threatening;  ominous  
11. Exuberant     buoyant;  elated   10. Hostile     malevolent;  bellicose  
12. Ecstatic     delighted;  enchanted   11. Enigmatic     puzzling;  mysterious  
13. Exhilarated   excited;  uplifted   12. Sinister     cunning;  portentous  
14. Festive     pleased;  merry   13. Bleak     desolate;  lifeless  
15. Contentment   festive;  joyous   14. Condescending   arrogant;  snobbish  
16. Affable     cordial;  friendly   15. Depressing     morbid;  gruesome  
17. Serene     pleasant;  peaceful   16. Disconsolate   downcast;  sorrowful  
18. Sanguine     encouraging;  hopeful   17. Morose     sullen;  gloomy  
19. Reverent     godly;  holy   18. Scathing     cutting;  trenchant  
20. Amicable     friendly;  congenial   19. Morbid     gruesome;  macabre  
  20. Dismal     dull;  barren  
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
 
Conferti,  S.  2014;  Adapted  from  Walter  Beale,  Real  Writing,  2nd  edition,  1986;  Robin  Dissin  Aufses,  Renee  H.  Shea,  Lawrence  Scanlon,  Conversation  in  
Literature,  1st  edition,  2014