CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

C
ereals represent a major component of diet worldwide and are a staple
food in developing countries, cereals are considered economic source of
energy in our diet and constitute 70-80% of the daily energy intake
apart from having moderate (6-12%) protein content and fairly good source of
minerals and vitamins. The major cereals and millets cultivated and consumed in
India are rice, wheat, pearl millet, sorghum, maize and barley.
Wheat (Triticum astivum) is the second staple grain food in India next only
to rice and its production was 71.8 million tonnes in 2001-02 (Anon, 2003). It
occupies more dietary nutrient for human consumption. About 80-90% of the
wheat product in this country is consumed mainly in the form of home made
products (like leavened bread). While a small fraction goes to the industries for
making baked and other products. Wheat is the world’s most important cereal
crop in terms of production and human consumption (Shewry and Tatham, 1994).
Other cereals like pearl millet, sorghum, maize, barley commonly consumed in
African and Asian countries have been reported to be the less expensive source of
proteins, carbohydrates, B-complex vitamins and minerals. The production of
coarse cereal grain was 33.9 million tonnes in 2001-02 (Anon, 2003).
Jowar (Sorghum bicolor (L) Maench) is the third most important cereal of
India after rice and wheat and the fifth most important cereal crop worldwide.
Feeding approximately 500 million people in more than 30 countries
(Sankarapandian, 2000; Lovis, 2003). Jowar is nutritionally superior to rice and
 2

comparable in many respects with wheat. More digestible protein from sorghum
grain, that additionally is high in lysine content and has a fairly hard endosperm,
could be important benefit to populations who lack adequate protein in their diets
(Weaver et al., 1998).
Pearl millet is the fourth most important cereal of India. It provides cheap
staple food with comparatively more nutrient to millions of poor people. The
nutritional value, flavour, odour and texture of the cooked products are important
to determine its acceptance and suitability as human food. Corn (Zee mays L.) is
the leading cereal in India. Many corn foods have a unique distinctive flavour
contributing to their popularity, and products from corn are found in almost
everything we eat (Serna et al., 1994). Interest in barley is increasing thanks to
their soluble dietary fibre content, particularly -glucan (the major fraction of
soluble fibre at ~ 75%) (Jadhav et al., 1998). Several nutritional and physiological
studies have demonstrated that -glucans have hypocholesterolemic effect which
may be due to increased viscosity created by -glucans and/or fermentation of
-glucans by colon bacteria.
With the changing trend from non-vegetarianism to vegetarianism and
comparatively higher prices of animal food products, emphasis is on pulses for the
good quality protein, particularly in developing countries.
Soybean and lentil are recognized as a valuable nutritious pulses. Soybean
(Glycine max L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) are very rich sources of
essential nutrients. Soybean being one of the most versatile food stuff containing
40-45% protein, whereas lentil contain 25-30% protein both having the amino acid
profile complementary to that of cereal protein. Soybean have great potential for
its unique functional and nutritional properties (Arditi et al., 2000).
Now-a-days, extruded and baked products are gaining popularity. The
popularity of pasta products can be attributed to its sensory appeal. Versatility,
low cost, ease of preparation, nutritional content and storage stability as well as
increased consumer interest in ethnic foods (Cole, 1991).
On the other hand, baking industries are one of the largest organised food
industries in the country. The growth of bakery industry is about 10% per annum
 3

and the products are increasingly becoming popular among all sections of people
(Indrani et al., 1997). The quantity and diversity of enjoyable and satisfying
products made from wheat and composite flours are remarkable and these include
various types of breads, biscuits, cakes and different types of roti (Grewal and
Hira, 2001).
The use of composite flours in the production of baked products has been a
subject for research in the past two and a half decades. The use of sorghum flour
is becoming more and more common in baked good formulas, especially in
breads, cookies and crackers, that are targeted at consumers who are gluten
sensitive or diabetic (Lovis, 2003). Barley with its high soluble dietary fibre
concentrations and soybean are desirable ingredients in baked products (McIntosh
et al., 1995). On the other hand, composite extrudates of complementary proteins
could increase nutritional value and create better textural or other functional
properties (Miche et al., 1976; Taha et al., 1992; Bahnassey et al., 1986; Zasypkin
and Lee, 1999).
Malnutrition is a major health concern in India, and most of the developing
countries. There exists a considerable scope for introducing value added baked
and extruded goods to combat malnutrition. Such ready-to-eat or cooked food
products can be popularized through school feeding programmes and making
available to vulnerable groups.
Both soybean and lentil can be used for supplementation of cereal products
because nutritional value of cereal has been found to be low due to low content of
EEA i.e. lysine and threonine. Therefore, the consumption of wheat based baked
and extruded products along with other cereals and pulses may have health
benefits.
Keeping these facts in view, the present investigation was designed with
following objectives:
i) To study nutritional and functional properties of selected cereals and pulses
ii) To develop composite flour for developing baked and extruded products
iii) To evaluate the sensory and nutritional properties of the products developed
from composite flour.
 4

CHAPTER – 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A
mong various nutritional problems India faces today, protein-energy-
malnutrition is a major problem. Greater interest, has, therefore, been
aroused in developing acceptable high protein foods to improve human
diets particularly among the low income and vulnerable section of our population
(Singh et al., 1993). Among the diverse solutions proposed to meet it, pulses will
probably have a far greater impact toward filling the protein gap than those of the
animal protein. Soybean and lentils are characterized by a relatively large content
of proteins and carbohydrates. In general, pulses also contain significant amounts
of crude fibres, minerals and vitamins (Alonso et al., 2000). Baked and extruded
products are becoming increasingly popular in India not only among urban
population but also among village population (Agarwal, 1990). Therefore, wheat
supplementation with soy alone or with other cereals and lentil will provide a good
potential to improve the nutritional quality of baked and extruded products and it
may also improve the overall acceptability and nutritional quality of the finished
products. Keeping this in view, the present study was undertaken with the
objectives to study nutritional and functional properties of selected cereals and
pulses to prepare value added baked and extruded products using composite flour
and to evaluate the sensory and nutritional properties of developed products.
 5

The literature concerning these objectives has been reviewed under

the following headings:
2.1 Physico-chemical properties of selected cereals and pulses
2.2 Functional properties of selected cereals and pulses
2.3 Nutritional composition of selected cereals and pulses
2.4 Sensory attributes and physical characteristics of value added baked and
extruded products
2.5 Nutritional evaluation of baked and extruded products
2.1 Physico-chemical characteristics
Physico-chemical properties such as density, hydration capacity, swelling
capacity and cooking time etc. of pulses are the important parameters which
ultimately play an important role in their behaviour for cooking and processing
(Williams et al., 1983; Deshpande et al., 1984; Singh et al., 1991; Giami and
Okweichime, 1993).
2.1.1 Cereals
Adsule et al. (1985) studied 6 wheat varieties for their grain weight and
found that grain weight ranged from 39-45 g/1000 seed.
Singh and Paliwal (1986) evaluated two Indian durum wheat varieties and
revealed no significant difference among the hardness of both varieties (13.00-
13.25 kg/grain). Whereas, 1000 kernel weight was higher than reported by earlier
workers (Shurpalekar et al., 1976; Adsule et al., 1985).
They also studied 13 wheat varieties for physical characteristics and found
40.3-53.2 g 100 kernel weight and most of these varieties have kernel hardness
more than 10 kg/grain.
Singh et al. (1990) examined some U.P. hill wheats and reported that hill
wheat i.e. halmisri were smaller in size and had lower 1000 grain weight (28.6 g)
and had highest kernel hardness (10.43 mg/grain). Grain hardness affects the
particle size obtained from milling and sieving operations (Moss et al., 1980; Tran
et al., 1981).
 6

Srivastav et al. (1994) studied the effect of roasting on breaking strength of

maize and soybean and found that breaking strength decreased with increased
temperature of roasting.
Hadimani et al. (1995) evaluated 38 varieties of pearl millet and reported
the mean values for 1000 grain weight, seed density, grain hardness as 8.4 g, 1.40
g/ml and 3.4 kg/grain, respectively. Reddy et al. (1998) observed 3 wheat
varieties for physical characteristics and reported 1000 kernel weight varied from
32.5-44.5 g.
Sankarapandian (2000) examined 18 varieties and 5 hybrids of sorghum for
physical characteristics and revealed that 1000 grain weight ranged from 18.7-
28.52, density from 1.62-2.87 g/cc, swelling capacity from 5.09-9.25 ml.
Dhingra (2001) conducted a study on physical parameters of wheat and
barley. The moisture content was 8.35, 10.54 per cent, 1000 grain weight 40.84,
30.92 g, grain hardness 8.23, 17.28 kg/grain, hydration capacity as 0.02, 0.04
ml/seed for wheat and barley, respectively.
Hooda (2002) studied some physical parameters of WH-423 wheat variety
and reported 9.80 per cent moisture, 41.50 g 1000-grain weight, 8.45 kg/grain
grain hardness and golden yellow colour.
Malik (1999) evaluated three variety and four hybrids of pearl millet and
reported the 16.66-20.33 min cooking time. Chaudhary (2000) also reported 19.51
min cooking time for pearl millet whereas cooking time for maize and wheat was
122.3 or 43.62 minutes. Cooking time of millet grains were studied by Hadimani
and Malleshi (1993) and they reported that the cooking time for the small millets
ranged from 3-6 minutes. Whereas, it was 9 minutes for pearl millet. Jood (1990)
reported 11.10, 10.95 and 10.99 per cent moisture content of barley whereas
moisture ranged from 10.45-13.40 per cent (Kalra, 1996).
2.1.2 Soybean
Latudne-Dada (1991) assessed the physico-chemical characteristics of ten
varieties of Nigerian soybean. He reported that 1000 seed weight, seed density,
swelling capacity and moisture content ranged from 95-196.3 g, 1.82-2.36 g/cm 2,
99.3 + 197.7 and 10.3-17.14 per cent, respectively.
 7

Boora (1992) observed that 1000 grain weight and grain hardness of 14
soybean varieties varied from 121-217 g and 14.3 kg to 20.9 kg.
Saxena et al. (1994) evaluated that moisture grain weight and grain
hardness of 6 new varieties of soybean. The moisture grain weight and grain
hardness ranged from 9.8-12.7 per cent, 94.3-145.6 g and 13.0-19.8 kg/grain in
horizontal position and 5.6-7.6 kg/grain in vertical position. The colour of
varieties varied from light yellow to golden yellow.
Giami (1997) reported a range of 10-14.6 g for 100-seed weight, 1.15-1.26
g/ml seed density and a cooking time of 55-58 minutes 12 hours after soaking for
three advanced lines of Nigerian soybeans.
Singh (2001a) conducted study on two varieties of soybean and revealed
that moisture, 1000-grain weight, seed-density, hydration capacity, ranged from
8.18-8.61 per cent, 88.60-97.60 g, 1.084-1.107 g/ml, 0.197-0.199 ml/seed.
Cooking time was 80-85 min after 12 h soaking and colour for varieties JS-335
and JS-9041 was pale yellow to greenish yellow. Whereas, Chaudhary (2000)
reported 310.7 minutes cooking time for soybean grains.
Dhingra (2001) reported 6.58 g moisture, 71.70 g 1000 grain weight, 11.27
kg grain hardness, 0.05 ml/seed hydration capacity and light yellow colour for
soybean variety PK-416.
2.1.3 Lentil
Lentils are quicker to cook than the other major pulses in region. Erskine et
al. (1985) evaluated 24 lentil varieties for physical parameters. They found that
the seed weight and cooking time of these cultivars varied from 26.1-69.4 mg and
29.5-45.0 minutes, respectively.
Ereifej and Shibli (1995) found a wide range in seed weight of lentils and
reported 8.5-53.9 g for 1000-seed weight and 95.7-98.3 per cent hydration
capacity for four cultivars of Jordan lentil.
Jood et al. (1998) studied three lentil cultivars for physical parameters and
observed 22-26 mg 100 grain weight, 0.82-0.93 g/ml seed density, 0.019-0.026
ml/seed hydration capacity, 0.018-0.025 ml/seed swelling capacity and 38-43
minutes cooking time.
 8

2.2 Functional properties

Functional properties are physico-chemical properties, which give
information on how a particular ingredient (e.g. protein, carbohydrate) will behave
in a food system, and govern the behaviour of foods during processing. Storage
and preparation as they affect food quality and consumer acceptability (Kinsella,
1976). Functional properties are used as a guideline in product development,
especially in wheat-legume composite flours, where protein are used as major
functional ingredients. They are determined by the molecular composition and
structure of the individual components and their interaction with one another and
are provided not only by the protein of the grains but also by the complex
carbohydrate, pectins and the hemi-cellulose components (Martinez, 1979).
2.2.1 Water and oil absorption
Water absorption plays an important role in the major changes taking place
during cooking and processing of different foods. Binding of water by proteins in
such a manner that it becomes a structurally integral component of food is
important in the production of textured food (Pomeranz, 1985). The hydrophillic
properties of protein are a function of polar groups like amino, carboxyl, hydroxyl
and sulfhydril which are responsible for increased water absorption. Water
absorption capacity is an index of the amount of water retained within a protein
matrix or other system. Information regarding water and oil absorption of
different cereals and pulses has been presented in Table 2.1.
2.2.2 Swelling capacity and flour solubility
Generally, swelling and solubility patterns of flour samples of cereals,
millets and legumes provide information on the nature of starch and protein
molecular held together by the association forces within the grain. Generally it is
expected that flour solubility is greatly influenced by the soluble carbohydrates
and water soluble protein of grain sample. The flour solubility affects other
properties such as emulsification foaming and gelation capacity (Kinsella, 1976).
A range of swelling power of starches isolated from pearl millet at 65 and 95C
was reported to be 2.2-4.1and 14.1-16.1 per cent, respectively (Beleia et al.,
1980). Subramanian et al. (1986) analysed grain sample of twenty pearl millet
 9

cultivars and reported swelling capacity of grain and flour to be 2.2-3.1 and 2.6-
10.0 w/w, respectively. They found highly positive correlation between the flour
solubility values and water soluble protein and starch fraction of millet varieties.
Panwal and Panwar (1989) evaluated the solubility and swelling behaviour
of millet flour and concluded that as the temperature increased the flour solubility
and swelling capacity was also increased. Swelling power (g/g) and flour
solubility (%) of sorghum flour at 95C varied from 2.06-2.54 and 13.9-18.5,
respectively (Subramanian et al., 1994). A study conducted by Elkhalifa and
Singh (1996) revealed that the swelling power and flour solubility of five pearl
millet cultivars was 1.2 (w/w) and 31.1-33.0 per cent. They found no significant
difference in swelling power and flour solubility among different cultivars.
Iyer and Singh (1997) studied the swelling power and flour solubility of
hard and soft wheat at different temperatures and found 6.07 to 9.29 per cent
swelling power in hard wheat and 4.48-10.59 per cent in soft wheat, respectively.
This indicates that the texture of grain would greatly influence these
characteristics. The flour solubility of hard wheat flour was 14.02-15.68% and of
soft wheat was 23.95-27.04 per cent at 65 and 95C, respectively.
Chaudhary (2000) studied swelling power and flour solubility of various
cereal and soy flours. The swelling power and flour solubility was 4.14 and
5.02% for pearl millet grits, 6.22 and 6.37 per cent for maize grits, 3.20 and 11.16
per cent for wheat semolina and 5.27, 17.42% for soy flour, respectively.
Whereas, Malik and Singh (2001) found 1.14-1.15 g/g swelling power and 7.0-8.3
per cent flour solubility for pearl millet hybrids and varieties. According to Singh
(2001b), the swelling capacity of Desi and Kabuli chickpea flours at 65C was
4.70 and 2.67 per cent, respectively. According to Sangwan (2002), the swelling
capacity and flour solubility was 1.89 and 22.67 for wheat, 2.05 and 6.53 for
sorghum and 1.22 g/g and 13.87 per cent in soy flour.
2.2.3 Gel consistency and gelation capacity
Gelation is a two stage process, he first stage involves an initial
denaturation of native protein into unfolded polypeptides and the second stage
involves network formation (Kinsella, 1976). The gelling ability of cereal flours
 10

appear to be a function of the nature and type of protein and starch and interaction
between them (Iyer and Singh, 1997). Formation of gels have useful food
applications because they provide a structural matrix for holding the water and
other food ingredients into desirable forms. Soy protein appears to be involved in
formation and stabilization of an emulsion and the formation of a gel matrix which
hinders the migration of fat to the surface which provides the desirable texture.
Murty et al. (1983) reported gel spread of sorghum flour varied from 59 to
62 mm and concluded that this property of providing a thick gel is a criteria for
good quality porridges.
Panwal and Panwar (1989) reported least gelation concentration of pearl
millet flour to be 14.1 per cent (w/v) whereas the gelation capacity of sorghum
flour was 5.5 per cent (Singh and Singh, 1991).
Gel consistency of hard and soft wheat flour was 61 and 67 mm gel spread,
whereas the gelation capacity was 11.5 and 11.0 per cent, respectively and he
concluded that the gel consistency expressed as gel spread of millets were
remarkably lower than wheat and higher than pulses. The gelation capacity of
soybean flours was found to be 8 per cent (Liu, 1997). The low gelling ability of
cereal and millet flours in comparison to soybean flour might be due to coarse
texture or the presence of large amount of impurities as lipid, denatured protein
and polysaccharides.
The gel consistency of pearl millet hybrids varied from 51.50 to 55.14 mm
gel spread and that of varieties varied from 53.66 to 55.50 mm gel spread (Malik
and Singh, 2001). The gelation capacities was 9.83-10.16 per cent for pearl millet
varieties and 8.66 to 9.70 per cent for pearl millet hybrids. This shows that the
higher concentration of the flour was required to form a gel in case of varieties
compared to hybrids. According to Shrestha and Noomhorm (2001) full fat and
low fat soy flour exhibited 22 and 20 per cent gelation capacity, respectively. The
gel consistency and gelation capacity was found to be 55.88 and 10.16 for pearl
millet grits 55.07 and 8.0 for maize grits, 51.33 and 5.0 for wheat semolina and
16.50 per cent gelation capacity for soyflour. No gel consistency was formed in
case of soy flour (Chaudhary, 2000). According to Singh (2001b), gelation
 11

capacity was 9.5 per cent for partially defatted soy flour, 9.0 per cent for chickpea,
8.5 per cent for pigeonpea and 10.0 per cent for mung bean.
Sangwan (2002) evaluated gelation capacity and gel consistency for wheat.
Sorghum and soyflour and revealed that gelation capacity and gel consistency was
9.38, 63.75 for wheat, 10.17, 65.37 for sorghum and 8.33 per cent and 52.82 mm
gel spread for soy flour, respectively.
2.2.4 Nitrogen solubility index
Among the functional properties of proteins, solubility is probably the most
critical because it affects other properties such as emulsification, foaming and
gelation capacity (Kinsella, 1976).
Singh and Singh (1991) observed 16.1 per cent nitrogen solubility index
(NSI) of sorghum. The NSI at pH 6.0 and 7.0 was 14.57 and 13.98 per cent, in
hard wheat flour and 15.6 and 19.1 per cent in soft wheat flour, respectively (Iyer
and Singh, 1997). According to Mishra and Mukherjee (1992) NSI of soybean
ranged from 23.63 to 35.15 per cent. Sinha and Ali (1993) reported the NSI of
medium fat soy flour containing 5% fat and 49.8 per cent protein was 17.5 per
cent. Whereas Singh et al. (1994) reported 9.5 to 91.7 per cent NSI of soybean
cultivars. Malik and Singh (2001) found 22.69 to 26.03 per cent and NSI of pearl
millet hybrid and varieties. Beleia et al. (1980) observed no relationship between
NSI and flour solubility. The NSI of full fat and low fat soy flour was found to be
17.07 and 29.19 per cent, respectively (Shrestha and Noomhorm, 2001).
Singh (2001b) reported nitrogen solubility index for various grain legumes
raw flour viz. soybean (45.5%), chickpea (51.4-63.7%), pigeonpea (48.0-72.6%),
mung bean (52.0-68.5%) and cowpea (55.6-70.0%).
According to Sangwan (2002), NSI for soybean, wheat and soyflour was
24.59, 37.99 and 20.57 per cent, respectively.
2.2.5 Emulsification capacity
Lin et al. (1974) reported 18% emulsification capacity of soy flour.
Deshpande et al. (1983) studied the functional properties of wheat-bran composite
flours. They reported 45.2% emulsification capacity of wheat flour and found that
the addition of legume flours to wheat flour produced a 12-14% increase in the
 12

emulsifying activity of blends over than of wheat flour in 70:30 wheat-legume

blends. They concluded that emulsions prepared from composite flour blends
were more heat stable than those prepared from wheat flour but this was
statistically non-significant.
Abbey and Ibeh (1987) found that heat processing decreased the
emulsification capacity of brown bean flour at pH of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12. The
emulsification capacity of raw and heat processed brown bean flour was 92 g per g
and 50 g per g, respectively.
Emulsification capacity of sorghum flour and protein was 1.5 and 15.8 g
per g sample (Singh and Singh, 1991). Results from a study by Oshodi (1992) on
adenopus breviflours reveal that emulsification capacity of adenopus breviflours
protein concentrate was the highest; (62.54%) followed by its dehulled full fat
seed flour (35.81%) and whole seed flour (20.46%).
Akpapunam and Darbe (1994) found that bambara groundnut flour and
maize flour had similar emulsification capacities i.e. 27.30 and 27.7 per cent,
respectively. Iyer and Singh (1997) emulsification capacity of hard wheat was
1.30 g pr g flour and 9.79 g per g protein whereas that of soft wheat was 1.38 g/g
protein.
The emulsification capacity of pearl millet hybrids varied from 1.43-1.54
g/g sample flour and that of varieties varied from 1.38-1.63 g/g sample flour
(Malik and Singh, 2001). Chaudhary (2000) reported the emulsification capacity
for maize grits, pearl millet grits, wheat semolina and soyflour was reported as
0.94, 1.02, 1.65 and 2.73 g/g sample four, respectively.
Singh (2001b) reported the emulsification capacity in various grain legume
raw flours viz soybean (28.0-35.60%), dry bean (39.6%), Chickpea (3.1-3.8%),
mung bean (8.6-17.0%), winged bean (25.5%), cowpea (32.0%) and field pea
(14.5-23.0%).
2.2.6 Gelatinization temperature
According to Olkku and Rha (1978), gelatinization of starch granules
involves the following events such as hydration and swelling of starch granules by
several times, loss of birefrigence, increase in clarity, marked rapid increase in
 13

consistency and attainment of peak, dissolution of linear molecules and diffusion

from ruptured granules and retrogradation of mixture to a paste-like mass or gel.
Beleia et al. (1980) reported that the initial gelatinization of pearl millet
starches varied from 59-63C whereas the end point temperature varied from 68-
70C. Rathi (1986) reported the temperature range for initial, mid and final
gelatinization of pearl millet starch 69.7, 74.0 and 77.5C, respectively. Similarly,
Hadimani and Malleshi (1993) reported 73 to 77C gelatinization temperature of
pearl millet starch.
Gelatinization temperature of hard and soft wheat flour was found to be
67.5 and 72C, respectively by Iyer and Singh (1997).
Chaudhary (2000) found 75C gelatinization temperature in pearl millet
quite and 77C in maize grits, 66C in wheat semolina and 75C in safflour,
respectively.
2.3 Nutritional composition
2.3.1 Proximate composition
Legumes are considerably higher in protein than cereal grains whereas,
different cereal grains may contain about 7-14% protein and about 2-5% fat.
Various mature dry legumes contain about 20-40% protein. These compositions
are reflected in the meals and flours derived from legumes (Potter and Hotchkiss,
1996). Soybean and its protein products contain higher amount of quality protein
and are abundantly rich in lysine (Synder and Kwan, 1987).
2.3.1.1 Cereals
The available information regarding proximate composition of staple
cereals has been presented in Table 2.2.
Kumari et al. (1995) reported 12.20 per cent moisture, 12.10 per cent
protein, 1.70 per cent fat, 1.90 per cent fat and 1.90 per cent fibre content in wheat
grains.
14
 15

Poonam (2002) evaluated pearl millet for proximate composition and

revealed that pearl millet grains contained 8.78 per cent moisture, 10.36 per cent
protein, 7.63 per cent fat and 2.03 per cent ash content.
Lovis (2003) evaluated wheat and sorghum grains for proximate parameters
and reported that wheat contained 11.98 per cent protein, 1.66 per cent total lipids,
72.53 per cent carbohydrate by difference method, 2.4 per cent total dietary fibre
and 362 Kcal energy. However, the sorghum had 11.3 per cent protein, 3.3 per
cent total lipids, 74.6 per cent carbohydrate and 339 Kcal energy.
2.3.1.2 Soybean and lentil
Information pertaining to proximate composition of soybean and lentil has
been given in Table 2.3.
Duhan (1994) found that soybean flour of variety PK-472 contained 37.28,
20.15 and 5.06 per cent of protein, fat and ash content.
Bhatty (1995) found 19.5-35.5 per cent protein, 0.603.9 per cent fat, 1.4-5.9
per cent crude fibre, 1.9-5.7 per cent ash and 14.7-19.7 MJKg -1 energy in whole
seed of lentil.
Vasconcelos et al. (1997) co pared five recently released Brazilian soybean
cultivars for proximate analysis and found that all seeds had a high protein content
(136.07-485.4 g/kg flour) and a high fat content (183.0-215.3 g/kg flour).
2.3.2 Carbohydrate profile
2.3.2.1 Cereals
Dietary carbohydrate is an economic source of calories and provides
rapidly available energy for a variety of physiological functions.
Whet contains 70-71 per cent of total carbohydrate (Gopalan et al., 1991;
Ranhotra, 1991). The total sugars and non-reducing sugars of wheat were 208 mg
and 178 mg per 100 g (Sekhon et al., 1980). According to Chawla and Kapoor
(1982) the contents of reducing, non-reducing and total sugar in four varieties of
triticale and wheat were found to vary from 62 to 70 mg maltose/10 g flour, 392 to
468 mg sucrose/10 g flour and 455 to 531 mg maltose/10 g flour, respectively.
Kumari (1995) in her study on wheat and different strains of triticale
determined that the starch, total soluble sugars, reducing sugars and non-reducing
 16

sugar content of wheat were 55.0, 4.37, 0.60 and 3.76 per cent, respectively.
Similar results for total soluble sugars, reducing and non-reducing sugars in wheat
were reported by Hooda (2002). Kumari (2002) reported 60.78 per cent starch,
4.32 per cent total soluble sugar, 0.64 per cent reducing sugar, 3.68 non-reducing
sugar in wheat.
Raghuvanshi et al. (1999) reported 71.17 to 72.57 per cent of total
carbohydrate in four pearl millet cultivars. Malik (1999) also analysed different
pearl millet cultivars for carbohydrate and reported its content to range from 69.48
to 71.38 per cent. It was reported by Hadimani et al. (1995) that starch content
among different varieties of pearl millet ranged from 57.4 to 70.3 per cent.
Abdalla et al. (1998) analysed ten pearl millet genotypes and found 58.70 per cent
starch content. Raghuvanshi et al. (1999) reported 66.40 to 67.81 per cent starch
in four pearl millet cultivars. Aggarwal (1992) and Sharma (1994) also analysed
pearl millet for its carbohydrate content reported concentration of starch to be 66.2
and 63.8 per cent, total sugars to be 1.84 and 1.99 per cent, reducing sugars to be
0.35 to 0.41 per cent and non-reducing sugars to 1.49 and 1.58 per cent,
respectively. Malik (1999) analysed different pearl millet cultivars and total
sugars, reducing and non-reducing sugars were reported in the range of 2.10-2.67,
0.34-0.38 and 1.7-2.2 per cent, respectively.
The carbohydrate content of maize was 66.2 per cent (Gopalan et al., 1995)
whereas it was found to be 81.68 per cent in maize flour by Tchango (1995). He
also reported that the reducing sugar content of maize flour was 1.55 per cent.
Approximately similar i.e. 80.8 per cent of total carbohydrate in maize was
determined by Aminigo and Oguntunde (2000) in their study on functional
properties and nutritive composition of maize as affected by heat treatment.
Kumari (2002) reported 70.39 per cent starch, 4.25 per cent total soluble sugars,
1.64 per cent reducing sugar and 2.61 per cent non reducing sugars for maize.
Sorghum flour contained starch and soluble sugars ranged from 62.8-69.5
and 0.99-1.86 per cent, respectively (Murty et al., 1983). Starch content (58.58%)
was reported by Navas and Garcia (2000). Carbohydrate content of sorghum was
 17

78.7 per cent reported by Iuwoha et al. (1997). Ismail et al. (2000) conducted that
the starch and total sugars of different sorghum cultivars were in the range of
68.32 to 72.33 and 2.44 to 2.70 per cent, respectively.
Jood (1990) reported 4.20, 1.0, 3.20 and 66.40 g/100 g total soluble sugars,
reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and starch content in sorghum flours,
respectively. Darade et al. (1999) observed that the sorghum contained 79.50 to
80.30 per cent carbohydrate, 0.13 to 0.17 per cent reducing sugars and 1.38 to 1.88
per cent non-reducing sugars. Similar observations have also been made by
Chavan and Nagarkar (1988). Sangwan (2002) reported 73.21 per cent
carbohydrate, 70.31 per cent starch, 2.86 per cent total soluble sugar, 0.41 per cent
reducing sugar and 2.45 per cent non-reducing sugars for sorghum.
Hulled and hull-less barley have also been reported to differ in their starch
content. Bhatty and Coworkers (1975) reported 46.9-55.5 per cent and 47.8 to
55.5 per cent starch in hulled and hull-less barley, respectively. On the other hand,
52 to 64 per cent starch in barley was reported by Bengtsson et al. (1990).
Whereas Newsman et al. (1990) and Gopalan et al. (1991) reported higher amount
of starch in barley grains. Hulled barley has been reported to have slightly less
starch content than the hull-less barley (Knuckles et al., 1992); hulled barley
having 61.9 to 64.3 per cent starch while hull-less barley has 64.4 to 66.8 per cent.
Similar range was also reported by Sundberg et al. (1994, 1995) in unprocessed
barley grain. Less amount of starch content in barley (59.75%) was studied by
Kalra (1996). She also observed that concentration of carbohydrates was inversely
related to total dietary fibre. The total soluble sugars, reducing sugars and non-
reducing sugars were 2.42, 0.81 and 1.61 per cent, respectively.
2.3.2.2 Soybean and lentil
The soybean seeds, the soluble reserve carbohydrate consist primarily of
low molecular weight oligosaccharides, particularly sucrose, raffinose and
stachyose. Mature soybean contains very little starch and traces of glucose and
other reducing sugars. Starch is present in substantial amount in immature seeds
and in small amount in mature seeds. Mature soybean were found to be free of
monosaccharide (East et al., 1972) and starch (Ravindran, 1988). Soybean
 18

varieties have been reported to contain 23.26 per cent total carbohydrates, 2.16 per
cent reducing, 2.23 per cent non-reducing and 4.69 per cent total soluble sugars
(Foda et al., 1984). The total soluble sugar content of pulse flours is considerably
higher than cereals (Jood et al., 1998). Grewal (1992) reported 6.13 g/100 g total
soluble sugars, 245 mg/100 g reducing sugars, 5.88 g/100 g non-reducing sugars
and 2.49 g/100 g starch in soybean. Total carbohydrate content of soybean ranged
from 20.0 to 25.0 per cent (Jha and Bargale, 1993; Saxena et al., 1994; Iuwoha et
al., 1997). According to Rawat et al. (1994), defatted soyflour contained 31.4 per
cent carbohydrate, 1.2 per cent reducing sugar and 3.3 per cent non-reducing
sugars. Dogra et al. (2001) reported 21.32 per cent total carbohydrates, 2.58 per
cent reducing sugars, 0.45 per cent non-reducing sugars and 3.55 per cent total
sugars in soybean. Shrestha and Noomhorm (2001) found that full fat and low fat
soy flour contained 29.85 and 30.18 per cent total carbohydrates, 21.0 and 23.81
per cent total sugar and 3.10 and 3.52 per cent reducing sugars, respectively.
Sangwan (2002) concluded that soybean contained 25.37 per cent sugar and 5.71
per cent non-reducing sugar.
Lentil (Lens culnaris Medik) is used primarily as a human food in the form
of soup, whole seed and dhal. Lentil ranks about fifth in the world’s production of
pulses (Singh, 1999). Jood et al. (1998) reported that starch content among three
lentil cultivars named LH 84-8, L 9-12 and LH 82-6 varied from 49.0-65 per cent.
The total soluble sugars, reducing and non-reducing sugars varied from 7.9-8.9 per
cent, 520-620 mg/100 g and 7.4-8.3 per cent, respectively. Similar results for
these sugar contents were reported by Solanki et al. (1999a) and Solanki et al.,
(1999b).
2.3.3 Dietary fibre
2.3.3.1 Cereals

Dietary fibre an important ingredient in food (Spiller, 1986) comprises of a

diverse group of plant substance viz. cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and other
non-starch/non-cellulosic polysaccharides which are of chemical and
morphological complexity and are resistant to the action of enzyme of human GI
 19

tract (Prasad et al., 1995). Cereals and legumes are known to contain an
appreciable amount of fibre which has an important role in human therapeutics
(Slavin, 1987). Kakker (1992) observed reduction in dietary fibre content after
dehusking.
Total dietary fibre content of wheat was 13.51 g/100 g (Southgate, 1978).
On the other hand, Frolich and Hestangen (1983) in their study on dietary fibre
content of different cereal products in Norway showed that whole wheat flour
contained 12.6 per cent of total dietary fibre on wet basis and 14.4 per cent on dry
weight basis whereas Newman et al. (1990) indicated that wheat contained 5.63
per cent total dietary fibre, 4.03 per cent insoluble dietary fibre and 1.60 per cent
soluble dietary fibre in golden variety. The total dietary fibre, soluble dietary fibre
and insoluble dietary fibre content of wheat was found to be 12.48, 2.84 and 9.64
per cent, respectively (Ramulu and Rao, 1997). Whereas Hooda (2002) found
9.02, 3.82 and 5.16 per cent of total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre,
respectively.
Ravindran (1991) compared the total dietary fibre content of millet and
found that it was higher (3.2 to 4.7%) than other cereals except barley. Hadimani
and Malleshi (1993) reported that the total dietary fibre ranged from 9 to 16 per
cent out of which 32 to 50 per cent was soluble dietary fibre. Serna-Saldivar et al.
(1994) found 6.3 and 0.64 per cent insoluble and soluble dietary fibre content in
pearl millet. Ramulu and Rao (1997) suggested 11.33 per cent of total dietary
fibre, 9.14 per cent of insoluble dietary and 2.19 per cent of soluble dietary fibre in
pearl millet.
Maize flour contained 15.0 per cent of total dietary fibre while corn meal
had 4.0 per cent and degermed meal had 10.6 per cent of total dietary fibre
(Salunkhe et al., 1985). In contrast to this study Lorenz and Kulp (1991) reported
9.5 g/100 g of total dietary fibre in corn. Kumari (2002) reported 9.52% total
dietary fibre, 9.04% insoluble dietary fibre and 0.48% soluble dietary fibre in
maize grain.
 20

Ramulu and Rao (1997) evaluated six samples of sorghum for dietary fibre
content and found 7.40-11.66 per cent total dietary fibre, 5.87-10.39 per cent
insoluble dietary fibre and 0.07-2.26 per cent soluble dietary fibre.
Frolich and Hestangen (1983) reported that whole barley grain contained
23.2 and 25.3 per cent of total dietary fibre on wet and dry weight basis,
respectively. Barley flour with 70 per cent extraction had 13.6 and 15.2 per cent
of total dietary fibre content, respectively on wet and dry weight basis. Slightly
less total dietary fibre content i.e. 12.0 g/100 g in whole barley and 12.6 to 15.6
g/100 g in normal hull-less barley was found by Lorenz and Kulp (1991).
Newman et al. (1990) reported that the total, insoluble and soluble dietary
fibre of two hulled or hullless barley ranged from 5.36-8.64, 3.44-4.84 and 1.63-
3.80 per cent, respectively. Kumari (2002) observed that barley grains contained
13.62 total dietary fibre, 3.32 per cent insoluble dietary fibre and 2.74 per cent
soluble dietary fibre, respectively.
2.3.3.2 Soybean and lentil
Southgate and White (1981) reported 11.1 per cent total dietary fibre for
soy flour.
Massina (1999) reported that soybean and lentil contained 0.9 and 4.0 g
dietary fibre. Riaz (2001) found that soybean cell wall contained about 30%
pectin, 50% hemicellulose and 20% cellulose.
Maria et al. (1997) evaluated lentil flour for fibre composition and found
that lentil contained 19.2 per cent total dietary fibre, 17.3 per cent insoluble fibre
and 1.83 per cent soluble dietary fibre, respectively. Ramulu and Rao (1997)
reported that total dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre and soluble dietary fibre of
three samples of lentil varied from 10.05-10.41, 8.21-8.35 and 1.81-2.23 per cent,
respectively.
2.3.4 Total minerals
Some minerals are essential nutrients, as they are components of many
enzyme systems. The husks of the cereal caryopsis rice, barley and rye are rich in
minerals. The kernels of these cereals and those of naked caryopsis also contain
 21

minerals, about 95 per cent of them being the phosphates and sulphates of
potassium, magnesium and calcium (Manay and Shadaksharaswamy, 2001).
2.3.4.1 Cereals
Data regarding to mineral content of different cereal grains have been
depicted in Table 2.4.
Iron and zinc contents (mg/100 g) of barley, wheat, maize and oats were
reported to be 7.92, 2.97, 5.17, 2.83, 4.41, 2.69 and 7.89, 3.01, respectively
(Khizhko et al., 1974).
Jambunathan and Subramanian (1988) found that pearl millet grains had
185-363 mg phosphorus, 13.0-52 mg calcium, 4.0-5.83 mg iron and 1.0-6.6 mg
zinc content per 100 g of sample.
Lovis (2003) evaluated wheat and sorghum for mineral content and
revealed that wheat and sorghum contained 15, 110 mg calcium, 4.41, 4 mg iron
and 97, 287 mg phosphorus, respectively per 100 g of sample.
2.3.4.2 Soybean and lentil
Mineral profile of soybean and lentil reported by several workers is
tabulated in Table 2.5.
Soybean contains appreciable amount of minerals and its mineral profile is
relatively superior to that of other pulses (Kumar and Kapoor, 1984).
Cooking had no significant effect on Mg, Fe and Zn content of legumes
(Borade et al., 1984; Chompreeda and Fields, 1984).
Kumar and Gupta (1984) found that three soybean cultivars had ranged
from 290-320 mg calcium and 11.27-14.21 mg iron per 100 g of sample. Whereas
Kumar and Kapoor (1984) reported 160.80 mg calcium and 11.50 mg iron per 100
g of sample. Bhatty (1985) reported 0.12-1.6 g/kg calcium, 0.7-6.3 g/kg
phosphorus, 54-505 mg/kg iron and 18-330 mg/kg zinc in whole seeds of lentil.
2.3.5 Antinutrients
2.3.5.1 Phytic acid

Phytic acid (Myoinositol dihydrogen phosphate) is widely distributed in

cereal grains and cereal products (Reddy et al., 1982). More than half of the
22
23
 24

phosphorus in cereals is reported to be present in phytate form (Gopalan et al.,

1984) which is not available to the human system. Phytic acid is a powerful
chelating agent for divalent cations and interferes with the mineral availability by
the formation of insoluble phytate-mineral complex (Reddy and Salunkhe, 1980).
It is known to decrease to bioavilability of zinc and other trace elements to humans
and monogatric animals (Haug and Lantzsch, 1983). According to Wise (1983),
the phytate forms more stable complex with zinc followed by calcium, copper,
cobalt and manganese. Varietal differences had significant effect on the content of
phytic acid (Vander Riet et al., 1989).
2.3.5.1.1 Cereals
The phytic acid content in seven varieties of triticale ranged from 1.77 to
1.99 mg/100 g. Kulshrestha and Usha (1992) observed that the values for phytic
acid content of triticale were lower than those of wheat (238 mg/100 g). Phytate
phosphorus in nineteen varieties of wheat varied from 148 to 298 mg/100 g (Hira
et al., 1991) and this constitutes 40-63 per cent of total phosphorus. Kumari
(1995) also determined the phytic acid content in wheat (WH-542) and observed
677.5 mg phytates per 100 g. In contrast to this, a very low amount of phytates
(238.15 mg/100 g) in wheat was found by Hooda (2002). According to Kumari
(2002) phytic acid content of wheat was 628.3 mg/100 g.
Chauhan et al. (1986) reported phytate content ranging from 594-1040
mg/100 g among different pearl millet cultivars. The phytic acid content 620.3 to
857 mg/100 g have been reported by Mahajan and Chauhan (1987), Aggarwal
(1992), Kumar and Chauhan (1993), Rekha (1997), Archana et al. (1998), Malik
(1999) and Poonam (2002).
The phytic acid content of maize was found to be 698 mg/100 g (Jood,
1990). Whereas Tchango (1995) in her study on the nutritive quality of maize-
soybean (70:30) tempe flour detected only 0.34 mg/100 g (DM basis) the phytic
acid content of maize flour. Contrary to this, Aminigo and Oguntunde (2000) in
their study on functional properties and nutritive composition of maize as affected
by heat treatment showed 2.09 mg phytic acid phosphorus per g in raw maize.
 25

Mahgoub and Ethag (1998) reported 246-300 mg/100 g phytic acid in four
cultivars of sorghum
Lolas and Coworkers (1976) reported high phytate content in barley like
other grains. They observed that phytate content of barley ranged from 0.97 to
1.16 per cent. On the other hand, Kalra (1996) in her study on barley varieties
reported that the phytic acid content of three different varieties of barley varied
from640.0 to 920.0 mg/100 g.
2.3.5.1.2 Soybean and lentil
Phytic acid content of three soybean cultivars namely Edgar, Hutton and
Prima were found to be 1.2, 1.6 and 1.7 g/100 g, respectively. Grewal (1992)
reported a phytic acid content of 1573.00 mg/100 g for a raw unprocessed soybean
of variety PK-327 whereas Duhan (1994) reported 1204.00 mg/100 g phytic acid
in soy flour of variety PK-472. Phytic acid content of soybean for the varieties
namely JS-335 and JS-9041was found to be 1545.4 and 1571.7 mg/100 g,
respectively (Singh, 2001a). Sangwan (2002) reported the phytic acid content as
1127.7 mg/100 g for the soybean. Phytic acid content of lentil ranged from 0.02 to
0.14 per cent (D’Appalonia, 1977; Dhindsa et al., 1985; Solanki et al., 1999a).
Sharma (1996) reported the phytic acid content of lentil in three varieties namely
LH 84-8, L 9-12 and LH 82-6 as 1558, 1416 and 1462 mg/100 g, respectively.
2.3.5.2 Polyphenols
Polyphenols naturally occurring in food grains cause a decrease in
digestibility of protein and carbohydrates as a result of insoluble enzyme resistant
complexes (Reddy et al., 1985; Aw and Swansan, 1985). About 50 mg of legume
tannin binds with 1 mg of ionizable iron grain food (Rao and Prabhavathi, 1982).
According to Reddy et al. (1985) tannin content of food legumes ranged from 45
mg/100 g to 2000 mg/100 g. Processing of grains such as dehulling, soaking,
cooking and germination can reduce the antinutritional activity of tannins (Reddy
et al., 1985; Kataria et al., 1989; Grewal, 1992). However, Ologhobo (1989) found
no significant change in tannic index after cooking of soybeans.
 26

2.3.5.2.1 Cereals
The polyphenol content of wheat was found to be 482 mg/100 g (Jood,
1990). Near to this Kumari (1995) also showed 469.6 mg polyphenols per 100 g
(WH-542) variety. Significant (P<0.05) varietal differences were found in the
polyphenol contents of wheat. In nineteen varieties of wheat, the polyphenol
content ranged from 225 to 337 mg/100 g with an average value of 274  37
mg/100 g (Hira et al., 1991). Sangwan (2002) reported 320.4 mg and Kumari
(2002) found 46.6 mg/100 g polyphenols in wheat).
In pearl millet 608 to 788 mg/100 g of polyphenol has been reported by
various workers (Mahajan, 1986; Alpana, 1989; Khetarpaul and Chauhan, 1991;
Sharma, 1994).
Among other cereals, barley has been reported to contain low level of
polyphenols i.e. less than 0.1 per cent by weight (Truelsen, 1984; Bhatty, 1986).
The polyphenol content of barley was also found between 520.0 to 630.0
mg/100 g (Kalra, 1996). Similarly, Kumari (2002) also found 507.2 mg/100 g
polyphenol in barley.
Polyphenol content in sorghum flour has been reported to be 829 mg/100 g
(Jood, 1990) whereas Nair (1980) found wide range in polyphenol contents of
sorghum flour i.e. 10-2056 mg/100 g. Tannin contents of various sorghum
genotypes was reported in the range of 48 to 336 mg/100 g (Dhingra et al., 1992).
Darada et al. (1999) found only 0.12 to 0.18 per cent total polyphenols in
sorghum.
2.3.5.2.2 Soybean and lentil
According to Grewal (1992), dry mature soybean had 0.3 per cent
polyphenols and Saxena et al. (1994) reported 575.720 mg/100 g total phenols in
soybean. Sangle et al. (1993) studied varietal differences in tannin content of
soybeans and found that cultivars J S 81-608, JS 81-303, JS-79-277 and SH-84-14
contained tannin content of 0.188, 0.190, 0.406 and 0.250 per cent, respectively.
Singh (2001a) reported 323.24 and 358.87 mg/100 g polyphenols content in the
soybean. Cultivars namely JS-335 and JS-9041, respectively. Sharma et al.
(1996) found 783-837 mg/100 g polyphenols in three lentil cultivars. Similar
 27

results were also reported by Dhindsa et al. (1985) and Singh and Mehta (1992).
Raghuvanshi and Bhattacharya (1999) reported that tannin content of lentil ranged
from 384.6-769.2 mg/100 g.
2.3.5.3 Trypsin inhibitors
Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors are widely distributed in plant
kingdom. They have the ability to inhibit the trypsin activity of the stomach.
Trypsin inhibitors are the characteristic constituent of legume grains known
to affect the digestibility and protein quality of legumes. Gallardo et al. (1974)
compared trypsin inhibitor activity of raw and processed seeds of field beans,
broad beans, peas, lentils, chickpea and soybeans and found that soybeans had
highest TIA. Grewal (1992) reported TIA in soybean variety PK-327 to be 2370
units/g in raw unprocessed soybean. The TIA expressed as 103 units/g in varieties
JS-81-608, JS-81-303, JS-79-277 and SH-84-14 was reported to contain TIU
5.36, 4.89, 5.69 and 4.75, respectively within an average of 5.17 x 10 3 units/g TIA
(Sangle et al., 1993). Duhan (1994) reported 316.00 TIU/g of soy flour (variety
PK-472) on dry matter basis. Saxena et al. (1994) studied comparison of six new
varieties of soybean and reported 21.2 to 25.2 TIU/mg of soybeans. Singh (2001a)
reported TIA in two soybean cultivars varied from 4234-4659.5 TIU/g.
Trypsin inhibitor activity of lentil, Navy bean and Pinto bean varied from
3.94-14.84 mg/g. It was lowest for lentil and was highest for Navy bean
(Bahnassey et al., 1986). Whereas chickpea varieties contained 1502-1640 units
of TIA/g sample (Punia and Chauhan, 1993).
Trypsin inhibitor activity in 33 varieties of wheat varied from 236 to 355
TIU/g (Duhan et al., 1986). In contrast to these results, Kumari (1995) reported a
very high amount of trypsin inhibitor activity (432.6 TIU/g). According to
Kumari (2002), wheat, barley and maize grains contained 426.6, 384.6 and 412.2
units/g, respectively.
2.3.6 In vitro digestibilities
2.3.6.1 Protein digestibility (in vitro)
Protein digestibility is defined as percentage of protein absorbed after
ingesting a certain amount of protein by humans or animals. Thus, protein
 28

digestibility is a major index of protein quality (Anonymous, 1973). Legumes are

known to have a low protein digestibility. Variation in the protein digestibility of
legume grains has been observed not only among species but also among varieties
of some species (Gupta, 1987). The low digestibility of soybean is often attributed
to antinutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, tannin, haemagglutins and
phytic acid (Feng et al., 1991). the nutritional quality of cereals is determined not
only by their protein and energy contents and amino acid composition but it also
depends upon the digestibility of protein and the bioavailability of amino acids.
Cooking and heat treatments have been known to increase the in vitro protein
digestibility (Gupta,1994).
Protein digestibility of wheat was 72.92 per cent (Jood and Kapoor, 1992).
On the other hand, Mouliswar et al. (1993) reported lower protein digestibility (in
vitro) i.e. 66 per cent in wheat. A study on wheat and different strains of triticale
showed that in vitro protein digestibility of wheat was 69.8 (Kumari, 1995). A
slight less i.e. 67.69 per cent of in vitro protein digestibility for wheat have been
reported by Hooda (2002). Whereas 70.83 per cent and 71.80 per cent in vitro
protein digestibility wheat has been found (Sangwan, 2002).
A higher protein digestibility in pearl millet ( in vitro) ranging from 85 to
87 per cent was reported by Ejeta et al. (1987). Kumar and Chauhan (1993) and
Sharma and Kapoor (1997) estimated protein digestibilities (in vitro) of pearl
millet as 54.2 and 52.6 per cent, respectively. In vitro protein digestibility of pearl
millet have been reported to be 52.60 (Sharma, 1994), 80.40 (Palande et al., 1996),
47.10 (Chaturvedi and Sarojini, 1996) and 55.73 g/100 g (Poonam, 2002).
According to Jood and Kapoor (1992), protein digestibility (in vitro) of
maize was 70.96 per cent. On the other hand, a lower in vitro protein digestibility
(62%) in raw maize was reported by Mouliswar et al. (1993). According to Gupta
(1987) normal maize had higher protein digestibility (81.02%) than the protein
digestibility of opaque one (73.54%). In contrast to the results of all these
findings, a very high in vitro protein digestibility (88.16%) in maize flour was
determined by Tchango (1995).
 29

Hassan and Tinay (1995) determined the in vitro protein digestibility of two
cultivars of sorghum and found 60.78-70.70% in Solfra and cross 35:18,
respectively. On the other hand Agrawal and Chitnis (1995) reported only 27.58-
51.98 per cent in vitro protein digestibility among four Tannin containing cultivars
of sorghum whereas higher protein digestibility (72.31-84.88%) was found in
tannin less varieties. Sangwan (2002) found 62.49 per cent (in vitro) protein
digestibility from sorghum.
The in vitro protein digestibility of three varieties of barley was found to be
62.25 to 63.20 per cent (Kalra, 1996). A negative correlation between protein
digestibility (in vitro) and tannins content of Swedish barley was also reported
(Gahl and Thamke, 1976) but this did not prove any deleterious effect of tannins.
The protein digestibility of raw soybean variety PK 327 was found to be 54
per cent (Grewal, 1992) whereas Sangle et al. (1993) reported wide variation in
the in vitro protein digestibility of soybean. They reported 33.50, 62.97, 72.71 and
55.23 per cent in in vitro digestibility of soybean cultivars JS-81-608, JS-81-303,
Js-79-277 and SH-84-14, respectively. Increase in protein digestibility after
processing and a negative correlation has been reported between the dietary fibre
content, antinutritional factors and the in vitro protein and starch digestibility
(Singh and Jambunathan, 1981; Eyre, 1985; Lathia and Koch, 1989, Grewal,
1992). In vitro protein digestibility of 50.23 and 56.63 per cent for JS-9041 and
JS-335 (Singh, 2001a) and 59.39 per cent (Sangwan, 2002) has been reported.
In vitro protein digestibility of three cultivars of lentil namely LH 84-8, L
9-12 and LH 82-6 was 45.0, 40.0 and 48.0 per cent, respectively (Jood et al.,
1998). On the other hand, Sanz et al. (2001) reported a very high in vitro protein
digestibility (92.39 per cent at 6.38 pH) for extruded flour of lentil.
2.3.6.2 In vitro starch digestibility
2.3.6.2.1 Cereals
The digestibility of starch is limited by the cell wall structural features and
antinutrients such as amylase inhibitors, phytates and tannins (Yadav and
Khetarpaul, 1994). The in vitro starch digestibility of legume is less compared to
cereal starch (Calyean et al., 1978).
 30

In the beginning of 1980s, it was clear that different starchy foods are
digested at different rates (O’Dea et al., 1981). Food processing causes
modification of starch (Brand et al., 1985) and alter its physico-chemical
properties such as hydration of granules, chemical nature (Snow and O’Deak,
1981) and consequently can alter carbohydrate digestibility (Ross et al., 1987).
Starch digestibility of different cereals varies. It was found to be 31.62 mg
(Jood and Kapoor, 1992), 28.9 mg (Kumari, 1995), and 30.77 mg maltose
released/g of wheat sample (Hooda, 2002). Starch digestibility ( in vitro) of three
different varieties of barley ranged from 22.25 to 24.25 mg maltose released/g
(Kalra, 1996) whereas it was 51.30 mg maltose released/g raw rice sample
(Sharma, 1994). 40.26 mg maltose released/g maize (Jood and Kapoor, 1992).
On the other hand, 32.87 mg maltose released/g in vitro starch digestibility of
maize (Kumari, 2002), and 36.95 and 33.67 mg maltose released/g in vitro starch
digestibility of sorghum (Jood, 1990; Sangwan, 2002) have been reported.
In vitro starch digestibility (mg maltose released/g) of pearl millet has been
reported to be 13.0 (Sharma, 1994), 15.7 (Chowdhary, 1993), 15.93 (Palande et
al., 1996) and 18.7 (Aggarwal, 1992).
Low digestibilities ( in vitro) of starch and protein in pearl millet have been
attributed to the presence of antinutrients in grains. Phytic acid, polyphenols
either by binding with protein (Loonis, 1969) or by reacting with it (Bressani and
Elias, 1980) or by forming the insoluble complexes with amylase and alpha
glucosidase (Watson et al., 1975) or by inhibiting the digestive enzymes specially
trypsin and amylase (Singh, 1984a) limit the protein and starch digestibility
(Pawar and Parlikar, 1990).
In vitro starch digestibility of two cultivars of soybean was estimated 10.80
to 12.00 mg maltose releasead/g (Singh, 2001a) whereas Sangwan (2002)
reported mg maltose released/g per cent in vitro starch digestibility of soy flour.
Jood et al. (1998) observed 29.0, 22.0 and 32.0 mg maltose released/g in vitro
starch digestibility of three lentil cultivars namely LH 84-8, L 9-12 and LH 82-6,
respectively.
 31

2.4 Sensory attributes and physical characteristics of value added

baked and extruded products

2.4.1 Baked products

2.4.1.1 Chapati
Supplementation of legume flour with cereal flour has been known to
improve the nutritional value of mixtures and product (Juneja et al., 1980; Del
Angel and Sotelo, 1982; Valencia et al., 1988; Almeida Dominguz et al., 1990).
Legumes have received great attention as a rich source of protein and focussed on
ways to increase their utilization in human nutrition. Baked and pasta products
seemed to be one of the most economical methods.
In India, major part of wheat is consumed in the form of chapati. Good
physical grain characteristics such as colour, lusture and size and finally good
chapati making characteristics (Hanslas, 1994) are considered important by the
Indian consumer (Bhatnagar et al., 2002).
Popli and Dhindsa (1980) found that wheat varieties WH-147. WH-
157,WH-711 and Kelyan Sona are good for chapati making whereas, C-306 and
Sonalika are suitable for both chapati and biscuits.
Bakshi and Bains (1987) concluded that locations significantly affect the
puffing, dough handling flour texture, taste, protein and water absorption.
Jayalakshmi and Neelakantan (1987) reported that soya flour could be
blended with sorghum flour only upto 30% level in the preparation of acceptable
roti.
Grewal (1992) and Duhan (1994) found that chapati supplemented with soy
flour upto 35% were liked moderately to liked very much in terms of all sensory
characteristics.
Vimla et al. (1996) made Roti using flour of four national and seven
international varieties of sorghum and found that except texture the chapatis were
acceptable.
Wheat varieties (C-306, K-68, HD-2745 and Hd-2735) having good
chapati making quality and Sonalika with poor chapati making quality were
compared for the distribution of glutenin genes. Genomic DNA of wheat varieties
 32

was hybridized with HMW glutenin and found that no hybridized with HMW
glutenin and found that no hybridization was observed in Sonalika but a single
band of ~ 650bp was obtained in all the good chapati characteristics wheat
varieties (Bhatnagar et al., 2002).
2.4.1.2 Breads
Bread is traditionally made from wheat flour and other flour of rye, barley,
sorghum and maize have been used in combination with wheat flour for bread
making in various parts of the world (Rao and Rao, 1997).
Storage protein, ‘gluten’ of wheat plays an important role in determining
rheological properties of wheat dough. It determines the suitability of the grain for
different food processing technologies like bread, biscuits and chapati (unleavened
bread) making etc. (Sewry and Lazzeri, 1997). Addition of soybean not only
produce whiter bread but also add to the protein content of the bread. Soy flour
could profitable be used in bread-making in small baking unit also (Mishra et al.,
1991).
Repetsky and Klein (1981) found that loaf volume of bread decreased as
the level of legume was increased. Breads containing 5 and 10 per cent legume
flour showed a whiter crumb colour compared to the control loaf.
Selvaraj and Shurpalekar (1982) found that higher level of defatted soy
flour in wheat flour adversely affect the loaf volume, crust colour and crumb
characteristics. Loaf volume decreased from 640 cc for refined wheat flour to 440
cc at 16% blending with soy flour. They concluded that addition of soy flour upto
10% produced good quality breads.
Physical and sensory characteristics of bread prepared form 5, 10 and 15%
supplementation of soy flour were studied by Raidl and Klein (1983). They
observed that crust colour and crumb colour score increased with increasing level
of soy flours. Odour and taste was better at 5% level and loaf volume
progressively decreased with increasing level of soy flour. Gayle et al. (1986)
showed a positive correlation between appearance and eating quality (overall
acceptability) of breads substituted with 5, 10 and 25% pigeonpea flour.
 33

Adsule et al. (1985) studied some varieties of wheat for bread

characteristics and showed that total and specific loaf volume of breads ranged
from 570-690 ml and 1.63-1.77 cc/g. Bhatty (1986) supplemented barley flour to
wheat flour at different level and showed a decrease in loaf volume at different
level and showed a decrease in loaf volume from 845 cc to 545 cc at 25% blending
with barley flour. He suggested that 5% or possibly 10% barley flour can be
added to wheat flour without seriously affecting the loaf volume and bread
appearance. The loaf volume decreased progressively with increased level of corn
flour supplementation (Akobundu et al., 1988).
Rao and Rao (1997) also found increase in loaf volume from 535 ml to 420
and 375 for blends containing 20% of 75 and 85 per cent extraction rate sorghum
flours, respectively. The specific loaf volume also decreased but the crust colour
and shape of the breads were unaffected. The colour of the crumb changed from
creamish to dull brown.
Knuckles et al. (1997) produced breads by substituting 5, 20 and 40%
barley flour and reported that replacement upto 20% was judged acceptable,
though loaf volume was reduced and colour was slightly darker than control
breads. Carson et al. (2000) studied the sensory characteristics of bread made
from 50% sorghum based composite flour and found slight sourness and
astringency in the crumb and top crust flavours. The overall acceptability score
was 6.9 in the sorghum based composite breads.
Sharma (2000) prepared breads from various wheat varieties and reported
150-155.8 loaf weight, 400-460 cc loaf volume and 2.63-3.05 cc/g specific loaf
volume.
Gupta (2001) supplemented @ 10, 20 and 30 per cent lentil flour in bread
reported that as the supplementation level increased loaf weight was increased but
loaf volume and specific loaf volume was decreased. All breads were moderately
liked in terms of sensory characteristics.
Sharma and Chauhan (2002) made bread and cookies supplemented with
fenugreek and stabilized rice bran. They concluded that fenugreek rice bran blend
could be used in breadmaking upto a level of 10 per cent without affecting sensory
 34

quality adversely. Whereas, 50 per cent fenugreek rice bran blends was observed
to be optimum level to obtain satisfactory cookies. Physical characteristics of
control bread had showed the bread loaf volume (525 ml) and loaf specific volume
(3.80) ml.
2.4.1.3 Biscuits
Among the ready-to-eat snacks, biscuits possess several attractive features
including wider consumption base, relatively long shelf life and good eating
quality. Good eating quality make biscuits attractive for protein fortification and
other nutritional improvements, particularly for children feeding programmes, the
elderly and low-income groups (Singh et al., 1993).
Corn germ flour could replace upto 48% of wheat flour in biscuits without
detrimental effect on texture and flavour (Tsen and Webber, 1977). The protein
rich biscuits of acceptable quality were prepared by Rao et al. (1984) by using
jowar, soybean and skim milk in 60:30:10 proportions and found very much
acceptable.
The colour score of various legume flour supplemented biscuits did not
differ much (Patel and Rao, 1996; Sharma et al., 1999; Gupta, 2001).
Vaidehi et al. (1985) also studied sensory properties of biscuits prepared
from different composite flours containing 15% pulse, 25% ragi and 60% maida
and 15% pulse, 25% wheat and 60% maida. The overall eating quality of biscuits
of all blends was acceptable. Ragi blends had darker colour and had more spread
factor in comparison to pulse blends. Specific volume was not affected.
Onweluzo et al. (1998) developed biscuits from different blends of wheat-
soy and cassava soy flours. They found higher (1.8) spread ratio and (1.8 kg)
break strength of control biscuits but the cassava soybean biscuits had 1.7 kg of
control biscuits but the cassava soybean biscuits had 1.7 kg break strength but had
half the spread ratio than control.
Gupta (2001) developed biscuits fortified with lentil fo9ur at the
supplementation level of 10, 20 and 30 per cent and found that as the
supplementation level was increased , thickness of biscuits was increased but
 35

width and spread ratio decreased. All the biscuits upto 30% level were liked
moderately in terms of all sensory characteristics.
Elkhalifa and Tinay (2002) added 10, 20 and 30% sorghum flour to wheat
flour with or without cystein for preparation of biscuits. Results showed that a
high quality biscuit can be prepared by addition of 20 per cent sorghum flour and
cystein (60 ppm) per 100 g flour of wheat.
Sangwan (2002) prepared composite flour biscuits (wheat-soya-sorghum
flour) which were acceptable in terms of colour, texture, taste.
McWatters et al. (2003) developed sugar cookies containing mixtures of
wheat, Fanio and cowpea flour and reported that with 50% fanio/50% cowpea
blend were heaviest and 75% fonio and 25% cowpea showed the lowest spread
ratio. Sensory attributes of appearance, colour and texture of cookies were not
affected by the component flour. Cookies made with 100% wheat or 50% fanio
received the highest hedonic rating for flavour and overall acceptability.
2.4.1.4 Cake
Glover et al. (1986) reported that high ratio cakes from composite flours of
hard red winter wheat and grain sorghum. It was found that sorghum lipids did
not display the same functionality as lipid of wheat. The low concentration of
glycolipids found in sorghum might be an explanation. Water soluble did not
seem to be a major importance. When sorghum water solubles replaced these of
wheat, there was a barely detechable decrease in cake texture, fineness, but no
detrimental effect on volume.
Chaudhary and Weber (1990) prepared muffins using barley and wheat
flour and noted 36.8 ml volume, 3.2 cm height and 4.76 per cent moisture in
muffins prepared using wheat flour whereas muffins prepared with four barley
isotypes had 33.8-35.8 ml volume, 2.8-3.5 cm height and 43.7-45.7% moisture.
In cakes, soy fortified flour can be incorporated to reduce egg or milk
usage, improve moisture retention and aid in formulating low-cholesterol products.
Usage of defatted soy flour at 3-6 per cent in cakes produces smoother batter with
more uniform textures and softer and more tender crumbs (Lucas and Riaz, 1995).
 36

Because of their capacity to improve moisture retention. Soya products have also
been used in cakes to improve microavailability of minerals (Mcward, 1995).
Singh (2001a) developed acceptable cake of better nutritional quality using
10 and 20% okara powder and found that volume (cc) and volume index (cm)
decreased as the supplementation level increased.
Singh (2003) found that cakes were liked moderately in terms of all
sensory characteristics using wheat, pearl millet and soya flour.
2.4.2 Extruded products
The popularity of extruded products can be attributed to its sensory appearl,
versatility, low cost, ease of preparation, nutritional content as well as increased
consumer interest in ethnic foods (Cole, 1991). Addition of soy protein and other
legumes to extruded products has been studied for making products with improved
nutritional value. Almeida Dominquz et al. (1990) and cook and Welsch (1987)
reported that pasta products are good sources of complex carbohydrate and a
moderate source of protein.
Sensory characteristics of noodles and spaghetti prepared from hard red
spring wheat flour fortified with 33% pea flour or 20% air classified pea protein
concentrate were studied by Nielson et al. (1980). They observed that colour,
flavour and texture of the fortified pasta were more better as compared at 100%
addition of soy protein isolate to rice increased the surface smoothness of
extrudates.
Bahnassey and Khan (1986) incorporated 0.5, 10, 15 and 25% roasted or
raw legume flour into durum wheat semolina and showed increase in firmness
scores of spaghetti supplemented with upto 10% of legume flour was acceptable
for all parameters tested/appearance, colour, mouthfeel and acceptability but a
difference in mouthfeel and beany taste was detected with further increase in
legume flour.
Hagan et al. (1986) studied the texturization of coprecipitated soybean and
peanut proteins by twin scores extrusion. They found that bulk density was very
low (257 g/litre) for textured peanut concentrate and was highest for soy
concentrate (447-456 kg)/litre).
 37

Chompreeda et al. (1988) prepared Chinese type noodles from wheat flour
fortified with 7 to 21% defatted peanut and 4-12 per cent cowpea flours and
concluded that acceptable Chinese type noodles could be prepared from wheat
flour fortified with 8% cowpea flour.
Siwawej (1990) developed vermicelli from sorghum and soya and reported
that the incorporation of 10, 20 or 30% soybean flour gave products of acceptable
colour, flavour and texture as assessed by 50 untrained panelists.
Patil et al. (1990) studied the effect of processing conditions on extrusion of
soy-rice (30:70) blend with dry extrusion cooker and observed that bulk density
increased with increase in moisture content in all the treatments.
Camire et al. (1991) reported that bulk densities of extruded mixtures of
corn meal and cottonseed flour in the range of 33.43-108.93 kg/m 3. They found
that bulk density increased with water content and decreased with higher levels of
cottonseed flour and temperature.
Badrie and Mellolwes (1992) found that the addition of soybean flour/oil
made the extrudates more yellow and dark. Tabitha et al. (1992) concluded that
RTE extruded products made from composite flour using jowar, wheat flour,
roasted bengal gram dhal, green gram dhal, groundnuts, skimmed milk powder
and jaggery were acceptable to children.
Park et al. (1993) prepared high protein texturized products of defatted soy
flour corn starch and beef. They found higher bulk density for high beef high fat
as compared to low fat products. On the other hand, low-beef-low fat product was
higher in bulk density than the high beef low fat product. Jin et al. (1994) carried
out the extrusion cooking of corn meal with soy fibre, salt and sugar. They found
that increase in fibre, sugar and salt content resulted an increase in bulk density.
Siwawej (1994) prepared macronis from millet and wheat using different ratios
and found that 25:75 ratio millet to wheat was best combination. The millet
macaroni met industrial institute standards and was well accepted.
Devi and Khader (1997) prepared traditional vermicelli from maida by
replacing 25% maida with pulse flour. The sample blended with pulse showed
increased water uptake, weight gain after cooking and increased cooking time.
 38

Black gram and green gram dhal powders blended well, while bengal gram dhal
flour showed the least tendency to blend.
Song-Hwan (1998) studied effects of addition of various grades of soybean
protein isolate (SPI) (upto 20%) to wheat flour on noodle properties.
Inclusion of extruded pearl millet and sorghum (60% each) with toasted
mung beans (30% and non fat dried milk 10%) increased the dietary fibre content
and extrusion cooking also enhanced the in vitro protein digestibility of foods
(Malleshi et al., 1996).
Adesina et al. (1998) prepared maize-soy based RTE snack food. They
observed that bulk density increased with increased content of soy in maize.
Singh et al. (2000) prepared extruded snacks from composite of rice brans
and wheat bran. They found that product containing 15 per cent bran had
minimum density of 0.99 g/cm3 and further increase in ban resulted in higher
density.
Archana (2001) prepared pasta from pearl millet flour in combination with
fenugreek flour and showed that pasta with fenugreek upto 20% was moderately
acceptable.
Garg (2001) developed noodles from wheat flour blended with mung bean,
chickpea or pea flour and found that the products were acceptable and nutritionally
better as compared to control wheat flour.
Hooda (2002) added fenugreek upto 10% in noodles and macaroni and
products were liked slightly to liked moderately in terms of all sensory parameters.
Kumari (2002) made macroni from three cereal grains i.e. wheat, barley
and corn and their mixtures with 10 per cent defatted soy flour (DFS). All
macronis were liked moderately to liked very much in terms of colour, texture,
flavour, taste and overall acceptability.
2.5 Nutritional evaluation of baked and extruded products
Supplementation of wheat flour with non-wheat flour protein resulted in
increase in protein content and improved amino acid profile particularly increased
lysine content of baked and extruded products. As good source of protein,
carbohydrate, several water soluble vitamins and minerals, legumes in general,
 39

make a major contribution to human nutrition (Sanz et al., 2001). On the other
hand, cereals are the cheapest source of food energy and contribute a high
percentage of calories and proteins in daily diet of our population. Every cereals
with the combination of soy and other pulses viz. lentil, moongbean, chickpea,
pigeonpea, cowpea or alone have their own specific functional or nutritional
quality (Singh, 2001).
2.3.1 Baked products
Bhat and Vivian (1980) found that incorporation of soy flour at 10 or 20 per
cent increased the protein content of chapati by 17 and 38 per cent, respectively.
Incorporation of defatted soy flour in wheat flour has been reported to balance the
amino acid pattern of chapatis without affecting its acceptability characteristics
(Ebler and Walker, 1983; Lindwell and Walker, 1984).
Bankar et al. (1989) prepared roti from sorghum-legume. They concluded
that nutritional quality of roti improved with the supplementation. Protein, fibre
and ash content of chapai increased from 8.15-17.66, 0.80-2.35, 1.55 to 2.85 per
cent, respectively. Chaudhary and Weber (1990) evaluated composition and
characteristics of bread containing 15 per cent (Flour basis) of various fibre
ingredients and reported that bead prepared with barley bran flour contained
38.9% moisture, 8.9 per cent total dietary fibre, 208 Kcal energy and 9.58 per cent
protein content, whereas bread prepared with soy bran contained 40.4% moisture,
8.7% TDF, 200 Kcal energy and 9.06 per cent protein content.
Mishra et al. (1991) evaluated proximate composition and mineral content
of soy blends with two cultivars of wheat and revealed that absorption of soy
flour improved the protein, ash, crude fibre, calcium and phosphorus.
According to Rawat et al. (1994), soy fortified chapati contained 28.8 per
cent higher protein than whole wheat chapati and calcium, phosphorus and iron
content was also higher in soy fortified chapati.
Duhan (1994) also found that the protein, fat, ash, calcium, zinc and iron
content of soy supplemented chapati was significantly higher than control.
Soy flour can be added at high levels (5-20%) in baked products to
significantly improve their nutritional value and, at the same time, extend shelf life
 40

without adversely affecting spread ratio, loaf volume or other sensory attributes
(Riaz, 1999). Improvement in protein content of buns from 11.01 to 18.89 per
cent with addition of soy flour was found (Indrani et al., 1997).
Geervani et al. (1996) developed protein rich biscuits using blends of
sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, chickpeas and green gram. Among the
combinations tested, the sorghum-chickpea combinations had significantly higher
digestibility of protein.
Serna et al. (1999) reported that nutritional value of table bread fortified
with 8% defatted soybean meal (DSBM/4 per cent defatted sesame meal (DSM)
was assessed with in vivo and in vitro tests. Fortification with DSBM and DSM
decreased protein digestibility but improved essential amino acid scores and
overall nutritional value of the breads. Fortified breads contained twice as much
lysine and consequently a better protein efficiency ratio (PER) than the control
bread.
Agte et al. (1999) reported that the total iron content of wheat and 10 per
cent sorghum supplemented bread was 4.76 and 3.86 mg/100 g, respectively.
They also observed that total zinc content of wheat and 10 per cent sorghum
supplemented bread was 2.2 and 1.6 mg/100 g. Riaz (1999) reported that the
protein content and the essential amino acids increased in the soy flour
supplemented breads.
The wheat flour contained 0.850 millimoles of phytic acid while chapati,
parantha and poori contained 0.774, 0.772 and 0.710 millimoles of phytic acid,
respectively resulting in a reduction in phytin phosphorus content (Grewal et al.,
1999). This reduction in phytic phosphorus content might be due to its
breakdown on baking.
AL-Kanhal et al. (1999) assessed the nutritive value of 9 Saudi breads
prepared from wheat, millet and maize. On fresh weight basis, the bread
contained 26.4-44.7 per cent moisture, 6.6-10.4 per cent protein, 0.4-2.4 per cent
fat, 40.2-60.6 per cent available carbohydrates, 1.8-5.7 per cent dietary fibre, 0.6-
2.4 per cent ash and 190-273 Kcal (metabolizable)/100 g. All the breads were low
in Ca (2.2-12.5 mg/100 g), phosphorus ranged from 41.9-320.8, iron 1.6-7.8
 41

mg/100 g. The bread contributed 12-18, 2-8 and 77-84% of the total food energy
from protein, fat and carbohydrates, respectively, wheat bread (355 g/head/day)
provided 45 and 61% of energy and protein requirement, respectively, wheat bread
(355 g/head/day) provided 45 and 61% of energy and protein requirement,
respectively at national level per person per day.
Singh et al. (2000) observed that addition of 20 per cent defatted soy flour
in the recipe increased the protein, ash, crude fibre, calcium, phosphorus, iron,
sugar (reducing and non-reducing) and available lysine content of biscuits. The
increase in in vitro protein and starch digestibility in biscuit as compared to
composite flours was observed which could be attributed to decrease in
antinutrient during baking.
The in vitro starch digestibility of substituted biscuits decrease regularly
with increase in the level of supplementation of legume flours in wheat flour
(Gupta, 2001). In vitro starch digestibility of pulse flour was lower as compared
to wheat flour Bishnoi and Khetarpaul, 1993; Jood et al., 1998; Alonso et al.,
2000) resulting in the progressive reduction of in vitro starch digestibility in the
biscuits of wheat flour and legume flour blends.
Sharma and Chauhan (2002) developed bread and cookies supplemented
with fenugreek and stabilized rice bran. The nutritional evaluation showed that
breads contained 4.24 total dietary fibre, 1.70 soluble dietary fibre and l2.54 per
cent insoluble dietary and 8.10 per cent protein. Cookies had 6.55 per cent
protein, and total dietary fibre, soluble dietary fibre and insoluble dietary fibre was
2.00, 0.70 and 1.23, respectively.
2.5.2 Extruded products
Morad et al. (1980) produced macroni from wheat blended with 0, 2, 4 and
6% of the high protein, low starch flours of lupin and defatted soybean,
respectively. Sopps macroni had 8.9 per cent moisture and 5.00 per cent (DM
basis) of dietary fibre. Sopps whole wheat macroni contained 8.1 per cent
moisture and 11.8 per cent (DM) of dietary fibre. Spaghetti had 8.7 per cent
moisture and 10.7 per cent (DM) of dietary fibre (Frolich and Hestangen, 1983)
Todorova et al. (1990) prepared seven instant cereal products from wheat flour,
 42

wheat ban, wheat starch, semolina, rice flour, oat flour, soy flour and dried egg
powder. They found highest essential amino acids in products containing soy
flour. Youssef et al. (1990) standardized sixteen (16) recipes to develop new
extruded products from sorghum grain and its flour and observed that extruded
products – I (45% maize, 45% sorghum, 10% defatted soy flour and 10% sucrose)
had 7.4 per cent moisture, 12.8 per cent protein, 2.2 per cent fat, 1.3 per cent ash
and 83.6 per cent of total carbohydrates. Extruded product – II (45% rice, 45%
sorghum, 10% DSF and 10% sucrose) had 6.9 per cent moisture, 12.5 per cent
protein, 1.9 per cent fat, 1.3 per cent ash and 82.7 per cent of total carbohydrates.
Extruded product – III (wheat 45%, sorghum 45%, DSF 10% and sucrose 10%)
had 7.6 per cent moisture, 13.7 per cent protein, 1.5 per cent fat, 1.0 per cent ash
and 83.2 per cent of total carbohydrate. Camire and King (1991) incorporated soy
fibre and soy protein isolate in direct expanded extruded snacks to enhance protein
and fibre content.
Adesina et al. (1998) observed that incorporation of soy flour to maize flour
at 15 per cent level increased the protein content by about 10 per cent.
The nutritional quality of extruded rice, ragi and defatted soy flour blends
was also assessed by Dublish et al. (1988). They found that extruded rice had no
trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA); rice with 15 per cent defatted soy flour had 1.9
TIU/g and rice with 30 per cent defatted soy flour (DSF) had 3.9 TIU/g).
Kumari (2002) developed macroni by using wheat, barley or maize alone
and their blends with defatted soy flour (DSF) and revealed that supplementation
of 10 per cent defatted soy flour improved the crude protein. Total and non-
reducing sugar, calcium,. phosphorus, iron and phytic acid content significantly.
However, supplementation of DSF decreased the moisture, starch, polyphenol and
TIA content of macronis and a non-significant difference was found for the fat,
ash, reducing sugars. Dietary fibre and in vitro proteins and starch digestibilities
contents of different macronis.
 43

CHAPTER – 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

T
he present investigation was carried out in the Department of Foods and
Nutrition, I.C. College of Home Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar to study the “Nutritional Evaluation and Utilization of
Selected Cereals and Pulses for Value Addition of Wheat based products”.
3.1 Procurement of Material
The bulk samples of nine varieties of soybean (PK-416, PK-472, PK-1024,
PK-1228, PK-1274, SL-599, SH-40, DS97-12, Pusa-9901), six of lentil LH-84-4
(Sapna), LH 89-48 (identified variety), L 9-12, LH 82-6, LH 90-54, L 4076) and
one variety each of wheat (WH-283), hullless barley (BH01-86), pearl millet
(HC-20) were obtained from the Department of Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana
Agricultural University, Hisar in a single lot.
Maize and sorghum were purchased from the local market. All the grains
were cleaned of dust and other foreign material.
3.2 Physical characteristics
Grains were evaluated for physical characteristics.
3.2.1 Moisture content
Moisture content of grains were estimated using digital Moisture meter.
Indosaw (Osaw Industrial Products Pvt. Ltd.). Results were expressed as g/100 g.
 44

3.2.2 Grain hardness

It was measured by pressing ten average sized well filled grains under the
grain hardness tester (Manufactured by Kiya Seisakusho Ltd., Japan). Force was
applied to crush grain by turning the knob. The force in kg/square inch displayed
on dial at the time of crushing the grain was noted.
3.2.3 Grain weight
It was determined by AOAC (1984) method. One thousand seeds were
counted thrice and were weighed in grams.
3.2.4 Grain colour
Colour of grains was observed visually.
3.2.5 Cooking time
Seeds (100 g) were taken in tall beakers. Water was added in a ratio of 1:3
(w/v). Beakers were connected with condensers to avoid evaporation of water
during boiling. Samples were stirred at 2 min interval. After some interval, one
seed was withdrawn without interrupting the boiling. Degree of cooking was
tested by pressing seeds between fingers. If seeds were felt uncooked, one seed
was again tested after 5 min. This procedure continued until five seeds tested were
found cooked. At this time, total cooking time was recorded.
3.2.6 Density
Seeds (50 g) were weighed accurately and transferred to a measuring
cylinder. Then 50 ml distilled water was added to it. Seed volume was recorded
by subtracting 50 ml from the total volume (ml). Density was recorded as g/ml.
3.2.7 Hydration capacity
Seeds weighing 50 g were counted and transferred to a measuring cylinder
and to this 150 ml water was added. The cylinder was covered with aluminium
foil and left overnight at room temperature. Next day, seeds were drained,
superfluous water removed with filter paper and swollen seeds reweighed.
Hydration capacity per seed was determined by using the following formula:
Wt. of soaked seeds – Wt. of seeds before soaking
Hydration capacity =
(per seed) No. of seeds
 45

3.2.8 Hydration index

Hydration index was calculated as

Hydration capacity per seed

Hydration index =
Wt. of one seed (g)

3.2.9 Swelling capacity

Seeds weighing 50 g were counted, their volume noted and soaked
overnight. The volume of the soaked seeds was noted in a graduated cylinder.
Swelling capacity per seed was determined by using the following formula:
Volume after soaking – Volume of seeds before soaking
Swelling capacity =
(per seed) No. of seeds

3.2.10 Swelling index

Swelling index was calculated as below:

Swelling capacity per seed

Swelling index =
Volume of one seed (ml)

3.3 Functional properties

Selected cereals and pulses grains were ground to get flour using an electric
grinder (Cyclotec, M/s Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden) using 0.5mm sieve and were
analysed for the following parameters.
3.3.1 Water absorption
The water absorption of the raw sample was determined according to the
method of Singh and Singh (1991).
 46

Procedure
One gram sample was mixed with 10 ml of distilled water for 30 minutes.
The contents were allowed to stand in a water bath at 30C for 30 minutes. The
contents were then centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 20 minutes and the volume of the
supernatant was recorded. The results were expressed as g/g sample.

3.3.2 Oil absorption

Oil absorption was determined by the method of Rosario and Flores (1981)
with minor modifications by Iyer and Singh (1997).
Procedure
One gram sample was mixed with 15 ml oil for 30 minutes. The contents
were allowed to stand in a water bath at 30C for 30 minutes. The contents were
then centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 20 minutes and the volume of the supernatant
was recorded. Refined groundnut oil was used for the determination of oil
absorption and results were expressed as g/g sample.
3.3.3 Gelation capacity
The gelation capacity was determined according to the method of Singh and
Singh (1991) as described below.
Procedure
Sample suspensions containing 5-15% (w/v) flour in 0.5% increments were
prepared in 10 ml of distilled water. The test tubes were heated for 1 hour in
boiling water, rapidly cooled under running cold tap water. These test tubes were
refrigerated for 3 hours at 5C. The least gelation concentration was determined as
that concentration at which the sample did not fall down or slip from an inverted
test tube.
3.3.4 Gel consistency
Gel consistency was determined by the method of Iyer and Singh (1997).
Procedure
Distilled water (10 ml) was added to finely ground sample (0.5 g) in a
beaker. The suspension was boiled for 20 minutes in a sand bath maintained at
120C. After boiling, the material was transferred to a petri dish (40 x 10 mm) and
 47

cooled to room temperature (25C). The contents were further cooled in a

refrigerator for one hour at 5C. The gel, thus, formed was transferred to a smooth
glass surface by inverting the petri dish. The petri dish was slowly removed and
the diameter of the gel that spread out on the glass was measured as gel spread.

3.3.5 Gelatinization temperature

Gelatinization temperature was determined by the method of Singh et al.
(1989).
Procedure
The aqueous solution of sample was heated on a heater and samples were
taken from 65C onwards at 1C intervals. Congo-red dye (0.2%) was used for
staining the samples. The samples were then seen under light microscope. The
temperature at which 90 per cent of the starch granules were stained with dye was
recorded as the gelatinization temperature of the sample.
3.3.6 Emulsification capacity
Emulsification capacity was determined by the method of Singh and Singh
(1991) with minor modifications by Iyer and Singh (1997).
Procedure
One gram sample was mixed with 50 ml of distilled water in a beaker for 2
minutes with continuous high speed magnetic stirring. After complete dispersion,
refined groundnut oil was constantly added from a burette to the beaker which was
constantly stirred until the emulsion broke, i.e. the mixture separated into two
layers. Emulsification capacities were expressed as grams of oil per gram of
sample.
3.3.7 Swelling power
Swelling power of the flour was determined by the method of Subramanian
et al. (1986).
Procedure
The flour sample (0.5 g) was weighed and transferred into centrifuge tube,
and twenty ml distilled water was added. The tube was placed in a heating block
at 90C for one hour. The tube was periodically shaken. After cooling, the
 48

contents were centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The aliquot was decanted
into a test tube for the determination of water soluble fraction. The inner sides of
the centrifuge tube were wiped out by tissue paper for excess moisture. Then the
weight of the tube with swelled material was recorded. The swelling power of the
flour was calculated as a ratio of the final weight (WF) to the initial weight (WI).
WF
Swelling power = x 100
WI

3.3.8 Flour solubility

Flour solubility was determined by the method of Subramanian et al.
(1986).
Procedure
The flour sample (0.5 g) was weighed and transferred into centrifuge tube
and 20 ml distilled water (V 1) was added. The tube was placed in a heating block
at 90C for 1 hour and shaken periodically. After cooling, the contents were
centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The aliquot was decanted into a test
tube. Ten ml aliquot (V2) was pipetted into pre-weighed dry moisture dish (W4).
The contents were evaporated to dryness at 110C. After cooling, the weight of
the material was determined (W5), and the results were expressed as the per cent
solubility.
(W5 – W4) x V1 100
Per cent solubility = x
V2 x 0.5 g 0.5 g

3.3.9 Nitrogen solubility index (NSI)

The nitrogen solubility index (NSI) was determined according to the
AOAC approved method (AOAC, 1984) with minor modification by Iyer and
Singh (1997).
Procedure
The nitrogen solubility index (NSI) was determined at pH 6.5. One gram
of sample was taken in a 50 ml centrifuge tube. Ten ml of solution at pH 6.5 was
added to it. The tube was shaken on a vortex mixer for uniform sample dispersal
 49

before being shaken in a mechanical shaker for 30 minutes at medium speed room
temperature. The tube was then centrifuged at 4,500 rpm for 20 minutes. The
supernatant was completely transferred to digestion tube and dried before protein
estimation by the Kjeldahl method. NSI was calculated as the ratio of the nitrogen
soluble at different pH values in a sample to that of the total nitrogen in the
sample.
3.4 Nutritional evaluation
The flour samples were analysed for proximate composition using standard
methods.
3.4.1 Proximate composition

3.4.1.1 Moisture
Moisture content was estimated by employing the standard method of
analysis (AOAC, 1995).
Procedure
Five gram sample was weighed in the moisture box and dried in oven at
105C for six hours. The sample was weighed after cooling it in a desiccator.

Loss in weight
Moisture (%) = x 100
Weight of sample

3.4.1.2 Crude fat

Crude fat was estimated by the standard method of analysis (AOAC, 1995)
using Soxhlet extraction apparatus.
Procedure
Five gram of dried sample was weighed and transferred to an extraction
thimble to dry it overnight at 105C. The thimble was placed in a Soxhlet
extractor fitted with a condenser and flask containing sufficient petroleum ether.
The extraction was carried out for six hours and after the extraction, thimble was
removed with the sample from the extraction apparatus and dried in the hot air
oven to a constant weight. It was cooled in a desiccator at room temperature and
 50

weighed. The loss in the weight of the thimble was the estimate as the loss of fat
from the sample and expressed as per cent of the crude fat in the sample.

3.4.1. 3 Crude fibre

Reagents
1. Hydrochloric acid (1% v/v)
2. Sulphuric acid stock solution (10% w/v): Took 55 ml conc. H2SO4.
3. Sulphuric acid working solution (12.5%): Diluted 125 ml of the stock
solution to one litre.
4. Sodium hydroxide stock solution (10% w/v): Dissolved 100 g NaOH in
water and distilled to one litre.
5. Sodium hydroxide working solution 1.25%): Diluted 125 ml of the stock
solution to one litre.
6. Antifoam: 2% silicon antifoam in CCl4
Procedure
One g fat free dried sample was weighed in one litre tall beaker. Added
200 ml 1.25 per cent H2SO4 and few drops of antifoam. Kept the solution boiling
for 30 minutes under bulb condensers. Beaker was rotated occasionally to mix the
contents and remove the particles from the side. Filtered the contents of the
beaker through funnel. Washed the sample back into the tall beaker with 200 ml
1.25 per cent sodium hydroxide. Brought to boiling point. Boiled exactly for 30
minutes. Transferred all insoluble matter to the sintered crucible by means of
boiling water till acid free. Washed twice with alcohol. Washed three times with
acetone. Dried at 100C to constant weight. Ashed in a muffle furnace at 550C
for 1 hour. Cooled the crucible in a desiccator, reweighed and the percentage of
crude fibre in the sample was calculated.
3.4.1.4 Ash
Ash in the sample was estimated by employing the standard method of
analysis (AOAC, 1995).
Procedure
 51

Five gram of oven dried sample was weighed in the crucible. It was ignited
till no charred particles remained in the crucible. The crucible was put in muffle
furnace (500C) for 5 hours or until a white ash was obtained. Then the crucible
was cooled in desiccator and weighed. The loss in weight represented the organic
matter and residue being the ash content.
3.4.1. 5 Crude protein
The total nitrogen was estimated by the standard method of AOAC (1995).
A factor of 6.25 was applied to convert the amount of nitrogen to crude protein.
Reagents
1. N/100 HCl
2. Boric acid (4%)
3. Mixed indicator solution: 0.5 g of bromocresol green and 0.1 g of methyl
red was taken and dissolved in 100 ml 95 per cent ethanol and the solution
was adjusted with drops of dilute NaOH to bluish purple colour.
4. NaOH (40%)
5. Digestion mixture: 10 g K2SO4, 0.5 g CuSO4.6H2O and 2 g FeSO4.
Procedure
One gram sample was taken and digested with 25 ml concentrated H 2SO4
and a pinch of the digestion mixture. The nitrogen, as ammonical salt, was
distilled with 40 per cent NaOH in a kjeldahl apparatus. The ammonia, thus,
liberated was absorbed in 10 ml boric acid solution containing a few drops of the
mixed indicator and was titrated against standard HCl (N/100). The end point was
indicated by the change of colour.
0.00014 x Vol. of N/100 HCl used x Vol. of digested sample made
Nitrogen (%) =
Wt. of sample x Vol. of aliquot taken

3.4.2 Carbohydrates
Total soluble sugars were extracted by the method of Cerning and Guilhot
(1973).
 52

Extraction: To 500 mg of the sample, 25 ml ethanol (80%) was added in a round

bottom flask. The flask was connected to a condenser and kept on a boiling water
bath for 30 minutes with occasional stirring. The extract was cooled, centrifuged
at 8,000 rpm of 15 min. The supernatant was collected in a beaker. This procedure
was repeated twice, each time taking 25 ml 80 per cent ethanol. The combined
extract in the beaker was kept on a boiling water bath to evaporate ethanol. The
residue was dissolved in distilled water and volume was made to 50 ml.
3.4.2.1 Total soluble sugars
Total soluble sugars were estimated by the method of Yemm and Willis
(1954).
Reagents
1. Standard sugar solution: Glucose (25 mg) was dissolved in distilled water
and volume was made to 100 ml. For obtaining standard curve 0.1 to 1.0
ml of this solution was used.
2. Anthrone reagent: Anthrone (200 mg) was dissolved in 70 per cent H 2SO4
and volume was made to 100 ml. This reagent was prepared fresh daily and
allowed to stand for 1 hour before use.
Procedure
To a test tube kept in ice bath, freshly prepared anthrone reagent (10 ml)
was added. The solution under test (0.5 ml) was layered on anthrone reagent.
After cooling for 5 min, the contents were thoroughly mixed while still immersed
in ice bath. The tubes were heated in a boiling water bath for 10 min and then
immediately cooled in ice cold water. The absorbance was read at 625 nm in
Spectronic-21 against a suitable blank.
The amount of sugar was then determined by referring to a standard curve
previously prepared with glucose.
3.4.2.2 Reducing sugars
Reducing sugars were estimated by Somogyi’s modified method (Somogyi,
1945).
 53

Reagents
1) Copper reagent A: Anhydrous sodium carbonate (25 g), potassium sodium
tartarate (25 g), sodium bicarbonate (20 g) and anhydrous sodium sulphate
(20 g) were dissolved in distilled water and diluted to one litre.
2) Copper reagent B: Copper sulphate (15 g) was dissolved in 100 ml distilled
water containing two drops of concentrated HCl.
Copper reagent A and B were mixed in ratio of 25:1 (v/v) just before use.
3) Arsenomolybdate reagent: Ammonium molybdate (25 g) was dissolved in
450 ml distilled water by warming. Concentrated H2SO4 (25 ml) was added
while stirring. Sodium hydrogen arsenate (3 g) was dissolved in 25 ml
distilled water and this arsenate solution was added while stirring. The
solution was incubated at 37C for 24 hours before use. This reagent was
stored in a glass stoppered brown glass bottle.
4) Standard sugar solution: Glucose (25 mg) was dissolved in water and
volume was made to 100 ml. This solution contained 250 g glucose/ml.
Procedure
One ml extract was taken in a blood sugar tube graduated at 25 ml. One ml
mixed copper reagent was added and then heated for 20 min in a boiling water
bath. To this, one ml arsenomolybdate reagent was added, mixed thoroughly and
diluted to 25 ml with distilled water. A stable blue colour quickly appeared which
was read at 520 nm against a suitable blank. The amount of reducing sugar was
then determined by referring to the glucose standard curve.
3.4.2.3 Non-reducing sugars
The amount of non-reducing sugars was calculated as the difference
between the amounts of total soluble sugars and reducing sugars.
3.4.2.4 Starch
Starch from the sugar free pellet was estimated by employing the method of
Clegg (1956).
Reagent
Perchloric acid (52%)
 54

Extraction: Five ml distilled water was added to aforesaid residue of the test
material and while stirring, 6.5 ml of perchloric acid (52%) was added. The
contents were stirred continuously for 15 minutes. To this, 20 ml of water was
added and centrifuged at 8,000 rpm for 20 minutes. The supernatant was collected
in a 100 ml volumetric flask. Five ml distilled water was then added to the residue
and repeated the extraction with perchloric acid (52%), stirring occasionally for 30
minutes. The contents of the tube were washed into a volumetric flask containing
the test extract and diluted it to 100 ml with distilled water. It was then filtered,
discarded first 5 ml of filtrate. 0.5 ml extract was used for glucose estimation,
using anthrone reagent by the method of Yemm and Willis (1954).
Starch was calculated by using the following formula:
Starch = Glucose x 0.9
3.4.3 Dietary fibre
Total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre constituents were determined by
the enzymatic method given by Furda (1981).
Reagents
i) 0.005 N HCl
ii) Phosphate buffer (pH 10)
iii) EDTA
iv) Enzymes: Alpha amylase and protease enzymes were obtained from Sigma
Chemical Company, USA.
v) Ethanol (75% and absolute)
vi) Acetone
Procedure
1. Sample preparation: 0.5 g sample of less than 1 mm particle size food
material was defatted on a Soxhlet or Goldfish apparatus.
2. Extraction of water soluble material: The prepared sample weighing
about 2.0 g was dispersed in 200 ml of 0.005 N HCl and boiled for 20 min.
The suspension was then cooled down to 60C, 0.3 g of disodium EDTA
was added and then adjusted to pH 5.0-6.5 with 12 ml of phosphate buffer
 55

pH 10. The extraction was continued for an additional 40 min at 60C to

ensure the extraction of pectins with minimal degradation.
3. Starch and protein hydrolysis: Adjusted the pH 6.0-6.5 to bring the
solution closer to the pH optimum of amylase and protease. Cooled the
suspension to 20-30C before incubation overnight with 10 mg of bacterial
alpha-amylase and 10 mg of bacterial protease. The incubation was
accompanied by slow stirring with a magnetic bar.
4. Isolation of insoluble dietary fibre: The suspension was filtered through
a coarse-tarred Gooch filtering crucible containing glass wool and the
insoluble residue was washed with a small amount of water. The filtrate
was saved for the next step. The insoluble residue was then washed with
water, alcohol and acetone before being dried at 70C in a vacuum oven
overnight. The dry residue constitutes insoluble dietary fibre (IDF).
5. Precipitation and isolation of soluble dietary fibre (SDF): The saved
filtrate was acidified with a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid to
pH 2-3; it facilitates the rapid precipitation of polysaccharides. Slowly
added four volumes of ethanol and left suspension to stand for about 1
hour. Filtered the precipitate on a tarred, coarse Gooch containing glass
wool, then washed with 75% ethanol, absolute ethanol, and acetone before
drying at 70C in a vacuum oven overnight. The residue was weighed in
the crucible to give the soluble dietary fibre (SDF) content of the original
material. The SDF fraction was corrected for ash and for co-precipitated
protein.
6. Total dietary fibre (TDF): The sum of insoluble dietary fibre and soluble
dietary fibre contents were calculated.
TDF = IDF + SDF
3.4.4 Total minerals
One g ground sample was taken in a 150 ml conical flask. To this, 25-30
ml diacid mixture (HNO3:HClO4; 5:1 v/v) was added and kept overnight. Next
day, it was digested by heating till clear white precipitates settled down at the
bottom. The crystals were dissolved by diluting in double distilled water. The
 56

contents were filtered through Whatman No. 42 filter paper. The filtrate was made
to 50 ml with double distilled water. The acid digested sample was used for the
determination of calcium, iron and zinc by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
2380, Perkin Elmer (USA) according to the method of Lindsey and Norwell
(1969).
3.4.4.1 Calcium, iron and zinc

3.4.4.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus was determined colorimetrically by the method of Chen et al.
(1956).
Reagents
1) Ascorbic acid (10%)
2) Ammonium molybdate (2.5%)
3) Reagent C: 6 N H2SO4.water, 2.5 per cent ammonium molybdate and 10
per cent ascorbic acid were mixed in the ratio of 1:2:1:1 (v/v), respectively.
This reagent was prepared fresh everyday.
4) Standard phosphorus solution: 0.351 g pure and dry anhydrous
monopotassium dihydrogen orthophosphate was dissolved in a few ml
water and 10 ml of 10 N H2SO4. The volume was made to one litre with
water. This stock solution contained 80 g P/ml. Twenty five ml stock
solution was diluted to 1 litre which served as working standard solution. It
contained 2 g P/ml. Two or three drops of chloroform were added for
preserving the solution.
Procedure
A suitable aliquot (1 ml) of the mineral extract was pipetted in a test tube
and made the volume to 4 ml with water. Then 4 ml reagent C was added and
mixed well. The content was incubated at 37C in a water bath for 90 minutes. It
was removed and allowed to cool to room temperature and absorbance was read at
820 nm against a suitable blank.
 57

Standard curve was plotted using one to eight g P (0.195 OD corresponds

to 2 g phosphorus).
3.4.5 Antinutritional factors
3.4.5.1 Phytic acid
Phytic acid was determined by the method of Davies and Reid (1979).
Reagents
i) Nitric acid (0.5M): HNO3 69.5% (15.96 ml) (AR grade, sp. gr. 1.42) was
diluted to 500 ml with distilled water.
ii) Ferric ammonium sulphate: Ferric ammonium sulphate (215 mg) was
dissolved in distilled water. To it added few drops of HCl and volume was
made to 500 ml with distilled water.
iii) Ammonium thiocyanate: Ammonium thiocyanate (10 g) was dissolved in
distilled water and volume made to 100 ml.
iv) Iso-amyl alcohol
v) Sodium phytate: Sodium phytate (5.5% H2O, 97% purity and containing 12
Na/mole) (30.54 mg) was dissolved in 100 ml of 0.5 M HNO 3 which gave a
solution containing 20 mg phytic acid in 100 ml or 200 g phytic acid/ml.
Extraction
To 500 mg sample, 20 ml 0.5 M HNO 3 was added in a conical flask and
shaken continuously for 3 h on shaker at room temperature. The contents were
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min. Supernatant was used for estimation of phytic
acid.
Procedure
To a test tube, 0.5 ml HNO3 extract was taken and volume was made to 1.4
ml with water. To it, added one ml ferric ammonium sulphate solution, the
contents were thoroughly mixed and placed in a boiling water bath for 20 min.
Immediately cooled the tubes to room temperature under tap water. Five ml
iso-amyl alcohol was added to it, the contents were mixed vigorously and to it
added 0.1 ml ammonium thiocyanate solution. The tubes were shaken well and
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min. Colour intensity in the alcohol was read
 58

exactly after 15 min of addition of ammonium thiocyanate at 465 nm against iso-

amyl alcohol blank.
For plotting a standard curve, 0.2 to 1.2 ml standard phytate solution
containing 40-240 g phytic acid was taken and made to 1.4 ml with water. 0.341
O.D. corresponded to 160 g phytic acid.

3.4.5.2 Polyphenols
The polyphenolic compounds were extracted from the sample by the
method given by Singh and Jambunathan (1981). Defatted sample (500 mg) was
refluxed with 50 ml methanol containing 1% HCl for 4 h. The extract was
concentrated by evaporating methanol on a boiling water bath and made its
volume to 25 ml with methanol-HCl solution. The amount of phenolic
compounds was estimated as tannic acid equivalent according to Folin-Denis
procedure (Swain and Hills, 1959).
Reagents
i) Folin-Denis reagent: Sodium tungstate (100 g), phosphomolybdic acid
(20 g), phosphoric acid (50 ml) were added to 750 ml distilled water and
refluxed for 24 h, cooled and diluted to one litre with distilled water.
ii) Tannic acid solution: Tannic acid (100 mg) was dissolved in distilled water
and volume made upto one litre. Twenty five ml of this stock solution was
further diluted to 100 ml with distilled water to give working standard
solution containing 20 g tannic acid/ml.
iii) Saturated sodium carbonate solution: Dissolved 350 g sodium carbonate in
one litre distilled water at 70 OC to 80OC, cooled and filtered through glass
wool.
Estimation: Solution (0.3 ml) under test was diluted with distilled water to 8.5 ml
in a graduated test tube. After thorough mixing, added 0.5 ml Folin-Denis reagent
and the tubes were shaken well. Exactly after 3 min, one ml saturated sodium
carbonate solution was added and the tubes were thoroughly shaken again. After
 59

one hour the absorbance was read at 725 nm using a blank. If the solution was
cloudy or precipitates appeared, it was centrifuged before readings were taken.
A standard curve was plotted by taking different concentrations of (10 g to
80 g) tannic acid. 0.200 O.D. correspond to 35 g tannic acid.
3.4.5.3 Trypsin inhibitor activity
Trypsin inhibitor activity was determined by the modified method of Roy
and Rao (1971).
Reagents
i) 0.1 M Phosphate buffer (pH 7.6): Sixteen ml NaH2PO4 (0.2 M) and 84 ml
Na2HPO4 (0.2 M) were diluted to 200 ml with distilled water and pH
adjusted to 7.6.
ii) 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0): 0.1 M phosphate buffer (50 ml) was
diluted to 100 ml with water and the pH adjusted to 7.0.
iii) Casein solution (2%): A suspension of 2 g casein was prepared with
phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.6) and dissolved by warming and occasional
shaking on a steam bath for about 10 minutes. The solution was cooled and
made to 100 ml with phosphate buffer and stored in a refrigerator.
iv) Trypsin solution (5 mg/ml): Dissolved 125 mg trypsin (Sigma Chemical
Company, USA) in 25 ml phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.6).
v) 0.001 N HCl: Conc. HCl (8.88 ml) was added to distilled water and
volume made to one litre. Pipetted 1 ml of this 0.1 N HCl and volume was
made to one litre.
vi) Trichloroacetic acid (5%)
Extraction
One g sample was taken in a 150 ml conical flask and 25 ml 0.05 M
phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) was added. The contents were shaken at room
temperature for three hrs and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 minutes. The
following sets of incubation mixtures were prepared.

Test Control Blank

Phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.6) 1.0 ml 1.1 ml 1.0 ml

 60

Trypsin solution (5 mg/ml) 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml

HCl (0.001 N) 0.4 ml 0.4 ml 0.4 ml

TCA (5%) - - 6.0 ml

Casein (2%) 2.0 ml 2.0 ml 2.0 ml

Extract 0.1 ml - 0.1 ml
Incubated at 37oC for 20 minutes
TCA (5%) 6.0 ml 6.0 ml -
After incubation and addition of TCA, the contents were centrifuged at
10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. TCA soluble proteins in supernatant were determined
by the method of Lowry et al. (1951).
Reagents
i) Sodium carbonate(2%) in 0.1 N NaOH
ii) CuSO4.5H2O (0.5%) in 1% sodium citrate
iii) Alkaline Copper sulphate: Fifty parts of solution (i) and one part of
solution (ii) were mixed just before use.
iv) 1 N Folin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent
v) Working casein standard solution (1 mg/ml): Diluted 5 ml casein solution
(2%) to 100 ml with phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.6)
Estimation
To 0.5 ml supernatant, 5 ml alkaline copper sulphate solution was added,
mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand for 10 min at room temperature. Then 0.5
ml 1N Folin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent was added and again immediately mixed.
A blank by taking water was also run side by side. After 30 min, the colour
intensity was read at 520 nm against a blank.
Trypsin inhibitor units: One unit of trypsin was defined as the amount of enzyme
which converted one mg casein to TCA soluble components at 37C for 20
minutes at pH 7.6. One unit of inhibitory activity is that which reduces the
activity of trypsin by one unit under the assay conditions.
3.4.6 Starch digestibility (in vitro)
In vitro starch digestibility was assessed by employing pancreatic amylase
(Singh et al., 1982).
 61

Reagents
i) Pancreatic amylase: Twenty mg pancreatic amylase (Sigma Chemical
Company, USA) was dissolved in 50 ml phosphate buffer (pH 6.9).
ii) 0.2 M Disodium hydrogen phosphate: Dissolved 35.598 g disodium
hydrogen phosphate in distilled water and volume was made to one litre.
iii) 0.2 M Potassium dihydrogen phosphate: Dissolved 27.28 g potassium
dihydrogen phosphate in distilled water and volume was made upto one
litre.
iv) Phosphate buffer (pH 6.9): Added 50 ml 0.2 M Potassium dihydrogen
phosphate to 46.8 ml 0.2 M sodium hydrogen phosphate and volume was
made upto 200 ml.
v) Dinitrosalicylic reagent: 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (10 g), sodium potassium
tartarate (300 g) and sodium hydroxide (16 g) were dissolved in carbon
dioxide free water and volume made to 1 litre. The reagent was stored in
brown bottle and protected from carbon dioxide.
iv) Standard maltose solution: Maltose monohydrate (100 mg) was dissolved
in distilled water and volume made upto 100 ml.
Estimation
Fifty mg defatted sample was dispersed in 1.0 ml 0.2 M phosphate buffer
(pH 6.9), added 0.5 ml pancreatic amylase and incubated in water bath at 37C for
2 h with occasional shaking of the test tubes. After incubation, 2 ml
dinitrosalicylic reagent was quickly added and heated for 5 minutes in a boiling
water bath. After cooling, the solution was made to 25 ml with distilled water and
filtered through an ordinary filter paper prior to measurement of absorbance at
550 nm.
A blank was run simultaneously by incubating the sample without enzyme.
Dinitrosalicylic acid reagent was added before addition of the enzyme solution.
Values were expressed as mg maltose released/g sample. Standard curve was
prepared by taking 0.5 to 4.0 mg maltose from a standard maltose solution.
0.187 O.D. corresponded to 3.2 mg maltose.
3.4.7 Protein digestibility (in vitro)
 62

In vitro protein digestibility was carried out by the modified method of

Mertz et al. (1983).

Reagents
i) Pepsin reagent: 0.1 M KH 2PO4 (pH 2.0) containing 0.2 per cent pepsin;
13.6 g potassium dihydrogen phosphate was dissolved in 1 litre of water
and adjusted pH of the solution to 2.0 and then 2 g pepsin was dissolved
(Sigma) in the buffer.
ii) TCA (50%): Fifty gram trichloroacetic acid was dissolved in water and
made up volume to 100 ml.
Procedure
Two hundred and 50 mg of sample was weighed and transferred to a
centrifuge tube. To it 20 ml of pepsin reagent was added. The tube was stoppered
and arranged in a shaker-incubator maintaining the water temperature at 37C for 3
hours. Then the centrifuge tube was removed and cooled. Five ml of 50 per cent
TCA was added and centrifuged the contents at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes at
room temperature and filtered. Ten ml of aliquot was taken and dried in hot air
oven. Dried aliquot was digested for nitrogen determination by Microkjeldahl
method (AOAC, 1990). Digested protein of sample was determined. Protein
digestibility was calculated by following formula.
Digested protein
Protein digestibility (%) = x 100
Total protein

3.5 Preparation of flour

Soybean variety and lentil variety found to be nutritionally superior were
selected for product preparation.
3.5.1 Preparation of various cereal flours
The seeds were cleaned of dust, cracked, broken and wrinkled seeds and
other foreign materials. Blanching of pearl millet was done at 98C for 30 seconds
 63

and was dried at 60C for 12 hours. Seeds were ground in a stone mill (Atta
chakki) and packed in air tight plastic containers for further use.
3.5.2 Preparation of lentil flour
Lentil seeds were cleaned of broken, cracked and wrinkled seeds, dust and
other foreign materials. Water was boiled and blanched the lentil seeds for 10
min. Took out lentil immediately and put in cold running water. The hull was
removed by rubbing in between hands and dried in hot air oven at 60C for 24 h.
Seeds were ground in a stone mill (Atta chakki) and packed in air tight plastic
containers for further use.
3.5.3 Preparation of soybean flour
The soybean were cleaned of broken, cracked and wrinkled seeds, dust and
other foreign materials. Boiled the water and blanched the soybean for 15 min.
Took out soybean immediately and put in cold running water. Removed the hull
by rubbing in between hands and dried in hot air oven at 60C for 24 h. Ground to
fine powder in a stone mill (Atta chakki) and packed in air tight plaster containers
for further use.
3.6 Preparation of composite flour
Following composite flours were prepared using different cereals, soy flour
or lentil.
i) Wheat (100%)
ii) Wheat + soy flour (85:15)
iii) Wheat + maize + soy flour (70:15:15)
iv) Wheat + barley + soy flour (70:15:15)
v) Wheat + sorghum + soy flour (70:15:15)
vi) Wheat + pearl millet + soy flour (70:15:15)
vii) Wheat + lentil flour (95:5, 90:10, 85:15)
3.7 Product development
Following wheat based products were prepared in the laboratory using the
above mentioned composite flour (as in 3.6).
i) Baked products: Chapati, bread, biscuits, cake
ii) Extruded products: Macroni, noodles.
 64

3.7.1 Baked products

3.7.1.1 Chapati
Ingredients
Flour 100 g
Water to knead the dough
Salt to taste
Fat to smear
Preparation of chapati: Flour was mixed with salt and dough was prepared with
water. Chapatis were prepared by dividing dough into three equal rolls, rounded
and rolled with rolling pin to uniform thickness and size of 15 cm diameter. The
chapatis were then baked on both sides on a preheated hot plate. The chapatis
were then turned twice and then puffed on the hot plate itself by applying pressure
with a cloth. Chapatis were cooled to room temperature and then smeared with
fat.
3.7.1.2 Bread
Breads using different composite flours were prepared.
Preparation of bread
The bread making performance of flours (control and blends) were
determined using straight dough (AACC, 1984) with remixing procedure (Irvine
and McMullan, 1960) with slight modification that dough was mixed using desired
baking absorption for optimum dough handling.
The formula (based on flour weight) for straight dough method used to
bake 100 g loaves of bread was as follows:
Ingredients
Flour 100 g
Compressed yeast 3g
Vegetable oil 5g
 65

Salt 2g
Water Optimum for desirable consistency

Method
1. All the ingredients were mixed together except refined vegetable oil and
were kneaded in a dough mixer for 1 min to form a dough.
2. The dough was left for 1 hour and 40 minutes at 30-32C for fermentation.
3. After fermentation, dough was kneaded again with refined vegetable oil in
the dough mixer and was sheeted and moulded.
3. The baking moulds were kept for proofing at room temperature and water
was sprinkled to maintain humidity at 92%.
4. Loaves were left for 55 min which led to increase in loaf volume.
5. Loaves were then baked in preheated oven at 200C for 15-20 min.
6. Bread was kept wrapped up in thick cloth for cooling.
7. After cooling, bread was cut in thin slices and served.
3.7.1.3 Biscuit
Two types of biscuits were prepared using different composite flours.
3.7.1.3.1 Sweet biscuits
Ingredients
Flour 80 g
Ghee 40 g
Sugar 50 g
Egg ½ No.
Vanilla essence few drops
Sodium bicarbonate ¼ tsp
Baking powder ¼ tsp
Method
1. The flour was sieved with baking powder and sodium bicarbonate twice.
2. Ghee and sugar were creamed until light.
3. The egg was beaten with vanilla essence.
 66

4. The egg and sieved flour were added to ghee and sugar mixture.
5. The mixture was placed in the refrigerator for 1 h.
6. Small balls were made and pressed them with the help of palm.
7. Baked at 160C for 20 minutes.
3.7.1.3.2 Sweet and salty biscuits
Ingredients
Flour 100 g
Ghee 40 g
Sugar 25 g
Salt 2.5 g
Cumin seeds 1.5 g
Milk 40 ml
Ammonia powder 5g
Sodium bicarbonate a pinch
Method
1. The flour was mixed with salt, cumin seeds, sodium bicarbonate and sieved
twice.
2. The milk was added to the mixture.
3. Fat was creamed till fluffy and light.
4. Ammonia powder and sugar were added to it and creamed again.
5. Flour mixture was folded to the creamed mixture and formed into dough.
6. Dough was rolled into two layers.
7. The rolled layers were placed one above the another with a thin (2 mm)
layer of desirable coloured mixture in between.
8. All the three layers were folded and shaped as rectangular block.
9. The block was freezed for half an hour.
10. The block was cut vertically into 0.5 cm thick square biscuit and placed the
biscuit on greased tray.
11. Biscuits were baked at 150C in preheated oven for 25 min.
3.7.1.4 Sponge cake
Ingredients
 67

Flour 80 g
Sugar 80 g
Eggs 3 Nos.
Baking powder 1.2 tsp
Vanilla essence few drops
Method
1. Egg white and yolk was separated.
2. The egg white was beaten with egg beater, added sugar gradually followed
by vanilla essence.
3. The mixture was beaten until it became white and stiff.
4. Flour mixture was sieved with baking powder twice.
5. The egg yolk and sieved flour was folded in the above mixture.
6. Cake mix was poured into the baking tin and baked at 180C for 15-20 min.
3.7.1.5 Macroni
Macroni produced in this was processed in a La Parmigiana extruder. The
flour was mixed and sieved then introduced it in the extruder. Predetermined
amount of water was added to it. Flour was mixed with water for 5 min. Macroni
were made under pressure using dye, which were taken on trays for drying. The
macronis were dried in hot air oven at 50C temperature for 2-3 hours.
Flour

Conditioning
(with water i.e. 1/3 of the flour)

Mixing (5 min)

Extruding
(macroni under pressure using dye)

Drying in hot air oven

(40C, 2-3 hrs)

Macroni
 68

Packing

Fig. 3.1 Flow diagram of preparation of macroni

3.7.1.6 Noodles
Noodles were made by a manual sheeting process from different flours.
The flour was hand mixed with a predetermined amount of water to form a stiff
dough. The dough was covered and kept for 30 min to permit optimum moisture
equilibrium and hydration. The dough was passed through the rolls to get sheet of
3 mm thickness. This was again passed through the rolls to get final sheet of 1.5
mm thickness. Immediately after the dough sheet was cut into noodle strips,
which were taken on trays for drying. The noodles were dried in hot air oven at
50C temperature for 2-3 hours and packed till further use.

Flour + water i.e. 1/3 of the flour

Mixing

Dough formation

Sheeting
(3 mm thickness)

Sheeting
(1.5 mm thickness)

Cutting (noodle strips)

Noodles

Drying (50C, 2-4 hrs)

 69

Packing

Fig. 3.2 Flow diagram of preparation of noodles

3.7.1.7 Preparation of cooked macroni and noodles

Macroni and noodles were boiled and seasoned with vegetables.
Ingredients
Noodles/Macroni 30 g
Onion 10 g
Tomato 10 g
Capsicum 10 g
Cabbage 10 g
Tomato sauce 1 tsp
Chilli sauce ½ tsp
Soy sauce ¼ tsp
Vinegar ¼ tsp
Oil 10 g
Salt ¼ tsp
Method
1. Water was boiled with salt.
2. Extrudate was added into boiled water and boiled for 5 minutes or till soft.
3. Water was strained and kept aside.
4. Oil was heated in a pan, added chopped onion and fried slightly.
5. Chopped capsicum, cabbage were added to it and cooked till soft.
6. Salt tomato sauce, chilli sauce, soy sauce and vinegar were added and
stirred properly.
7. Boiled extrudate was mixed to vegetable mixture and cooked for 2-3 min.
8. Served hot.
3.8 Physical characteristics of products
3.8.1 Chapati
3.8.1.1 Height of puffing
 70

The height of the chapati in centimeters was measured immediately after

puffing using a centimeter scale.

3.8.1.2 Chapati pliability

The pliability of the chapati was determined by the method of standardized
by Haridas Rao (1982) using a specially designed pliability tests for the purpose.
A chapati strip of 2 x 7 cm was cut. The chapati strip (7 cm length) was so
fixed between clumps, the remaining 5 cm was allowed to bend. The extent of
bending was measured against a scale and expressed as pliability in centimeters.
3.8.2 Bread
3.8.2.1 Loaf volume and loaf weight
Loaf volume was measured by the rapeseed displacement method. One
hour after baking, the loaf weight was recorded using monopan balance.
3.8.2.2 Specific loaf volume
Specific loaf volume was calculated by dividing loaf volume by loaf weight
and the results expressed as cc per g.
3.8.3 Biscuits
3.8.3.1 Thickness and diameter
Width and thickness of biscuits thus, prepared were measured using vernier
calliper. Randomly five biscuits were taken. After measuring the width of biscuit
from one side, it was rotated at 90C and remeasured to get the average width (W)
and then thickness (T) of biscuits were measured.
3.8.3.2 Spread ratio
Spread ratio was calculated according to AACC method 10-50 D (AACC,
1983). Spread ratio was the ratio of biscuits width to the thickness (W/T) and was
determined by dividing width (cm) by thickness (cm).
3.8.4 Cakes
3.8.4.1 Total weight
Total weight of cakes were recorded in gm using balance.
3.8.4.2 Volume
 71

Rapeseed displacement method was used for determining the volume of

cakes using AACC (1984) methods. Specific volume was calculated in cc/g using
the following formula:

Volume (cc)
Specific volume =
Weight (g)

AACC (1984) method was used for obtaining indexes for volume,
symmetry and uniformity. Formulas used for calculating different indexes are
given as under.

a b c d

A B C D E

Symmetry index = 2c – b – d

Volume index = b + c + d
Uniformity index = b-d
where, AE in diameter of cake, CE and AC are half pieces of cake
AB, BC, CD, DE are ¼ of cake pieces.
3.8.5 Extrudates
Extrudates (macroni and noodles) were evaluated for their physical
properties namely bulk density, cooking time, water uptake.
3.8.5.1 Bulk density
Procedure
Pieces of extrudates about 1 cm in length were placed in a graduated
cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder was repeatedly tapped gently on a laboratory
 72

bench until there was no further reduction in sample volume. Bulk density was
calculated as the weight of sample to its volume (kgL-1).

3.8.5.2 Cooking time

Cooking time (in minutes) for macroni and noodles was noted when the
white core disappeared, macroni and noodles were considered to be cooked
(Oh, et al.,1983).
3.8.5.3 Water uptake
Macroni and noodles (20 g) were cooked in 250 ml boiling water for 10-15
min. The cooked weight of macroni and noodles indicated the amount of water
uptake during cooking and was expressed as g per g of dry matter (Vetrimani and
Rahim, 1994).
3.9 Organoleptic evaluation of products
All the products were subjected for organoleptic evaluation by a panel of
ten judges from the Department of Foods and Nutrition, CCSHAU, Hisar.
3.9.1 Organoleptic evaluation of chapati, biscuits and extrudates
The judges were asked to record the quality characteristics i.e. colour,
appearance, falvour, texture and taste by employing a nine point Hedonic Rating
Scale as given in Appendix-I. Overall acceptability was calculated by the average
of the scores of all characteristics.
3.9.2 Organoleptic evaluation of bread and cake
The judges were asked to record the quality characteristics i.e. general
appearance, crust colour, crumb grain, texture, odour and taste and cells by
employing score card for sensory evaluation of cakes and bread (AACC, 1995) as
given in Appendix-II and Appendix-III.
3.10 Nutritional evaluation of most acceptable products
The most acceptable baked and extruded products were analysed for
different nutritional parameters as discussed in 3.4.
3.11 Statistical analysis
 73

Means of standard errors of different variables/parameters were calculated.

The technique of analysis of variance was used for the analysis of data and
correlation coefficients were estimated (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967).

CHAPTER – 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I
n the present investigation, efforts were made to supplement the whole wheat
flour with soy alone or with other cereals viz. pearl millet, barley, sorghum
and maize and with 5-15% lentil flour for enhancing the nutritional quality,
particularly protein, minerals and dietary fibre contents of wheat products. The
results pertaining to this study have been presented and discussed under the
following headings:
4.1 Physico-chemical properties
4.2 Functional properties
4.3 Nutritional evaluation
4.4 Organoleptic and physical evaluation of developed products
4.5 Nutritional evaluation of most acceptable products
4.1 Physico-chemical properties
Physico-chemical parameters of grains are important parameters to study,
to play an important role during processing.
Results of various physico-chemical properties of cereals, lentil and
soybean cultivars have been presented in Table 4.1-4.4.
 74

4.1.1 Cereals
The moisture content of cereal grains ranged between 10.40-11.80 per cent.
Moisture content of maize was highest followed by barley (11.4%), wheat
(11.2%), sorghum (10.8%) and pearl millet (10.4%), wheat (11.2%), sorghum
(10.8%) and pearl millet (10.4%). The difference in moisture content may be due
75
 76

to different storage conditions. Similar results as that of present study reported by

Jood (1990) and Kalra (1996).
1000-grain weight of different cereals varied from 9.40-147.20 g. Maize
grains had maximum whereas pearl millet had minimum grain weight. The
significant difference in grain weight of wheat and barley was found. Grain
weight of sorghum was significantly lower than the weight of wheat, barley and
maize. Similar findings have been reported by other workers (Hadimani et al.,
1995; Sankarpandian, 2000; Dhingra, 2001).
Grain hardness of cereals ranged from 3.00-13.20 kg/grain, was highest of
maize grain followed by wheat, barley, sorghum and pearl millet. Grain hardness
of different cereals significantly (P<0.05) from each other. The protein content
also influenced the hardness and this could be attributed to variation in
compactness of endosperm cell components. The values of present study are
consistent to those reported by Singh and Paliwal (1986), Srivastav et al. (1994),
Hadimani et al. (1995) and Dhingra (2001).
Cooking time of cereals studied varied 18 minutes for pearl millet 122
minutes for maize. Cooking time of different cereals was significantly different
from each other. The differences in the cooking time of the cereals could be
attributed to some extent on the seed size (Singh et al., 1991; Giami, 1997).
Seed density of cereal grains ranged between 1.16-1.56 g/ml. Pearl millet
grain had highest seed density whereas, wheat had lowest seed density. The seed
density of wheat, maize and sorghum was almost similar and no significant
difference in seed density of barley and pearl millet was found. Sankarpandian
(2000) reported the same values for sorghum. However, Hadimani et al. (1995)
observed less seed density in pearl millet due to varietal differences.
Among different cereals, maize had maximum(0.050 g/seed) hydration
capacity and wheat had maximum (0.71) hydration index. Whereas, minimum
hydration capacity and hydration index was observed for pearl millet. Hydration
capacity of maize, barley, sorghum and ;pearl millet was significantly different
from each other, however, no significant difference in hydration capacity of wheat
 77

and barley was found. Results were in close agreement with those reported by
Dhingra (2001).
Swelling capacity of different cereals ranged from 0.004-0.084 ml/seed.
Maize had highest swelling capacity, whereas pearl millet had minimum swelling
capacity. The swelling capacity of maize, wheat, sorghum and pearl millet was
significantly (P<0.05) different from each other, whereas, no significant difference
in barley and wheat was observed. Swelling index of barley was highest (0.96)
followed by wheat (0.95), maize and sorghum (0.55) and pearl millet (0.34). Pearl
millet which had lowest swelling capacity, had the minimum swelling index, too.
Colour of different cereal grains has been discussed in Table 4.4.
4.1.2 Lentil
Moisture content of different lentil cultivars ranged from 11.20-11.60 per
cent, 1000 grain weight of selected six cultivars of lentil varied from
19.30-32.40 g. Cultivar L 9054 had maximum grain weight followed by L 9-12,
L 4076, L 84-8, LH 82-6 and LH 89-48. No significant difference in grain weight
of L 4076 and L 9-12 cultivars but difference in grain weight of other cultivars
was found. Ereifej and Shibli (1995) observed a wide range (8.5-53.9 g) for 1000
seed weight in four cultivars of Jordan lentils.
Grain hardness of lentil cultivars varied from 8.0-11.0 kg/grain, it was
highest for L 4076 and lowest for LH 89-48 cultivars. No significant difference in
grain hardness of L 84-8, L 9054 and L 9-12 was found, however, it was
significantly lower than L 4076 and LH 82-6 but significantly higher than LH 89-
48.
Cooking time of selected lentil cultivars ranged between 36.56-42.40
minutes. L 4076, L 89-48 and L 82-6 required less time to cook than L 84-8, L
9054 and L 9-12. The results of present study lend support by the study of Erskine
et al. (1985) and Jood et al. (1998).
Seed density of six cultivars of lentil varied from 1.19-1.31 g/ml. Seed
density of L 9054 and LH 82-6 was found to be significantly higher than L 4076,
L 9-12, LH 82-6 and L 9-12. Seed density was lowest and no significant
difference in seed density of L 4076, L 9-12 and LH 82-6 was found.
 78

Hydration capacity and hydration index of six lentil cultivars ranged from
0.018-0.030 g/seed and 0.83-1.05, respectively. L 4076 had maximum hydration
capacity, whereas, hydration index was highest for L 9-12. The hydration capacity
and hydration index of LH 89-48 and L 9054, respectively was minimum. Ereifej
and Shibli (1995) reported 95.7-98.3 per cent hydration capacity. Whereas, Jood
et al. (1998) observed 0.019-0.026 ml/seed hydration capacity among three lentil
cultivars.
Among selected cultivars, L 4076 had maximum swelling capacity (4.2),
whereas LH 89-48 and L 9-12 had significantly lower swelling capacity than other
cultivars. No significant difference in swelling capacity LH 84-8, L 9054 and LH
82-6 was found, whereas, the swelling index of LH 82-6 was highest followed by
L 9-12, LH 89-48, LH 84-8, L 4076 and L 9054. Significant difference in the
swelling index of different cultivars was found 0.018-0.025 ml/seed. Swelling
capacity of three lentil cultivars was reported by Jood et al. (1998). Colour of
lentil cultivars has been given in Table 4.4.
4.1.3 Soybean
The moisture content of selected nine cultivars of soybean varied from
8.60-10.10 per cent. Saxena et al. (1994) also reported a range of 9.8-12.7 per
cent moisture for the six varieties of soybean. The difference in moisture content
may be due to different storage conditions.
1000 grain weight of different soybean cultivars ranged from 74.0-112.40
g. The grain weight of PK-1024 was highest followed by SH-40, PK-1274,
PK-1228, DS 97-12, SL-599, PK-472, Pusa 9901 and PK-416. No significant
difference in grain weight of DS 97-12, PK-1228, PK-472, Pusa-9901 and SL-599
was observed. Boora (1992) reported wide range in 1000 grain weight 121-217 g
for 14 soybean cultivars.
Grain hardness of soybean cultivars studied varied from 8.00 kg/grain to
11.90 kg/grain, it was highest for PK-1024 and lowest for PK-1228. No
significant difference in grain hardness of PK-1274, PK-472 and Pusa-9901 was
found. Dhingra (2001) found 11.27 kg/grain hardness for PK-416 cultivar.
 79

Cooking time is of paramount importance as most of legumes require a

long period of cooking. Cooking time of soybean cultivars ranged between
109.10-132.60 minutes. Cultivar PK-472 required maximum time to cook
followed by DS 97-12, PK-416, SL-599, PK-1228, PK-1274, PK-1024, Pusa-
9901and SH-40. No significant difference in the cooking time of Pusa-9901, PK-
1024 and PK-1274 was found but the cooking time of cultivars PK-472, PK-416,
SL-599, SH-40 and PK-1228 was significantly different from each other. Singh
(2001a) reported 80 to 85 minutes cooking time for cultivar JS-335 and JD 9041.
However, Chaudhary (2000) reported a longer time for soybean grains.
Seed density of nine cultivars of soybean ranged from 1.04 g/ml-1.22 g/ml
(Table 4.3). It was highest for SH-40 and lowest for DS 97-12. No significant
difference in seed density of SL-599, Pusa-9901, PK-1228 and PK-1024 was
observed. Giami (1997) (1.15-1.26 g/ml) and Singh (2000) (1.084-1.107 g/ml)
seed density of soybean have been reported.
Hydration capacity of different soybean cultivars ranged from 0.085-0.128
g/seed. DS 97-12 and PK-1274 had highest, whereas PK-416 had lowest
hydration capacity. Hydration capacity of DS 97-12 and PK-1274 was
significantly higher than other cultivars studied whereas no significant difference
in the hydration capacity of Pusa-9901, SL-599 and PK-1024 was found.
Hydration index of SH-40 was highest and of PK-416 was lowest. No significant
difference in the hydration index of DS 97-12, PK-1024, SH-40 and Pusda-9901
was observed.
The swelling capacity as well as swelling index of Pusa-9901 was
maximum, whereas swelling capacity and swelling index of PK-416 and PK-472
was minimum. No significant difference in the swelling capacity of different
cultivars except PK-416 was found. Those of PK-416 and SH-40 was
significantly lower than PK-472. No significant difference in the swelling index
of DS 97-12, PK-1024, PK-1228, Pusa-9901 and SL-599 was found whereas the
swelling index of PK-1274, PK-416, SH-40 and PK-472 was significantly lower
than those DS 97-12, PK-1024, PK-1228, Pusa-9901and SL-599. Colour of
soybean cultivars has been presented in Table 4.4.
 80

4.2 Functional properties

Data regarding functional properties viz. water absorption, oil absorption,
emulsification, gel consistency, gelation capacity, swelling capacity, flour
solubility, nitrogen solubility index and gelatinization temperature of different
cereals, lentil and soybean cultivars have been given in Table 4.5-4.7.
4.2.1 Cereals
The water and oil absorption of different cereals ranged from 1.60-1.79 and
1.47-1.64 g/g, respectively. The wheat had maximum water absorption but barley
had maximum oil absorption. Whereas both water and oil absorption of pearl
millet was minimum. Iyer and Singh (1997) and Sangwan (2002) also reported
similar results in wheat, sorghum and pearl millet.
Emulsification value for different cereals varied from 1.20-1.50 g, it was
highest for sorghum and lowest for barley. Emulsification for sorghum flour (1.5
g) was reported by Singh and Singh (1991).
Singh and Singh (1991), 1.5 g of sorghum, Iyer and Singh (1997), 1.30 g
hard wheat and 1.38 g of soft wheat, for emulsification capacity have been
reported.
The gel consistency of barley was maximum and of wheat was minimum.
The gel consistency of wheat was significantly lower than other cereals. No
significant difference in the gel consistency of pearl millet, barley, maize and
sorghum was observed (Table 4.5). The results of present study were in close
agreement with the study of Murty et al. 1983) and Chaudhary (2000).
Gelation capacity among different cereals ranged between 8.16-10.16 per
cent, it was maximum for maize and minimum for sorghum. The gelation capacity
of maize and pearl millet was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the gelation
capacity of wheat, barley and sorghum. No significant difference in the gelation
capacity of wheat, barley and sorghum was found. Singh and Singh (1991)
reported the less 5.5 per cent gelation capacity for pearl millet, whereas, 9.83-
10.16 per cent gelation capacity for pearl millet was reported by Malik and Singh
(2001).
81
 82

The swelling capacity and flour solubility of wheat was highest. The
swelling capacity of pearl millet and flour solubility of maize was lowest. No
significant difference in the swelling capacity of wheat and barley and of maize
and sorghum was found. The swelling capacity and flour solubility of pearl millet
was significantly lower than other cereals. The results of present observation were
in close consistent with the study of Subramanian et al. (1994) and Iyer and Singh
(1997).
The nitrogen solubility index of cereals ranged from 17.80-21.80 per cent,
it was higher for pearl millet followed by wheat, maize, sorghum and barley. No
significant difference was found. NSI of wheat was significantly higher than
maize, sorghum and barley whereas NSI of barley was significantly lower than
other cereals. Singh and Singh (1991) reported 16.1 per cent NSI for sorghum and
19.1 per cent NSI for soft wheat.
Gelatinization temperature of different cereals studied varied from 65C-
70C. No significant difference in the gelatinization temperature of pearl millet
and maize and of barley and sorghum was found. Gelatinization temperature of
pearl millet and maize was significantly higher than barley and sorghum and
gelatinization temperature of wheat was significantly lower than other cereals.
Gelatinization temperature of hard and soft wheat flour was found to be 67.5 and
72C, respectively by Iyer and Singh (1991) and 75C for pearl millet grits by
Chaudhary (2000).
4.2.2 Lentil
The water and oil absorption of different lentil cultivars ranged from 1.17-
1.28 g/g and 1.08-1.18 g/g, respectively. Water absorption was highest for L 9054
but oil absorption was highest for L 4076. No significant difference in the water
absorption of LH 89-48, L 9054 and L 4076 was found. Similarly, no significant
difference in oil absorption of L 4076, L 9054 and LH 89-48 was found.
The emulsification value and gel consistency of lentil cultivars L 4076 was
maximum. Whereas emulsification value and gel consistency of L 9054 was
83
 84

maximum. No significant difference in emulsification of L 4076, L 84-8 and LH

89-48 and gel consistency of L 84-8, L 9054, L 9-12 and LH 89-48 was found.
Gelation capacity for different lentil cultivars ranged between 11.30-12.83
per cent. LH 82-6 had highest and L 9054 had lowest gelation capacity. No
significant difference in he gelation capacity of LH 89-48, L 9-12, L 84-8 and L
4076 was found, the gelation capacity of these cultivars were significantly lower
than LH 82-6 and significantly higher than L 9054.
Swelling capacity of selected six cultivars varied from 4.50-5.00 per cent.
It was highest for L 9054 and lowest for LH 82-6. No significant difference in
swelling capacity of L 9054 and LH 89-48 and of L 4076 and L 9-12 was found.
The swelling capacity of these cultivars was significantly lower than L 9054 and
LH 89-48 but significantly higher than L 84-8 and LH 82-6.
Among different lentil cultivars the flour solubility and NSI ranged from
14.60-15.32 per cent and 47-53 per cent, respectively. LH 82-6 had significantly
higher flour solubility than others. However, the NSI of L 9054 was highest.
Flour solubility and NSI of L 9-12 was lowest. Gelatinization temperature among
different lentil cultivars ranged from 66C-74C (Table 4.6). The gelatinization
temperature was highest for L 9-12 followed by L 4076, L 84-8, L 89-48, L 9054
and LH 82-6. Except the gelatinization temperature of L 84-48 and LH 89-48, the
GT of other cultivars was significantly different from each other.
4.2.3 Soybean
Water and oil absorption for the different soybean cultivars ranged between
0.95-1.14 g and 0.84-1.09 per cent. The water and oil absorption were highest for
SL-599 and lowest for cultivar PK-1228. No significant difference in the water
absorption of SL-599, Pusa-9901, PK-416 and PK-1274 was found. However,
significant difference in the oil absorption among SL-599, PK-1024 and PK-1228
were observed. Lin et al. (1974) reported 1.30 g water and 0.844 g oil absorption
for soy flour.
The emulsification capacity of different soybean cultivars varied from 1.65-
2.11 g/g (Table 4.7). PK-1024 had highest and PK-472 had lowest emulsification
capacity. No significant difference in the emulsification capacity of SH-40,
 85

PK-472, PK-416 and PK-1228 but significant difference in the emulsification

capacity of PK-1024, PK-1274 and PK-472 were observed. Chaudhary (2000)
reported 2.73 g emulsification value for defatted soy flour.
Gel consistency and gelation capacity for different soybean cultivars ranged
between 57.40-59.30 mm gel spread and 14.16-17.0 per cent, respectively, gel
consistency was maximum for SH-40 and was minimum for PK-416. However,
the gelation capacity of PK-1228 was highest and of SL-599 was lowest. No
significant difference in the gelation capacity of DS 97-12, PK-1024 and PK-472
whereas significant difference in the gelation capacity of PK-1228, DS 97-12, PK-
416 and SL-599 was observed. The gelation capacity 9.5 per cent for partially
defatted soy flour (Singh, 2001), 16.5% for defatted soy flour (Chaudhary, 2000)
and 8.33 per cent for full fat soy flour (Sangwan, 2002) have been reported.
The swelling capacity of different soybean cultivars ranged from 3.50-3.95
per cent, SL-599 had maximum swelling capacity followed by PK-1274, Pusa-
9901, PK-416, SH-40, PK-472, PK-1024, DS 97-12 and PK-1228. No significant
difference in swelling capacity of PK-1274 and SL-599 was found.
Flour solubility for selected nine soybean cultivars ranged from 11.00-
12.73 per cent. It was highest for Pusa-9901 and lowest for PK-1274. No
significant difference in flour solubility of SH-40, PK-472 and PK-1228 was
found. Sangwan (2002) found 1.22 g/g and 13.87 per cent swelling capacity and
flour solubility in full fat soy flour.
The NSI of different soybean cultivars ranged from 25-31.50 per cent. The
NSI of PK-1024 was highest followed by SH-40, PK-1274, PK-416, DS 97-12,
PK-1228, Pusa-9901, PK-472 and SL-599. The NSI of SL-599 was significantly
lower than others. Singh (2001) reported 45.5 per cent NSI for partially defatted
soy flour whereas Sangwan (2002) found 24.59 per cent NSI for full fat soy flour.
Gelatinization temperature among different soybean cultivars ranged
between 68C-78C. It was highest for cultivar PK-1274 and lowest for Pusa-
9901. No significant difference in SH-40, PK-472 and PK-1228 were observed.
Results were in close proximity with the findings of Chaudhary (2000). She
reported 75C gelatinization temperature for soy flour.
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4.3 Nutritional evaluation

4.3.1 Proximate composition
Proximate composition of different cereals, lentil and soybean cultivars
have been shown in Table 4.8 – 4.10.
4.3.1.1 Cereals
Moisture content of different cereals ranged from 4.42-7.41 per cent. It was
highest in wheat and was lowest in pearl millet (Table 4.8). Crude fat content was
highest (6.80%) in pearl millet, followed by maize (5.60%), sorghum (3.80%),
wheat (2.80%) and barley (2.60%). The results of fat in the present study are
consistent with those mentioned by previous workers (Srivastav et al., 1990;
Kumari, 1995; Sundberg et al., 1995; Rekha, 1997; Navas and Garcia, 2000).
Crude protein of different cereals ranged from 9.35-11.60 per cent, it was
minimum in barley and maximum in wheat. No significant difference in protein
content of wheat and maize was found. Similarly, no significant difference in
protein content of barley, sorghum and pearl millet was observed. Protein content
obtained in different cereals was close to that reported by Malik (1999), Ismail et
al. (2000), Singh (2000), Dhingra (2001) and Kumari (2002).
On the other hand, crude fibre and ash content of barley was highest.
Crude fibre content was lowest in maize whereas ash content was lowest in wheat
and sorghum. Results in Table 4.8 indicate that barley contained highest crude
fibre and ash but lowest fat, protein, carbohydrate and energy whereas protein and
fat content of wheat and pearl millet was highest among all the cereals studied.
The crude fibre content of different cereals observed in the present study was
comparable to the range reported earlier by Gopalan et al. (1995), Abdalla et al.
(1998), Annapura (1998), Darade et al. (1999), Aminigo and Oguntunde (2000)
and Singh (2000).
Carbohydrate content was 75.82 per cent in sorghum followed by wheat
(75.56%), Maize (75.54%), pearl millet (73.47%) and barley (72.39%). Similar
values for carbohydrate content of pearl millet (Raghuvanshi et al., 1997),
however, higher range of carbohydrate content for maize (81.68%) and sorghum
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(78.7%) was reported by Tchango (1995) and Iwuoha et al. (1997) and lower
range from 70.1-72.5 per cent for wheat was reported by Gopalan et al. (1991),
Ranhotra (1991) and Lovis (2003).
Energy content of different cereals ranged from 350.4-398.2 Kcal. It was
highest for maize followed by pearl millet, sorghum, wheat and barley. The
energy content of different cereals was significantly different from each other.
The energy content of 361 and 341 Kcal for wheat and sorghum, respectively was
reported by Lovis (2003).
4.3.1.2 Lentil
Fat, protein, crude fibre, ash, carbohydrates and energy content of different
lentil cultivars ranged from 1.05-1.40, 22.56-31.00, 3.42-4.42, 2.21-2.60, 53.94-
61.85 per cent and 349-445.6 Kcal, respectively. Cultivar L-9054 had significantly
higher content of protein, crude fibre and ash. Whereas, the carbohydrate and
energy content were significantly higher in variety L 9-12. Fat content was lowest
in L-9054. However, no significant difference in fat of different cultivars was
found. Moisture content of different lentil cultivars ranged from 7.12-7.65 per
cent. It might be due to different storage conditions. The results of present study
are in close agreement with the findings of Bhatty (1995), Raghuvanshi and
Bhattacharya (1999).
4.3.1.3 Soybean
The crude fat, crude protein, crude fibre, ash, carbohydrate and energy
content of different soybean cultivars ranged from 21.00-28.10, 35.42-41.78, 3.00-
5.05, 4.45-5.60, 21.40-29.83 per cent and 450.8-483.8 Kcal, respectively, on dry
matter basis. Cultivar PK-1228 contained significantly higher amount of fat, ash
and energy. However, the protein content was highest in cultivar PK-1024, but it
was not significantly different from the protein content of cultivar SH-40. PK-416
contained significantly higher content of crude fibre whereas SL-599 contained
significantly higher content of carbohydrates. The results of proximate
composition of soybean cultivars are consistent with those mentioned by
previous workers (Kulkarni et al., 1985; Savitri and Desikachar, 1990; Kumar et
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al., 1992; Grewal, 1992; Jha and Bargale, 1993; Saxena et al. (1994);
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Iwuoha et al., 1997; Singh et al., 2001). However, lower value for fat reported by
Kulkarni et al. (1985) Saxena et al. (1994) and for ash by Singh (2001).
4.3.2 Carbohydrate profile of cereals, lentil and soybean
Results of total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugars and starch
content of staple cereals, lentil and soybean have been presented in Table 4.11-
4.13.
4.3.2.1 Cereals
Starch content of different cereals varied from 60.81- 69.10 per cent.
Maize contained highest and wheat contained lowest starch content. The starch
content of different cereals varied significantly from each other. Similar findings
were reported by earlier workers (Kumari, 1995; Hadimani et al., 1995; Ismail et
al., 2000; Kumari, 2002).
Wheat contained significantly higher total sugars and non-reducing sugars,
whereas the total sugar and non-reducing sugars content was minimum in pearl
millet and maize, respectively. No significant difference in the total soluble sugars
of maize and sorghum was observed whereas, it was significantly different in
wheat, maize, barley and pearl millet. On the other hand, no significant difference
in the non-reducing sugar of barley, maize and sorghum was found but significant
difference in non-reducing sugar content of wheat and pearl millet was observed.
Among different cereals, reducing sugars ranged between 0.45 and 1.67 per
cent, it was lowest in pearl millet and highest in maize. The reducing sugars
content of maize, sorghum, wheat and pearl millet differed significantly (P<0.05)
from each other. Whereas no significant different in reducing sugar content of
wheat and barley was found. The results are in close agreement with the study of
earlier workers (Sekhon et al., 1980; Raghuvanshi et al., 1999; Darade et al.,
1999; Kalra, 1996; Kumari, 1996).
4.3.2.2 Lentil
Starch content among different lentil cultivars ranged between 38.76-48.55
per cent. It was highest in L 9-12 and lowest in L 9054 cultivars. The starch
content of different lentil cultivars varied significantly from each other (49-65%).
Starch content was reported by Jood et al. (1998). Lentil cultivars, L 4076
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contained highest total soluble sugars (7.89%), reducing sugars (0.68%) and non-
reducing sugars, whereas cultivar L 9-12 contained lowest total soluble and non-
reducing sugar. Reducing sugar was found to be lowest in L 9054 cultivar. No
significant difference in the non-reducing sugars of L 4076, L 84-8, L 9054 and
LH 82-6 and reducing sugars of L 84-8 and LH 89-49 was found whereas
significant difference in non-reducing sugars of LH 89-48 and L 9-12 and
reducing sugar of L 4076, L 84-8, L 9-12 and L 9054 cultivars was observed.
Jood et al. (1998) reported 7.9-8.9% total soluble sugars, 520-620 mg reducing
sugars and 7.4-8.3 per cent non-reducing sugars among three lentil cultivars viz.
LH 84-8, L 9-12 and LH 82-6.
4.3.2.3 Soybean
Starch content of soybean cultivars was low (2.43-3.25%). It was highest
in SL-599 and lowest in PK-1024. No significant difference in starch content of
SH-40, PK-1024 and Pusa-9901, DS 9712 cultivars was found . Grewal (1992)
also reported only 2.49 per cent starch in soybean.
Total sugar, reducing and non-reducing sugar content of soybean cultivars
ranged from 5.72-7.00, 0.51-1.10 and 4.85-5.90%, respectively. Soybean cultivar
SH-40 contained maximum total soluble sugar, reducing sugars and non-reducing
sugar, whereas PK-1228 contained lowest total soluble sugar and non-reducing
sugars and PK-416 contained lowest reducing sugar content. Results of present
study were in close proximity with the studies of Grewal (1992), Rawat et al.
(1994), Dogra et al. (2001), Shrestha and Noomhorm (2001) and Sangwan (2002).
4.3.3 Dietary fibre
The results of dietary fibre contents of cereals, lentil and soybean cultivars
have been presented in Table 4.14-4.16.
4.3.3.1 Cereals
Barley contained significantly higher total dietary fibre (13.65%), soluble
fibre (3.25%) and insoluble dietary fibre (10.40%) whereas maize contained
lowest total and soluble dietary fibre but the insoluble dietary fibre was minimum
in sorghum. No significant difference in total dietary fibre of wheat and pearl
millet as well as maize and sorghum was found. However, the soluble dietary
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fibre among different cereals varied significantly from each other . No significant
difference in insoluble dietary fibre of maize and sorghum but significant
difference in insoluble dietary fibre content of wheat, pearl millet and barley was
observed. The results of present study were in close proximity with Southgate
(1978), Frolich and Hestangen (1983), Newman et al. (1990), Ravindran (1991),
Ramulu and Rao (1997), Hooda (2002) and Kumari (2002).
4.3.3.2 Lentil
Total and insoluble dietary fibre among six lentil cultivars ranged from
15.85-16.60 per cent and 14.05-14.60 per cent, respectively. Cultivar LH-82-6
contained highest total and insoluble dietary fibre, whereas the total and insoluble
dietary fibre was lowest in L 4076 and LH 89-48, respectively. No significant
difference in total dietary fibre of cultivars L 84-8 and L 9-12 as well as LH 89-
48 and L 4076 was found whereas it was significantly different in LH 82-6 and
L 9054 cultivars. Similarly no significant difference in insoluble dietary fibre of
L 84-8, L 9054 and L 9-12 cultivars as well as LH 89-48 and L 4076 was found.
Soluble dietary fibre of different lentil cultivars ranged between 1.80-2.10 per
cent, it was highest in L 9054 and lowest in L 4076 cultivars (Table 4.15). Soluble
dietary fibre of LH-84-8 and L 9-12 was not different whereas it was significantly
different in L 4076 , L 9-12 and L 9054. Massina (1999) reported 4.0 g dietary
fibre in lentil. Maria et al. (1997) reported 19.2 per cent total dietary fibre, 17.3
per cent insoluble dietary fibre and 1.83 per cent soluble dietary fibre,
respectively.
4.3.3.3 Soybean
The total and insoluble dietary fibre content of different soybean cultivars
ranged between 16.60-19.50 per cent and 14.45-17.43 per cent, respectively.
Cultivar PK-472 contained highest and Pusa 9901 contained total and insoluble
dietary fibre. The total and insoluble dietary fibre among different soybean
cultivars varied significantly from each other. Soluble dietary fibre in different
cultivars was 2.00-2.38 per cent, it was highest in SH-40 and was lowest in DS 97-
12 cultivar. No significant difference in the soluble dietary fibre of PK-1024,
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PK-1228, PK-1274, Pusa 9901 and SH-40 was found. Sauthgate and White
(1981) reported 11.0 per cent total dietary fibre for soybean .
4.3.4 Total minerals
Data regarding the total mineral content of cereals, lentil and soybean have
been presented in Table 4.17-4.19.
4.3.4.1 Cereals
The calcium and phosphorus ranged between 11.80-54.20 mg and
219.7-364.4 mg/100 g of sample. Wheat contained highest calcium and
phosphorus. Whereas maize and sorghum contained lowest calcium and
phosphorus content, respectively. The calcium content among different cereals
differed significantly except the phosphorus content of pearl millet and maize.
Results of present study are in agreement with the findings of other workers (Jood,
1990; Saibaba, 1990; Ranhotra et al., 1991; Gopalan et al., 2000; Poonam, 2000;
Kumari, 2002; Sangwan, 2002).
Iron and zinc in different cereals varied from 2.31-9.10 mg and 2.26-3.08
mg per gram of sample. Pearl millet contained highest iron and zinc whereas the
iron and zinc content was lowest in barley and maize, respectively. Iron content of
different cereals was significantly different from each other. Whereas no
significant difference in the zinc content of barley, maize and sorghum as well as
wheat and pearl millet was found. Similar results have been reported by Alpana
(1989), Tchango (1995), Kalra (1996), Archana (1997), Gopalan et al. (2000) and
Kumari (2002).
4.3.4.2 Lentil
The calcium and phosphorus content of different lentil cultivars ranged
from 51.30-74.20 mg and 360.0-385.0 mg/100 g, respectively. Cultivar L 9054
had maximum calcium and phosphorus was highest in LH 82-6 whereas calcium
and phosphorus was minimum in cultivar L 4076. No significant difference in
calcium content of L 4076, L 84-8, L 9-12 and LH 89-48 as well as LH 82-6 and L
9054 and phosphorus content of L 9054, L 9-12 and LH 82-6 was found. Whereas
the LH 82-6, LH 89-48 and L 84-8 had significantly different calcium.
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Sharma et al. (1996) reported 44.4-62.4 mg/100 g calcium and higher calcium
(411.6-458.5 mg/100 g) in lentil have been reported by Ereifej and Shibli (1995).
Iron and zinc for different lentil varieties studies ranged from 6.80-7.20 mg
and 5.71-7.10 mg/100 g, respectively. Iron and zinc content was highest in L 9054
and lowest in L 84-8 cultivar. No significant difference in the iron content of
different lentil cultivars was found. Whereas the zinc content of L 9054, LH 89-
48, L 9-12 and L 84-8 was significantly different from each other . Ereifej and
Shibli (1995) found 9.2-13.3 mg/100 g iron and 4.9-9.2 mg/100 g zinc which are
in close agreement with the results of present study.
4.3.4.3 Soybean
PK-1024 cultivar of soybean contained highest calcium (255.2 mg) and
phosphorus (514.2 mg) whereas SL-599 cultivar contained lowest calcium (230.2
mg) and phosphorus (496.1 mg). No significant difference in calcium content of
PK-1274 and PK-416 as well as SH-40 and PK-1228 and phosphorus content of
DS 97-12, PK-1228, PK-1274, PK-416, PK-472, Pusa-9901 and SH-40 was found
whereas significant difference in calcium content of PK 1024, DS 97-12 and
SL-599 and phosphorus content of PK-1024 and SL-599 was found. Similar
findings were reported by Singh (2001).
Iron and zinc content of different soybean cultivars varied from 8.40-11.20
mg and 7.16-7.89 mg/g, respectively. Iron and zinc was highest in variety Pusa-
9901 and PK-1024 respectively, whereas, cultivar PK-472 contained minimum
iron and zinc. A significant difference in iron content of Pusa-9901, SH-40, PK-
1274 and PK-472 whereas no significant difference in iron content of DS 97-12,
PK-1228 and SL-599 and zinc content of DS 97-12, PK-1224, PK-1228, PK-1274,
Pusa-9901, SH-40 and SL-599 was found. Similar results have been reported by
Grewal (1992).
4.3.5 Antinutrients
Data regarding antinutrient content of different cereals, lentil and soybean
have been given in Table 4.20-4.22.
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4.3.5.1 Cereals
Phytic acid content of cereals was found to be 604-700 mg/100 g, it was
highest of pearl millet and lowest in maize. No significant difference in phytic
acid content of wheat and sorghum was found . However, pearl millet, barley,
sorghum and maize contained significantly different phytic acid. Kumari (1995),
Kumari (2002) and Poonam (2002) also reported similar values. Polyphenol
content in different cereals ranged from 465-800 mg/100 g, it was lowest in wheat
and highest in sorghum. Polyphenol content of different cereals was significantly
(P<0.05) different from each other. The results of present study are in close
agreement with the study of Jood (1990), Hira et al. (1991), Sharma (1994), Kalra
(1996), Darade et al. (1999) and Sangwan (2002).
Trypsin inhibitor activity in different cereals was 38.30-414.6 TIU/g, it
was maximum in wheat and minimum in barley. No significant difference in the
trypsin inhibitor activity of pearl millet, barley and sorghum as well as wheat and
maize was found. Similar findings have been reported by Duhan et al. (1986),
Kumari (1995) and Kumari (2002).
4.3.5.2 Lentil
The phytic acid content of different lentil cultivars ranged from 1120-1256
mg/100 g . It was maximum in LH 84-8 and minimum in L 9054. Significant
difference in phytic acid content of L 84-8, L 9-12, LH 89-48, L 4076 and L 9054
was found. Sharma et al. (1996) reported 1416-1558 mg/100 g phytic acid in
three varieties of lentil.
Polyphenols in six cultivars of lentil varied from 480-540 mg/100 g, it was
highest in L 9-12 and lowest in cultivar LH 82-6. A significant difference in
polyphenol content of L 9-12, L 4076, L 84-8 and LH 8948 was found.
Raghuvanshi and Bhattacharya reported 384.6-769.2 mg/100 g polyphenols in
lentil cultivars.
Trypsin inhibitor activity was lowest in L 9054 (1500 TIU/g) and highest in
LH 89-48 (1638 TIU/g). No significant difference in TIA of LH 82-6 and LH 89-
48 as well as L 4076 and L 84-8 was found. Bahnassey et al. (1986) reported 3.94
mg/g trypsin inhibitor activity in lentils.
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4.3.5.3 Soybean
Phytic acid content of different soybean cultivars varied from 1340-1400
mg/100 g, it was highest in DS 97-12 and PK-1024 and lowest in SH-40. No
significant difference in phytic acid content of SH-40 and PK-1274 was found.
No significance difference in phytic acid of other cultivars was found. Results of
present study were in close agreement with the study of Grewal (1992), Duhan
(1994), Singh (2001) and Sangwan (2002).
Polyphenol among selected nine cultivars of soybean ranged from 616 and
783 mg/100 g. PK-1274 contained minimum and SL-599 contained maximum
polyphenol. No significant difference in polyphenol content of DS 97-12, Pusa-
9901 and SL-599 as well as PK-416 and PK-1024 but significantly different
polyphenol content in PK-472, PK-1028, SH-40 and PK-1274 was found.
Polyphenol ranged from 572-720 mg/100 g reported by Saxena et al. (1994).
Singh (2001) found 323.2-358.8 mg/100 g in soybeans.
Trypsin inhibitor activity of soybean cultivars varied from 2185-2687
TIU/mg, it was highest in SL-599 and lowest in PK-1228. Significant difference
in TIA of different soybean cultivars except PK-472 and Pusa-9901 was found.
Similar results have been reported by Grewal (1992) and Saxena et al. (1994).
However, higher values by Singh (2001) have been reported.
4.3.6 In vitro digestibilities
Results of in vitro protein and starch digestibility of cereals, lentils and
soybean have been presented in Table 4.23-4.25.
4.3.6.1 Cereals
In vitro protein and starch digestibility of different cereals ranged between
64.37-70.83 per cent and 17.12-36.52 mg maltose released/g, respectively. Wheat
had maximum in vitro protein digestibility and maize had highest in vitro starch
digestibility. It might be due to lower antinutrients in wheat and maize. In vitro
protein as well as in vitro starch digestibility was lowest in pearl millet. No
significant difference in protein digestibility (in vitro) of wheat, maize and
sorghum was observed, however, it was significantly higher than in vitro protein
digestibility of barley and pearl millet. Similarly, no significant difference in the
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in vitro starch of wheat and sorghum was found but significant difference in the in
vitro digestibility of maize, barley and pearl millet was observed. Results of
present work were in close proximity with the findings of Kumari (1995), Jood
and Kapoor (1992), Hassan and Tinay (1993), Palande (1996) Hooda (2002) and
Sangwan (2002).
4.3.6.2 Lentil
In vitro protein digestibility of different lentil cultivars varied from 47.20 to
40.50 per cent. It was highest in cultivar L 9054 and lowest in LH 82-6. Higher
digestibility of L 9054 may be due to lower presence of antinutrients (Table 4.21).
No significant difference in protein digestibility of L 4076, L 84-8, L 9-12 and
LH 82-6 cultivars was found. Jood et al. (1998) reported 40-80 per cent in vitro
protein digestibility of lentil cultivars.
In vitro starch digestibility of lentils ranged from 22.43-31.42 mg maltose
released/g, it was highest in LH 82-6 cultivar due to higher starch content and
lower antinutrient present in the same cultivars (Table 4.21) and lowest in cultivar
L 9-12. Significant different in in vitro starch digestibility of LH 82-6, L 4076 and
L 9-12 and no difference in cultivars LH 89-48, L 9054 and L 84-8 cultivars was
observed. Results were in consent with the study of Jood et al. (1998).
4.3.6.3 Soybean
In vitro protein digestibility of different soybean cultivars varied from
52.80-56.70 per cent, it was highest in cultivar SH-40 and lowest in SL-599. It
might be due to higher antinutrient content of cultivar SL-599 (Table 4.22)
whereas SH-40 contained significantly lower antinutrients than SL-599. No
significant difference in protein digestibility (in vitro) of DS 97-12, PK-1024,
PK-1228, PK-1274, PK-416 and SH-40 cultivars and of PK 472, Pusa-9901 and
SL-599 was found.
In vitro starch digestibility of selected nine soybean cultivars ranged from
20.48-25.80 mg maltose released/g, it was highest in cultivar Pusa-9901 followed
by DS 97-12, PK-1228, PK-472, SL-599, PK-416, SH-40, PK-1024 and PK-1274
cultivar. No significant difference in starch digestibility (in vitro) of PK-1228,
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PK-472 and SL-599 and of SH-40 and PK-416 was found. Whereas, it was
significantly different between Pusa-9901, DS 97-12, PK-1024 and PK-1274.
Sangwan (2002) found 33.67 mg maltose released/g in in vitro digestibility in
soybean. In contrast to this Singh (2001) found 10.80-12.00 mg maltose
released/g.
Data in Table 4.26 indicate a significant negative correlation between
antinutrients viz. phytic acid, polyphenol and trypsin inhibitor activity and in vitro
digestibilities of protein and similar correlation between starch digestibility
(in vitro) and phytic acid and TIA was reported by Kumari (2002) and between
antinutrient viz. phytic acid, polyphenols, TIA and in vitro protein digestibility for
soybean was reported by Grewal (1992).
4.4 Organoleptic evaluation of developed products
Commonly consumed baked products viz. chapati, sponge cake, sweet and
salty biscuits, bread and extruded products like macroni and noodles were
prepared by incorporating 15% soy flour (SC1) or 15% soy flour either with 15%
pearl millet (SC2) or barley (SC3), or maize (SC4) and sorghum flour (SC5) and
with lentil flour by replacing wheat flour at 5% (LC 1), 10% (LC2) or 15% (LC3)
(Table 4.27-4.40). All products were organoleptically evaluated, using 9-point
hedonic rating scale.
4.4.1 Baked products
4.4.1.1 Chapati
Mean organoleptic scores indicate that chapati prepared with control were
“liked very much” in terms of all sensory attributes (Table 4.27). Supplementation
of soy flour (Sc1) or soy flour either with pearl millet (SC 2) or barley (SC3) or
maize (SC4) or sorghum flour (SC5) in chapatis decreased the mean scores for all
the sensory characteristics. The chapatis prepared using sorghum flour along with
soy flour (SC5) were given lowest score for texture and taste. However,
significant decrease in the mean scores for taste of the chapati prepared with 15%
soy flour (SC1) and flavour of chapati prepared using maize-sorghum (SC4) and
taste and texture of chapati prepared with sorghum-soy flour (SC5) was witnessed.
No significant difference in the mean scores for other sensory attributes of
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chapatis prepared with different composite flours was witnessed. As a result, the
chapati prepared from composite flours were “liked moderately” in terms of
overall acceptability (Plate 7). Grewal (1992) and Duhan (1994) prepared chapati
supplemented with soy flour upto 35% level and reported that chapati in terms of
all sensory attributes were “liked moderately” to “liked very much”. Similarly, the
mean scores for various sensory attributes decreased with use of 5, 10 and 15 per
cent lentil flour in chapati. No significant difference in the mean scores of overall
acceptability by chapati prepared by supplementing 5 per cent lentil flour were
found, whereas further increase of lentil flour to 10 and 15% level decreased the
mean scores for overall acceptability of chapati significantly. However, the
chapatis supplemented with lentil flour were “liked moderately” in terms of all
sensory attributes (Plate 8). Results showed that 10 per cent lentil flour can be
added for value addition of wheat flour chapati.
4.4.1.1.1 Physical characteristics of chapati
Pliability of control chapati was 4.5 cm (Table 4.28). No significant
difference in the pliability of chapati supplemented with barley flour was
witnessed as compared to control. But, significant decrease in pliability of
chapatis prepared using soy flour or soy flour along with pearl millet, maize or
sorghum flour was found. Similarly, significant decrease in pliability of chapati
was noted when lentil flour was supplemented; higher the level of
supplementation, lower was pliability of chapati. Control chapati puffed rapidly
and puffing was 5.2 cm. A significant decrease in puffing of chapati prepared
after supplementation of 15% soy flour or 15 per cent soy flour either with pearl
millet, barley maize or sorghum flour was witnessed. Similarly, chapati
supplemented with 5, 10 and 15 per cent lentil flour had significantly lower
puffing quality as compared to control.
4.4.1.2 Bread
Bread prepared from control were “liked very much” in terms of overall
acceptability (Table 4.29). A significant decrease in the mean scores for all the
sensory attributes of breads prepared by supplementing soy flour with or without
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other cereals was observed as compared to control. However, the breads

supplemented
with soy flour (SC1) or soy flour along with pearl millet (SC2) or barley (SC3) flour
were adjudged as liked moderately whereas bread supplemented with soyflour
along with maize (SC4) or sorghum flour (SC5) were “liked slightly” in terms of
overall acceptability (Plate 9). Further perusal of data shows that the scores for
crumb grain, texture and odour and taste were lowest for the bread prepared using
soy-maize (SC4) flour. Whereas the scores for crust colour were lowest in case of
bread prepared with soy-sorghum flour (SC5). As a result, the mean total scores
for these breads (SC4 and SC5) were significantly lower than breads prepared using
control and soy flour (SC1) in the bread formulae. Results indicate that 15% soy
flour alone or with other cereals can be added for value addition of wheat based
breads.
On the other hand, the mean total scores increased with the use of 5% lentil
flour in bread formulae, however, further increase in lentil flour to 10 or 15% level
decreased the mean total scores. No significant difference in the mean scores of
various attributes of breads prepared by supplementing 5 to 10% lentil flour was
observed. However, further increase of lentil flour to 15% level decreased the
mean scores for crust colour, crumb grain and overall acceptability significantly.
Panel members indicated that the breads supplemented with lentil flour were softer
and had a porous structure. Results indicate that 10% lentil flour can be
incorporated in the bread formulae for value addition.
4.4.1.2.1 Physical characteristics of bread
Physical characteristics of breads prepared using control, soy flour alone or
with other cereals has been depicted in Table 4.30. Loaf weight and loaf volume
of control bread was 158.3 g and 690 cc , respectively. Specific loaf volume of
bread was 4.35 cc/g. No significant difference in loaf weight of SC 4 and control
was found but loaf weight and loaf volume of the breads prepared by
supplementing soy flour (SC1) or soy flour along with pearl millet (SC 2), barley
(SC3) and sorghum flour (SC5) decreased significantly as compared to control.
Perusal of data shows that the specific loaf volume of soy-pearl millet (SC 2)
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supplemented breads significantly improved and no significant difference in

specific loaf volume of soy (SC1) and soy-barley (SC3) supplemented breads as
compared to control. However, SLV of bread supplemented with soy-maize or
soy-sorghum flour was significantly lower than other breads. Enzyme active soy
flour improves the rheological properties of wheat flour dough and enhancing their
baking and nutritional properties (Faubian and Hoseney, 1981).
On the other hand, no significant difference in weight but significant
decrease in the loaf volume and specific loaf volume of bread supplemented with
5, 10 and 15% lentil flour as compared to control was found (Plate 10). Results of
the present study lend support by the study of Gupta (2001).
4.4.1.3 Sweet biscuits
Mean organoleptic scores for sweet biscuits showed that control biscuits
were “liked very much” in terms of all sensory attributes (Table 4.31).
Supplementation of soy flour (SC1) or soy flour with pearl millet flour (SC2)
increased the mean scores for all the sensory attributes. As a result, soy or soy-
pearl millet supplemented biscuits were “liked very much”. The highest mean
scores were given for colour and texture of biscuits prepared with 15% soy flour.
No significant difference or improvement in the mean scores for various sensory
attributes of sweet biscuits prepared by supplementing soy-barley (SC 3) or soy-
maize (SC4) or soy-sorghum (SC5) flour (Plate-11). Rao et al. (1984) prepared
protein rich biscuits of acceptable quality using jowar, soybean and skim milk in
60:30:10 proportion and found very much acceptable to population. Similarly, the
mean scores for colour, appearance, flavour, texture of overall acceptability of the
biscuits prepared by supplementing 10% lentil flour increased than 5% lentil or
control biscuits. Further increase in the level of lentil flour to 15% decreased the
mean scores of various sensory characteristics of biscuits, however, there was no
significant difference in the mean scores for various sensory attributes of these
biscuits (Plate 12). As a result, the sweet biscuits prepared by supplementing 5, 10
or 15% lentil flour were “liked very much”. It may be concluded from results that
15% soy flour or 10% lentil flour can be successfully incorporated for value
addition of biscuits.
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4.4.1.4 Sweet and salty biscuits

Mean scores for various sensory characteristics of sweet and salty biscuits
showed that biscuits prepared using wheat flour (control) were “liked moderately”
in terms of all the sensory characteristics (Table 4.33). The mean scores for
colour, appearance, flavour, texture, taste and overall acceptability of biscuits
prepared using different composite flours increased, except biscuits supplemented
with soy flour (SC1), however, significant increase only in the mean score of taste
was found. The composite biscuits except soy-supplemented biscuits (SC 1) were
“liked very much” in terms of overall acceptability. The mean scores for
appearance, texture and overall acceptability of soy-supplemented biscuits (SC 1)
were significantly lower than control. However, these biscuits were “liked
moderately” in terms of overall acceptability. Similarly, the mean scores for
appearance, texture, taste and overall acceptability of biscuits prepared by
supplementing 5 or 10% lentil flour increased but significant improvement in the
mean scores of taste of lentil supplemented biscuits was witnessed. Further
increase in supplementation of lentil flour to 15% decreased the mean scores for
colour, appearance and overall acceptability but no significant difference was
found as compared to control. As a result, biscuits prepared using lentil flour at 5,
10 or 15% supplementation level were “liked moderately” to “liked very much” in
terms of overall acceptability. The colour score of various legume flours
supplemented biscuits did not differ much (Patel and Rao, 1996; Sharma et al.,
1999; Gupta, 2001).
4.4.1.4.1 Physical characteristics of biscuits
Results of physical characteristics of sweet and sweet and salty biscuits
have been depicted in Table 4.32 and 4.34. The thickness, diameter and spread
ratio of control sweet biscuits were 1.30 cm, 4.36 cm and 3.30, respectively but
the thickness of biscuits increased the diameter of biscuits prepared by
supplementing soy flour (SC1) or soy with pearl millet (SC 2) or barley (SC3) or
maize (SC4) and sorghum (SC5) flour decreased (Plate 13). As a result, the spread
ratio of biscuits prepared by supplementing soy flour alone or soy flour with other
cereals decreased significantly. The lowest spread ratio of biscuits prepared by
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supplementing maize-soy or sorghum-soy was found. Similar trend was observed

for thickness, diameter and spread ratio of sweet and salty biscuits prepared by
composite flours (Table 4.34). Similarly, the both types of biscuits supplemented
with 5, 10 or 15% lentil flour had increased thickness but decreased diameter and
spread ratio than control (Plate 14). Data show that supplementation with lentil
flour upto 5% level had no significant difference with lentil flour upto 5% level
had no significant difference in thickness, diameter and spread ratio of biscuits as
compared to control. Whereas, further increase in supplementation of lentil flour
i.e. 10 or 15% resulted in significant increase in thickness but decrease in the
diameter and spread ratio of both types of biscuits. Results indicated that 10%
lentil flour could be incorporated for value addition. Gupta (2001) developed
biscuits supplemented with lentil flour @ 10, 20 or 30% level and found that as
the supplementation level increased, thickness of biscuits was increased but spread
ratio and diameter were decreased.
4.4.1.5 Cakes
Mean organoleptic scores indicated that cake prepared using 100% wheat
flour were “satisfactory” in terms of overall acceptability (Plate 15). The mean
scores for various characteristics decreased when soy flour alone or in
combination with other cereals was supplemented in wheat flour. However, no
significant decrease in crumb colour and flavour of cake was found. Except the
cells of cake prepared using SC1 or SC5, significant decreased mean scores of
cells, grain and texture was found (Table 4.35). But the cakes were “satisfactory”
in terms of overall acceptability. In cakes, soy-fortified flour can be incorporated
to reduce egg or milk usage, improve moisture retention and aid in formulating
low-cholesterol products (McWard, 1995). On the other side, cakes prepared by
supplementing 5, 10 and 15% lentil flour were “satisfactory” in terms of overall
acceptability supplementation of lentil flour upto 15% level decreased the mean
scores for grain and overall acceptability but no significant difference in the mean
scores for cell, texture, flavour and crumb colour was seen. As a result, all the
cakes supplemented with lentil flour were organoleptically acceptable.
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4.4.1.5.1 Physical characteristics of sponge cake

Control cake weighed 245 g with a loaf volume 1020 cc and specific loaf
volume 4.16 cc/g (Table 4.36). With the supplementation of soy flour (SC 1)
decrease in loaf volume, increase in volume index but no change in SLV was
witnessed. Whereas supplementation of soy flour with pearl millet (SC 2), barley
(SC3), maize (SC4) and sorghum flour (SC5) in cakes decreased the loaf volume,
volume index and SLV. Whereas all the cakes were uniform and symmetric.
On the other hand, 5, 10 and 15% lentil flour were used in cake formulae
and cakes were uniform and symmetric. Results indicated that 15% lentil flour
could be incorporated for value addition of wheat based cake.
4.4.2 Extruded products
Mean scores of various sensory attributes of macroni and noodles have
been presented in Table 4.37 and 4.39.
4.4.2.1 Macroni
Macroni developed from 100% whole wheat flour were “liked very much”
in terms of all sensory characteristics. No significant difference in the mean
scores of various sensory attributes of macroni prepared with supplementation of
soy flour with pearl millet (SC2), barley (SC3), maize (SC4) and sorghum (SC5)
flour as compared to control were observed. The mean scores for colour and
appearance were significantly lower for macroni prepared with supplementation of
soy flour (Table 4.37). As a result, the overall acceptability of these macroni were
significantly lower than control. However, macroni were “liked moderately”
(Plate 17). Kumari (2002) made macroni from three cereal grains, i.e. wheat,
barley and corn and their mixture with (10% DSF). All macroni were “liked
moderately” to “liked very much” in terms of all sensory attributes.
On the other hand, no significant difference in various sensory attributes of
macroni prepared with 5 to 15% lentil flour and control was found (Plate 18). As
a result, macroni prepared with 5 to 15% lentil flour were “liked very much” in
terms of colour, appearance, texture and overall acceptability.
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4.4.2.2 Noodles
Mean organoleptic score for colour, appearance, flavour, texture, taste and
overall acceptability indicated that noodles (Plate-19) prepared from 100% whole
wheat flour were “liked moderately”. It can be seen from the Table 4.39, the mean
scores for the appearance, flavour, texture and overall acceptability of noodles
prepared using soy-barley (SC3) were highest. However, no significant difference
in the mean scores of various sensory attributes of different noodles prepared by
supplementing soy flour alone or with other cereals viz. pearl millet, maize and
sorghum was found. As a result, the noodles prepared using soy flour (SC 1) or
different composite flour were “liked moderately” in terms of overall
acceptability.
Similarly, no significant difference in the mean score except colour of
noodles prepared by supplementing lentil flour were noted. As compared to
control, the mean scores for colour of noodles decreased with use of 5% lentil
flour (Table 4.39). However, no significant difference in overall acceptability
scores were found. As a result, noodles prepared using lentil flour were “liked
moderately” (Plate 20).
4.4.2.2.1 Physical characteristics of extrudates
Bulk density, water absorption and cooking time of macronis and noodles
using composite flour have been presented in Table 4.38 and 4.40 Bulk density of
control macronis was 0.56 kg/lit and macroni absorbed 2.35 g water and took 8
minutes to cook. Supplementation of soy flour with barley (SC 3), maize (SC4) and
sorghum (SC5) significantly decreased the bulk density. Similarly,
supplementation of soy flour alone or with other cereals significantly increased the
cooking time of macroni, the macroni prepared by supplementing soy-maize (SC4)
had highest cooking time followed by SC1, SC5, SC3 and SC2. However, no
significant difference in water absorption of macronis except prepared by
supplementing soy flour (SC1) and soy-pearl millet (SC2) were noted, the macronis
prepared using soy and soy-pearl millet absorbed significantly lower water
content. It might be due to lower water absorption of soy flour and pearl millet
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flour than wheat was earlier observed in functional properties (Table 4.5 and 4.7).
Lin et al. (1974) also reported a lower water absorption in soybean flour.
On the other hand, macroni supplemented with 5-15% lentil flour and it can
be seen from Table 4.38 that as the supplementation level increased, water
absorption decreased and cooking time was increased. It might be due to the
lower water absorption of lentil flour than wheat as observed in functional
properties (Table 4.5-4.6). Bulk density of 5% lentil flour supplemented macronis
was significantly lower than control.
Bulk density of control noodles was 0.43 kg/lit and noodles observed 2.20 g
water and took 6 minutes to cook. Similar trend for bulk density, water absorption
and cooking time in soy-composite and lentil supplemented noodles was noted
(Table 4.40).
4.5 Nutritional evaluation
Most acceptable baked and extruded products prepared from cereal-pulse
composite flour were evaluated for nutritional composition.
4.5.1 Proximate composition
The results of proximate composition of most acceptable products have
been presented in Table 4.41-4.43.
Chapati prepared using whole wheat flour (control) and best acceptable
chapati viz. supplemented with wheat-soy-barley (70:15:15), lentil flour (5%)
were evaluated for moisture, fat, protein, ash, crude fibre, carbohydrate and energy
content. Control chapati contained moisture (26.59%) and fat (2.91%), protein
(9.51%), ash (1.07%), crude fibre (1.54%), carbohydrate (83.96%) and 388.0 Kcal
energy on dry matter basis (Table 4.41). The protein, fat, ash, crude fibre and
energy content of chapatis supplemented with barley-soy flour was significantly
higher than control. However, the carbohydrate content of these chapatis was
significantly lower than control. Similarly, the protein, ash, crude fibre and energy
contents of chapati prepared using 5% lentil flour improved significantly,
whereas, the fat content (2.86%) of these chapatis was significantly lower and no
significant difference in the carbohydrate of chapati prepared with lentil flour was
found. As the supplementation level of soybean and other pulses increased in
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chapati preparation the nutritional quality was improved significantly (Bankar et

al., 1989; Duhan, 1994). Rawat et al. (1994) reported that soy-fortified chapati
contained 28.8 per cent higher protein than whole wheat chapatis.
Data regarding proximate composition of bread (control) and best
acceptable bread prepared by supplementing 15% soy flour or 5% lentil flour have
been presented in Table 4.41. Data indicate that supplementation of 15% soy flour
significantly improved the fat, protein, ash, crude fibre and energy content.
Similarly, the protein fat and ash content of 5% lentil supplemented bread also
improved. However, no significant difference in energy value and significant
decrease in the fat and carbohydrate was found as compared to control. The
results indicate that supplementation of chapati and bread with either lentil or soy
alone or in combination with barley improved the nutritional value (Fig. 4.2-4.6).
Proximate composition of best acceptable soy or lentil flour supplemented
biscuits or cake as compared to control has been given in Table 4.42. Perusal of
data shows fat, protein, ash, crude fibre and energy content of biscuits or cake
prepared with 15% soy flour significantly improved, however, the carbohydrate
content decreased. Similarly, cake and biscuits prepared by supplementing 5 or 10
per cent lentil contained significantly (P<0.05) higher protein, ash, crude fibre and
carbohydrate and significantly lower fat and energy content. This progressive
increase in nutritional value of biscuits or cake might be due to high protein, fat,
crude fibre, ash content of soybean (Table 4.10) and higher protein, ash, crude
fibre of lentil (Table 4.9). Proximate composition of control and best acceptable
soy and lentil supplemented macroni and noodles has been presented in
Table 4.43. It was observed that wheat-soy-maize flour (70:15:15) supplemented
macroni and wheat-soy-barley (70:15:15) supplemented noodles contained
significantly higher fat, protein, ash, crude fibre and energy and significantly
lower carbohydrate than control macroni and noodles. Similarly, the macroni and
noodles supplemented with 10 per cent lentil flour contained significantly higher
protein and crude fibre but significantly lower fat and energy (Table 4.43). Data
in Table 4.41-4.43 indicate that supplementation of either lentil or soy flour alone
or with other cereals in preparation of chapati, bread, biscuits, cake, macroni and
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noodles, improved the nutritional value of products. Fig. 4.2 and 4.3 show the
protein and fat content of most acceptable baked and extruded products.
4.5.2 Carbohydrate profile
Data regarding total soluble, reducing, non-reducing sugars and starch
content of baked and extruded products have been presented in Table 4.44-4.46.
Data in Table 4.44 indicate that total sugars and non-reducing sugar content
of control and best acceptable chapati prepared by supplementing barley-soy
flours or lentil improved but starch content decreased, however, no change in
reducing sugar content as compared to control was observed. The higher content
of sugars in chapati supplemented with soy or lentil flour might be due to higher
amount of sugars in soy flour or lentil flour (Table 4.12 and 4.13).
Similarly, the content of total, non-reducing and reducing sugars of bread
supplemented with either 15 per cent soy flour or 5% lentil flour improved,
whereas starch content decreased significantly (Table 4.44).
Total and non-reducing sugars of biscuits ranged from 27.30-28.10 and
26.65-27.70, respectively. A significant increase in total and non-reducing sugars
and significant decrease in reducing sugars and starch of the biscuits prepared
using 15% soy flour or 10 per cent lentil flour was observed (Table 4.45).
Similarly, the total soluble and non-reducing sugars of cake increased and
reducing sugars and starch content significantly decreased when 15 per cent soy
flour or 5% lentil flour were supplemented in the cake formulae (Table 4.45).
Similar results for total and non-reducing sugars were observed when
macroni or noodles were supplemented either with maize : soy or barley, soy (15%
each) or 10% lentils (Table 4.46). Whereas no significant change in reducing
sugar and significant decrease in starch content of macroni or noodles
supplemented with soy with either maize or barley, respectively, was found. On
the other hand, both reducing sugars and starch content decreased significantly
with use of 10% lentil flour in macroni or noodle formulae.
4.5.3 Dietary fibre profile
Control and most acceptable soy or lentil supplemented chapati were
evaluated for total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre content and data have been
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presented in Table 4.47-4.49. Control chapati had 11.38 per cent total 4.83 per
cent soluble and 6.55 per cent insoluble dietary fibre. The total and soluble
dietary fibre content of chapati supplemented with soy and barley flour (15%
each) improved significantly whereas no significant difference in insoluble dietary
fibre was observed. On the other hand, as compared to control, no significant
decrease in the total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre of 5% lentil supplemented
chapati was found. This could be possible because of the fact that the total dietary
fibre content of pulses have been reported to be considerably higher (Mishra et al.,
1995). The increased fibre content of chapati might be due to higher fibre content
in soybean (Table 4.16) and in barley flour (Table 4.14).
Similarly, significant improvement in total dietary fibre but improvement in
insoluble and significant decrease in soluble dietary fibre was observed when 15%
soy flour was supplemented in bread formulae. On the other hand, no significant
difference in the total and soluble but significant increase in insoluble dietary fibre
in bread prepared by supplementing 5% lentil flour found. This might attribute to
higher total and insoluble dietary fibre of lentil (Table 4.15).
Data regarding dietary fibre content of most acceptable soy or lentil
supplemented biscuits of cake and control in Table 4.48 indicate that biscuits and
cake prepared by supplementing 15% soy flour contained significantly higher
content of total and insoluble dietary fibre but significantly lower soluble dietary
fibre. Similarly, significant improvement in total and insoluble dietary fibre and
significant decrease in SDF was found when biscuits prepared by supplemented
10% lentil flour, whereas inclusion of 5% lentil flour in cake did not change the
total and soluble dietary fibre but improved the insoluble dietary fibre. This may
be due to higher insoluble dietary fibre in soy and lentil (Table 4.15 and 4.16) and
use of different proportion in the biscuits and cake formulae.
Macroni and noodles prepared using blends of wheat-maize-soy (70:15:15)
and wheat-barley-soy (70:15:15), respectively were evaluated for dietary fibre
content (Table 4.49). The total soluble and insoluble dietary fibre content of
control macroni were 12.12, 5.05 and 7.07 per cent, respectively. As compared to
control, no significant difference in the total soluble and insoluble dietary fibre
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content of macroni was observed when macroni were prepared by supplementing

maize-soy flour (15% each). It might be due to low total, soluble and insoluble
dietary fibre of maize (Table 4.14). However, the noodles supplemented with soy-
barley flour (15% each) contained significantly higher total and insoluble but
lower or no change in soluble dietary fibre than control. This may be due to
higher soluble and insoluble dietary fibre of barley and soybean (Table 4.14 and
4.16). Similarly, 10% lentil supplemented macroni and noodles contained
significantly higher total and insoluble dietary fibre whereas soluble dietary fibre
of macroni was lower than control. A non-significant difference for the soluble
dietary fibre in noodles was found.
4.5.4 Total minerals
Data pertaining to total mineral contents of most acceptable baked and
extruded products have been given in Table 4.50-4.52.
Chapati prepared using whole wheat flour contained 52.3 mg calcium,
279.4 mg phosphorus, 6.00 mg iron and 2.98 mg zinc per 100 g. The total
calcium, phosphorus and zinc increased significantly (P<0.05) and iron content
decreased significantly (P<0.05) when chapati were supplemented with soy and
barley flour (15% each). Similarly, the chapati prepared by supplementing 5%
lentil flour contained significantly higher calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc
content. As a result, the mineral content of soy or lentil supplemented chapati was
significantly higher than control chapati. Rawat et al. (1994) and Duhan (1994)
also observed improvement in calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc content of soy
fortified chapatis.
Similarly, significant improvement in the calcium, phosphorus, iron and
zinc content of bread as compared to control was found when 15% soy flour was
supplemented in bread formulae. However, when 5% lentil flour was
supplemented in bread, the calcium and zinc increased significantly (P<0.05) but
no significant difference in phosphorus and iron content was found as compared to
control.
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The biscuits (control) contained 56.67 mg calcium, 2.78 mg phosphorus,

6.60 mg iron and 2.80 mg/100 g zinc. Whereas, control cake contained 70.8 mg
calcium, 310.8 mg phosphorus, 6.89 mg iron and 2.76 mg zinc (Table 4.51).
Significant increase in the Ca, P, Fe and Zn content of both biscuits and
cake were found when 15% soy flour was supplemented in biscuit and cake
formulae. Similarly, inclusion of 10 and 5% lentil flour in biscuit and cake
formulae, respectively, significantly improved the Ca, Fe and Zn content but
decreased the phosphorus content of both biscuits and cake prepared by
supplementing lentil flour. Sangwan (2002) also reported higher mineral content
in soya supplemented biscuits.
The higher mineral content of soy and lentil supplemented biscuits and cake
could be due to higher mineral content of soybean and lentil (Table 4.18 and 4.19).
The total calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc content of control macroni and
noodles ranged from 50.05-50.28 mg, 245.6-250.9 mg, 5.38-5.46 mg and 2.76-
2.80 mg/100g, respectively (Table 4.52). The macroni supplemented with maize-
soy flour (15% each) contained significantly higher calcium, phosphorus, iron and
zinc than control. However, the noodles supplemented with barley-soy flour
(15% each) contained significantly higher calcium, phosphorus and zinc but
significantly lower iron content as compared to control. It may be due to lower
iron content of barley flour than wheat (Table 4.17). On the other hand, the
macroni and noodles supplemented with 10% lentil flour contained significantly
higher calcium, iron and zinc but lower phosphorus content than control. Lower
phosphorus content of lentil flour supplemented macroni and noodles may be due
to lower phosphorus content of lentil flour than wheat flour, it may be decreased
because of dehusking of lentil.
4.5.5 Antinutrients
The data on phytic acid, polyphenols and trypsin inhibitor activity of baked
and extruded products have been presented in Table 4.53 to 4.55.
Control chapati contained 492.5 mg/100 g phytic acid, 301.4 mg/100 g
polyphenols and 108.4 TIU/g of trypsin inhibitor activity. The chapati prepared
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by supplementing soy-barley flour 15% each contained significantly higher phytic

acid, polyphenol and trypsin inhibitor activity.
Similarly, bread prepared using 15% soy lour contained higher phytic acid,
polyphenols and trypsin inhibitor activity as compared to control bread.
On the other hand, chapati and bread prepared by supplementing 5% lentil
flour contained significantly higher phytic acid and TIA but no significant
difference in polyphenols content of bread was found. Perusal of data further
indicate that bread contained significantly lower phytic acid, polyphenol and TIA
than chapati. It might be due to fermentation of dough prior to baking which have
decreased the antinutrients in appreciable amount (Gupta et al., 1991; Grewal,
1992; Sinha, 1999).
The data regarding phytic acid, polyphenol and trypsin inhibitor activity of
biscuits and cakes in Table 4.54 indicate that phytic acid, polyphenols and trypsin
inhibitor activity of the biscuits and cakes increased significantly when either 15%
soy flour or 5 to 10% lentil flour was supplemented in cake and biscuits formulae.
Further perusal of data shows that soy supplemented biscuits or cake contained
higher phytic acid, polyphenols and TIA than lentil supplemented biscuits and
cake. This may be due to higher phytic acid, polyphenol and TIA content of soy
flour than lentil or wheat flour (Table 4.20-4.22).
The macroni and noodles prepared by supplementing maize-soy and barley-
soy (15% each), respectively contained significantly higher phytic acid,
polyphenol and TIA as compared to control. Similar results were observed when
10% lentil flour was supplemented for the preparation of macroni and noodles. As
a result, 10% lentil flour supplemented macroni and noodles contained higher
phytic acid, polyphenol and trypsin inhibitor activity than control.
Similar increase for phytic acid, polyphenols and trypsin inhibitor activity
in noodles and macroni were observed with the incorporation of legume flour by
Garg (2001) and Kumari (2002). On the other hand, Adesina et al. (1998)
reported a 30 per cent reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity of maize-soy
extrudates.
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4.5.6 In vitro starch and protein digestibility

The results of starch and protein digestibility (in vitro) for most acceptable
baked and extruded products have been presented in Table 4.56 to 4.58.
In vitro protein and starch digestibility of chapati prepared with whole
wheat flour was 73.20 per cent and 48.42 mg maltose released/g. The
supplementation of barley-soy flour (15% each) or 5% lentil flour in chapati
decreased the in vitro digestibility of protein and starch (Table 4.56). The lower
in vitro digestibility of protein and starch in soy or lentil supplemented chapati
might be due to higher antinutrient content of soybean and lentil. Similarly, in
vitro protein and starch digestibility of bread prepared by supplementing 15% soy
flour or 5% lentil decreased significantly (Table 4.56). Gupta (2001) also revealed
lower in vitro starch digestibility of breads supplemented with lentil flour.
Dhingra (2001) also found significantly decrease in in vitro starch digestibility of
bread supplemented with soy flour.
Similar trend in in vitro digestibility of protein and starch biscuits and cake
was found when either 15% soy flour or 5-10% lentil flour was supplemented in
the biscuits and cake formulae. Sangwan (2002) reported that as the
supplementation level of soy flour increased the in vitro digestibility of starch and
protein decreased significantly. Similarly, Singh (2003) found that cake
supplemented with soy flour had significantly lower in vitro starch and protein
digestibility than the cake prepared with pearl millet alone.
It can be observed from he data presented in Table 4.58 that in vitro protein
and starch digestibility of macroni and noodles prepared by supplementing maize-
soy flour or barley-soy flour (15% each), respectively was significantly lower than
control. Similarly, significant decrease in in vitro starch and protein digestibility
was fund when 10% lentil flour was supplemented in macroni and noodles.
Chaudhary (2000) revealed that 20% supplementation of soy flour in extrudates
decreased the in vitro starch digestibility. However, Kumari (2002) found no
significant difference in in vitro protein and starch digestibility of macroni
supplemented with defatted soy flour.
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CHAPTER – 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

T
he present study was carried out with the objective to study nutritional
and functional properties of selected cereals and pulses to prepare value
added baked and extruded products using composite flour and to
evaluate the sensory and nutritional properties of developed products.
Bulk samples of nine cultivars of soybean, cultivars of lentil and one
variety of each, wheat, barley and pearl millet were obtained from the Department
of Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. Seeds of maize
and sorghum were purchased from the local market of Hisar in a single lot. All the
grains of selected cereals and pulses were analysed for physical characteristics,
functional properties, proximate composition, total sugars, dietary fibre, minerals,
antinutrients and in vitro digestibilities of protein and starch.
On the basis of functional and nutritional value, one cultivar of soybean and
lentil was selected for product development. Grain were processed to prepare
flour and nine different composite flour mixtures were prepared using wheat flour
with soy alone or along with other cereals and lentil.
Selected baked products, viz. chapai, bread, cake and biscuits and extruded
products such as noodles and macroni were prepared. All products were
organoleptically evaluated using 9-point hedonic rating scale and analysed for
their physical characteristics. Nutritional evaluation of most acceptable products
was done.
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The physico-chemical analysis of cereals indicated that the cooking time,

grain hardness, 1000-grain weight, hydration capacity and swelling capacity were
highest for maize grains and lowest for pearl millet. Among the lentil cultivars, L
9054 contained maximum 1000-grain weight and seed density i.e. 32.40 g and 1.3
g/ml, respectively, but minimum hydration index (0.83) and swelling index (1.05).
For the soybean cultivars, SH-40 contained maximum seed density and hydration
index i.e. 1.22 g/ml and 1.38, respectively.
Comparison of functional properties of flours indicated that among cereals,
wheat flour had maximum swelling capacity 5.41 per cent, flour solubility 19.32
per cent but minimum gel spread and gel consistency. Among the lentil cultivars,
L 9054 contained maximum water absorption 1.25 g/g, swelling capacity 5.00 per
cent and nitrogen solubility index 50.30 per cent, whereas higher nitrogen
solubility index 31.30 per cent and gel consistency was observed for SH-40.
Among cereals, the protein content (11.60%) of wheat was highest and fat
content (6.8%) of pearl millet was highest, whereas, crude fibre and dietary fibre
was highest in barley. The lentil cultivar L 9054 contained highest protein
(31.00%), crude fibre (4.48%) and soluble dietary fibre (2.10%) but lowest fat and
carbohydrates. Among soybean cultivars, protein was highest in PK-1024, total
and insoluble dietary fibre was highest in PK-472, whereas SH-40 contained
highest soluble dietary fibre (2.28%). SH-40 contained 22.4 g fat, 5.2 g ash and
3.6 g crude fibre.
Total calcium and phosphorus were highest in wheat 54.20 mg and 364.4
mg/100 g, respectively. Whereas zinc and iron content was highest in pearl millet
cultivar. L 9054 contained maximum calcium (74.20 mg), iron (7.20 mg) and zinc
(7.10 mg) per 100 g but phosphorus content was highest in LH 82-6. Among
soybean PK-1024 cultivar contained maximum phosphorus (514.2 mg) and zinc
(7.89 mg). No significant difference in phosphorus and zinc content of PK-1024
and SH-40 was found.
Among cereals, wheat contained significantly lower polyphenol content and
higher in vitro protein digestibility (70.83%) whereas, maize contained minimum
phytic acid and maximum in vitro starch digestibility (36.52 mg maltose
 146

released/g). Among lentil cultivars, the phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor activity
of L 9054 was lowest and in vitro protein digestibility (49.50%) was highest. The
phytic acid content of soybean cultivar SH-40 was minimum and in vitro protein
digestibility was maximum (56.70%).
Specific loaf volume of bread and cakes, spread ratio of biscuits either
improved or did not change with the use of soy or soy-pearl millet or soy-barley in
bread, cake and biscuits formulae. However, significant decrease in these
parameters was witnessed with use of soy-maize and soy-sorghum. Similarly, no
change in specific loaf volume of cake and spread ratio of biscuits was found with
use of lentil flour upto 10 per cent. However, specific loaf volume of bread
decreased with increase in lentil supplementation.
Non-significant difference in bulk density and water absorption of macroni
and noodles, except prepared from soy-sorghum was observed. Cooking time of
macroni and noodles increased significantly with soy or soy-maize
supplementation. Chapati prepared from composite flour except the soy-maize or
soy-sorghum flour were pliable and puffed rapidly.
Sensory evaluation of various baked and extruded products prepared using
100 per cent wheat flour (control), and with the supplementation of 15% soy flour
alone or either with 15% pearl millet, barley, maize or sorghum flour and 5, 10 or
15% lentil flour indicated that supplementation of soy flour alone or with other
cereals and lentil either improved or did not change the overall acceptability scores
of different products viz. chapati, bread, biscuits, cake, macroni and noodles.
Value added baked and extruded products prepared from composite flour
were chapati supplemented with barley-soy flour (15% each) or 5% lentil flour.
Cake and bread prepared by using soy flour (15%) or 5% lentil flour, biscuits
supplemented with soy flour (15%) or 10% lentil flour. Whereas macroni and
noodles prepared with soy-maize (15% each) or soy-barley (15% each),
respectively and 10% lentil flour.
Nutritional evaluation of most acceptable products indicated that
supplementation of soy flour alone or along with other cereals significantly
improved the protein, ash, fat, crude fibre, total and insoluble sugars, calcium and
 147

zinc whereas decreased carbohydrate and starch. Similarly, chapati, bread,

biscuits, cake, macroni and noodles prepared by supplementing 5 or 10% lentil
flour contained higher protein, total soluble sugar, calcium, zinc and iron but lower
fat, starch and in vitro protein and starch digestibility, whereas non-significant
difference for crude fibre and soluble dietary fibre as compared to control was
found.
The results of the present study indicate that 15 per cent soy flour alone or
in combination with barley, maize flour can be successfully incorporated in
various wheat based baked and extruded products for value addition. Similarly, 5
to 10% lentil flours can be supplemented in baked and extruded products to
prepare acceptable and nutritious cereal based products.
 148

Abstract

1. Title of thesis : Nutritional Evaluation and Utilization

of Selected Cereals and Pulses for
Value Addition of Wheat Based
Products

2. Full name of degree holder : Ms Varsha

3. Admission No. : 2001HS188M

4. Title of degree : Master of Science

5. Name and address of Major Advisor : Dr.(Mrs.) Raj Bala Grewal

Associate Professor
Centre of Food Science & Technology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar-125004, India

6. Degree awarding University/ : CCS Haryana Agricultural University

Institute Hisar

7. Year of award of degree : 2003

8. Major subject : Foods & Nutrition

9. Total No. of pages in thesis : 171

10. No. of words in the abstract : 350

(An abstract of the dissertation submitted to the CCS Haryana Agricultural University in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.Sc.).

An investigation was conducted to prepare value added food products including

chapati, bread, biscuits, cakes, macroni and noodles with the supplementation of soybean
alone or with pearl millet, barley, maize or sorghum and 5, 10 or 15 per cent lentil flour.
The physico-chemical, and functional properties of grain and flours and nutritional
composition of flours and most acceptable products were studied. All the products
prepared using different composite flours were also evaluated for physical and sensory
characteristics. Physico-chemical properties of grains indicated that cooking time,
hydration capacity and swelling capacity of maize was highest and of pearl millet was
lowest. Among the six cultivars of lentil, L 9054 contained maximum, 1000-grain weight
and seed density, whereas, hydration index (0.83) and swelling index (1.05) of L 9054
was minimum. Among cultivars of soybean, seed density and hydration index of SH-40
was found to be maximum. Comparison of functional properties of flour indicated that
wheat and lentil cultivar L 9054 had maximum water absorption, swelling capacity and
minimum gel consistency, NSI and gel consistency of SH-40 was significantly higher
 149

than other cultivars. Nutritional evaluation of flours showed that protein content
(11.60%) of wheat, fat (6.8%) of pearl millet and crude fibre of barley was highest.
Lentil cultivar L 9054 contained maximum protein and dietary fibre. Soybean cultivars
SH-40 contained highest (2.28%) soluble dietary fibre. Similarly, Ca, Fe, Zn and P
content and in vitro digestibility of wheat, lentil (L 9054) and soybean (SH-40) among
selected cereals and different cultivars of lentil and soy was found. Sensory evaluation of
products prepared by supplementation of 15% soy or 5-10% lentil or soy-cereal
composite flour indicated either increased or no change in the mean scores of various
sensory attributes of chapati, bread, biscuits, cake, macroni and noodles. Nutritional
evaluation of most acceptable products indicated that supplementation of 15% soy alone
or along with other cereals (15%) and 5-10% lentil flour significantly improved the
protein, ash, crude fibre and mineral content of all the products. It may be concluded that
soybean, lentil and other cereals can be successfully incorporated for value addition of
wheat based products.

MAJOR ADVISOR DEGREE HOLDER

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

 150

Acknowledgement

“He chose me, I am glad, He showed me

the path”.
Above all, I bow my head before Him,
the Almighty God, without whom, my
present thesis would not have materialized.
The very idea of this work having been
completed makes me ponder over the word
to thank to all those who were incremental
in the completion of this important
milestone in my academic journey, though
the gratitude cannot be expressed, yet can
be felt deep in the heart and is beyond
description.
I express my deep sense of
indebtedness and profound gratitude to my
revered guide Dr.(Mrs.) Raj Bala Grewal,
Associate Professor, Centre of Food Science
and Technology, for her valuable and gifted
guidance, keen interest, constant
encouragement, unfailing source of
inspiration, critical supervision and
painstaking efforts during the entire course
of study. For all this kind consideration, I
am beholder to her in a special manner and
no words can fully convey my feeling of
respect and regards for her.
I wish to convey my heartiest
appreciations for her patience,
understanding and round the clock help
extended to me by my Co-Major Advisor, Dr.
(Mrs.) Neelam Khetarpual, Professor &
Head, Deptt. of Foods & Nutrition.
 151

I also honour and thank this same spark

to the members of my advisory committee,
Dr. S.S. Dhawan, Professor, Centre of Food
Science and Technology, Dr. (Mrs.) Santosh
Dhillon, Professor, Deptt. of Biotechnology
and Molecular Biology, Dr. U.C. Jaiswal,
Professor, Statistics, Deptt. of Animal
Breeding.
Equally, I express my deep sense of
gratitude to Dr.(Mrs.) Sunita Tyagi,
Professor and Head, Deptt. of Zoology,
Khanpur for her special affection and love.
I am immensely indebted to Dr. Anoop
Singh, Dr. Unvi Singh, Incharge of Central
Lab and Dr. Tewatia and Dr. Khatia, Deptt.
of Animal Nutrition for their valuable
guidance and spirited cooperation all
through my research work.
I am highly grateful to the teaching and
non-teaching staff members of Department
of Foods and Nutrition, especially
Mr. Karnail Singh, Mr. Sita Ram and Mr.
Surender Kumar for their ever-willing help.
Words fail me in expressing the debt of
gratitude to my mother,
Smt. Kusum Singh and my father Mr. B.P.
Singh as I owe my identity. The untiring
painstaking dedicated help, affection, silent
wishes and blessing received from them to
bring me to this level.
I feel pleasant to thank and express
appreciation for my sister Ritu and brother,
Arjun and other family members whose filial
affection, sweet association, gentle caring
 152

attitudes, whole hearted cooperation,

blessing and encouragement have always
been a beacon of light to me in all my
undertakings. The helping hands extended
by
Mr. and Mrs. Poora Ram and Mr. Prem
Singh, Librarian are also acknowledged.
“Good friends are treasure of life”. I
would never be able to repay back the kind
consideration, support, affectionate help
and prompt criticism from my friends, Anu,
Antu, Geetha, Manu Di, Shivangi Di, Arti Di
and Anuja Di. The best thing happened to
me during my sojourn at Hisar was my
friendship with Arti, whose company and
help was a source of strength and
encouragement during the course of my
master’s degree.
I express my thanks to CCS Haryana
Agricultural University, Hisar for providing
me fellowship and all facilities during this
study.
I also acknowledge my sincere thanks to
Mr. Sushil Kumar for showing his keen
interest in typing the facsimile meticulously
and neatly.
Last but not the least, I am thankful to
all those who have helped me directly or
indirectly and whose names I forget to
mention in this endeavour.

Place:
 153

(Varsha)

Dated: December 2003

CERTIFICATE – I

This is to certify that this thesis entitled, “Nutritional Evaluation

and Utilization of Selected Cereals and Pulses for Value Addition of Wheat

Based Products” submitted for the degree of Master of Science in the subject,

Foods and Nutrition to the Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural

University, Hisar, is a bonafide research work carried out by Ms Varsha under my

supervision and guidance and that no part of this thesis has been submitted for any

other degree.

The assistance and help received during the course of investigation

have been fully acknowledged.

[Dr. (Mrs.) Raj Bala Grewal]

Major Advisor
Centre of Food Science & Technology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar-125004
 154

CERTIFICATE – II

This is to certify that this thesis, entitled “Nutritional Evaluation

and Utilization of Selected Cereals and Pulses for Value Addition of Wheat

Based Products”, submitted by Ms Varsha to the Chaudhary Charan Singh

Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for

the degree of Master of Science in the subject of Foods and Nutrition, has been

approved by the Student’s Advisory Committee, after an oral examination on the

same.

MAJOR ADVISOR

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

DEAN, POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

 155

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

No. No.
2.1 Water and oil absorption capacity of different cereals and 9
pulses

2.2 Proximate composition of different cereals (g/100 g) 15

2.3 Proximate composition of soybean and lentil cultivars (g/100 g) 17

2.4 Calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc content of different cereals 24

(mg/100 g)

2.5 Calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc content of different soybean 25

and lentil cultivars (mg/100 g)

4.1 Physico-chemical properties of different cereals 76

4.2 Physico-chemical properties of different lentil cultivars 79

4.3 Physico-chemical characteristics of different soybean cultivars 81

4.4 Colour of different cereals, soybean and lentil cultivars 83

4.5 Functional properties of different cereals 85

4.6 Functional properties of different lentil cultivars 87

4.7 Functional properties of different soybean cultivars 89

4.8 Proximate composition of cereals (on dry matter basis) 92

4.9 Proximate composition of different lentil cultivars 94

(on dry matter basis)

4.10 Proximate composition of different soybean cultivars 95

(on dry matter basis)
 156

4.11 Total sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and starch 97

contents of different cereals (g/100 g) on dry matter basis)

4.12 Total sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and starch 98

contents of different lentil cultivars (g/100 g, on dry matter
basis)

4.13 Total sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars and starch 100
contents of different soybean cultivars (g/100 g, on dry matter
basis)

4.14 Dietary fibre contents of different cereals (%, on dry matter 101
basis)

4.15 Dietary fibre contents of different lentil cultivars 103

(%, on dry matter basis)

4.16 Dietary fibre contents of different soybean cultivars 104

(%, on dry matter basis)

4.17 Total mineral contents of different cereals (mg/100 g, on dry 106

matter basis)

4.18 Total mineral contents of different lentil cultivars (mg/100 g, on 107

dry matter basis)

4.19 Total mineral contents of different soybean cultivars 109

(mg/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.20 Antinutrient contents of different cereals (on dry matter basis) 111

4.21 Antinutrient contents of different lentil cultivars (on dry matter 112
basis)

4.22 Antinutrient contents of different soybean cultivars 114

(on dry matter basis)

4.23 In vitro protein digestibility and starch digestibility of different 115

cereals

4.24 In vitro protein digestibility and starch digestibility of different 117

lentil cultivars

4.25 In vitro protein digestibility and starch digestibility of different 118

soybean cultivars

4.26 Correlation coefficient of antinutrients with in vitro 120

digestibilities of protein and starch
 157

4.27 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of chapati 121

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.28 Physical characteristics of chapatis prepared using soy-cereal 123

and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.29 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of bread 124

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.30 Physical characteristics of bread prepared using soy-cereal and 126

wheat-lentil composite flour

4.31 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of sweet biscuits 128

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.32 Physical characteristics of sweet biscuits prepared using soy 130

cereal and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.33 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of sweet and 131

salty biscuits prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour

4.34 Physical characteristics of sweet and salty biscuits prepared 132

using soy-cereal and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.35 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of cake prepared 134

using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.36 Physical characteristics of cake prepared using soy-cereals and 136

wheat-lentil composite flour

4.37 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of macroni 137

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.38 Physical characteristics of macroni prepared using soy-cereal 139

and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.39 Mean scores of various sensory characteristics of noodles 140

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.40 Physical characteristics of noodles prepared using soy-cereal 141

and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.41 Proximate composition of most acceptable baked products 143

chapati and bread prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (on dry matter basis)
 158

4.42 Proximate composition of most acceptable baked products 145

biscuits and cake prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (on dry matter basis)

4.43 Proximate composition of most acceptable macroni and noodles 146

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour
(on dry matter basis)

4.44 Total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and starch 148
contents of most acceptable baked products chapati and bread
prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour
(g/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.45 Total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and starch 149
contents of most acceptable baked products biscuits and cake
prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour
(g/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.46 Total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and starch 150
contents of most acceptable macroni and noodles prepared
using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour (g/100 g, on
dry matter basis)

4.47 Dietary fibre contents of most acceptable baked products 152

chapatis and breads prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-
lentil composite flour (%, on dry matter basis)

4.48 Dietary fibre contents of most acceptable baked products 153

biscuits and cakes prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (%, on dry matter basis)

4.49 Dietary fibre contents of most acceptable macroni and noodles 154
prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour (%,
on dry matter basis)

4.50 Mineral contents of most acceptable baked products chapatis 156

and bread prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (mg/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.51 Mineral contents of most acceptable baked products biscuits 157

and cakes prepared using soy cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (mg/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.52 Mineral contents of most acceptable macroni and noodles 159

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour
(mg/100 g, on dry matter basis)

4.53 Antinutrient contents of most acceptable baked products 160

 159

chapati and bread prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil

composite flour (on dry matter basis)

4.54 Antinutrient contents of most acceptable baked products 162

biscuits and cake prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil
composite flour (on dry matter basis)

4.55 Antinutrient contents of most acceptable macroni and noodles 163

prepared using soy-cereals and wheat-lentil composite flour (on
dry matter basis)

4.56 In vitro protein and starch digestibility of most acceptable 165

baked products chapati and bread prepared using soy-cereal
and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.57 In vitro protein and starch digestibility of most acceptable 166

baked products biscuits and cakes prepared using soy-cereal
and wheat-lentil composite flour

4.58 In vitro protein and starch digestibility of most acceptable 167

macroni and noodles prepared using soy-cereal and wheat-lentil
composite flour
 160

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description After

No. Page
No.
4.1 Proximate composition of wheat (a), lentil, L-9054 (b) and 95
soybean, SH-40 (c)

4.2 Fat content of chapati, bread, biscuit, cake, macroni and 143
noodles prepared using control and composite flours

4.3 Protein content of chapati, bread, biscuit, cake, macroni 146

and noodles prepared using control and composite flours

4.4 Total dietary fibre content of chapati, bread, biscuit, cake, 154
macroni and noodles prepared using control and composite
flours

4.5 Total calcium content of chapati, bread, biscuit, cake, 157

macroni and noodles prepared using control and composite
flours

4.6 Total iron content of chapati, bread, biscuit, cake, macroni 157
and noodles prepared using control and composite flours
 161

LIST OF PLATES

Plate No. Description

1 Raw flour of cereals: wheat flour (A), pearl millet flour
(B), barley flour, maize flour (C), sorghum flour (D),
barley flour (E)

2 Raw flour of pulses: soybean flour (A), lentil flour (B)

3 Raw macroni: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy

85:15 (SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-
soy (SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy
(SC5) each in 70:15:15

4 Raw macroni: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil,

95:05 (LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15
(LC3)

5 Raw noodles: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy

85:15 (SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-
soy (SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy
(SC5) each in 70:15:15

6 Raw noodles: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil,

95:05 (LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15
(LC3)

7 Chapati: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy 85:15

(SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-soy
(SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy (SC5)
each in 70:15:15

8 Chapati: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil, 95:05

(LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15 (LC3)
 162

9 Bread: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy 85:15

(SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-soy
(SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy (SC5)
each in 70:15:15

10 Bread: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil, 95:05

(LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15 (LC3)

11 Sweet biscuits: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy

85:15 (SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-
soy (SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy
(SC5) each in 70:15:15

12 Sweet biscuits: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil,

95:05 (LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15
(LC3)

13 Sweet and salty biscuits: whole wheat flour (control),

wheat-soy 85:15 (SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2),
wheat-barley-soy (SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-
sorghum-soy (SC5) each in 70:15:15

14 Sweet and salty biscuits: whole wheat flour (control),

wheat-lentil, 95:05 (LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-
lentil 85:15 (LC3)

15 Cake: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy 85:15 (SC1),

wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-soy (SC3),
wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy (SC5) each in
70:15:15

16 Cake: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil, 95:05

(LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15 (LC3)

17 Macroni: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy 85:15

(SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-soy
(SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy (SC5)
each in 70:15:15

18 Macroni: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil, 95:05

(LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15 (LC3)

19 Noodles: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-soy 85:15

(SC1), wheat-pearl millet-soy (SC2), wheat-barley-soy
(SC3), wheat-maize-soy (SC4), wheat-sorghum-soy (SC5)
each in 70:15:15
 163

20 Noodles: whole wheat flour (control), wheat-lentil, 95:05

(LC1), wheat-lentil 90:10 (LC2), wheat-lentil 85:15 (LC3)

Contents

Chapter Title Page

No.

1 Introduction 1-3

2 Review of Literature 4-44

3 Materials and Methods 45-74

4 Results and Discussion 75-167

5 Summary and Conclusion 168-171

Literature Cited i-xxx

Appendix-I
Appendix-II
Appendix-III
 164

Appendix-I

Score Select for taste panel/data under Hedonic scale

Name: Dated:

Product:

Test these samples and check how much you like or dislike each one. Use

appropriate scale to show your attitude by assessing points that best describe your feeling

about the sample. An honest expression of your feeling will help to obtain unbiased data.

Code Colour Appearance Aroma Texture Taste Overall Remarks

No. acceptability
-.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.---.-.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.--..-.--.-.

-.-.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.--.-.-

Rate Organoleptic scores

Like extremely 9
Like very much 8
Like moderately 7
Like slightly 6
Neither like nor dislike 5
Dislike slightly 4
Dislike moderately 3
Dislike very much 2
 165

Dislike extremely 1

Note: Please rinse your mouth before and after testing