Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11062-z

Architectural design game: A serious game approach

to promote teaching and learning using multimodal
interfaces

Amir Goli1 · Fatemeh Teymournia1 · Maedeh Naemabadi1 ·

Ali Andaji Garmaroodi2

Received: 10 June 2021 / Accepted: 21 April 2022 / Published online: 12 May 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
2022

Abstract
The present article introduces and develops an educational tool as an interactive dig-
ital game for architectural design, allowing the architectural students to challenge
their knowledge and experiences. The framework of this educational tool supports a
serious open-ended game, which helps students get involved with the game through
self-assessment and a multi-modal natural user interface, including gesture recogni-
tion and speech recognition in a familiar CAD environment without any right or
wrong solutions. The students can immediately compare their game results with the
architecture of iconic buildings and get familiar with the complexity of the design
process through five different games in the initial version of this tool without the
fear of being judged. According to the results of the questionnaire, this tool can
simulate the design process, enhance its quality, and thus, assist the learners with
developing their required skills with a wide variety of motivations and opportunities
for engagement while helping them connect their experiences and activities to their
learning and development in a meaningful way to fill the gap between their knowl-
edge acquisition and knowledge application.

Keywords Interaction design · Early years education · Interactive learning · Human-

computer interaction · Open-ended game · Interdisciplinarity

* Amir Goli
amirgoli22@gmail.com
1
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Pars University, P.O.Box: 14139‑15361,
Entesarieh St, North Ave North, Kãrgar, Tehran, Iran
2
Department of Architecture, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

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11468 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

1 Introduction

Throughout history, architectural design education has always been a unique

design-based method (Ebenezer et al., 2021; Emam et al., 2019). Although the
prime goal of schools of architecture has been to teach students the design pro-
cess, there is a challenge between knowledge application and knowledge acquisi-
tion in a design studio (Saghafi, 2020). To reverse this negative trend, architecture
students should be assisted with developing the skills that can help them man-
age their knowledge in the design process. However, which modern educational
approach can help students for this goal? How can they think and design as an
architect and manage this difficult task in multiple-aspect complex designs? What
is the solution to enhance the students’ motivation and reduce their failure feeling
during their education? Regarding these questions, modern architectural educa-
tion should take advantage of the new student-centered approaches to improve
students’ learning efficiency (Emam et al., 2019). In this vein, game-based learn-
ing method, known as a novel student-centered approach, can enhance the moti-
vation for learning by turning the classroom into an enjoyable and engrossing
environment, and consequently, increasing its effectiveness and efficiency (Ana-
stasiadis et al., 2018; Ucus, 2015).
Games are increasingly used as easy-to-understand instruments (Flanagan,
2010). Most of them have been designed for entertainment goals. However, edu-
cational games, known as serious games, have been able to offer valuable experi-
ences in the field of education and learning for all ages (Koupritzioti & Xinoga-
los, 2020). A serious game works on the interaction using entertaining factors
to submerge learners in an active learning environment and encourage them to
overcome challenges with immediate feedback. In order to achieve complicated
learning objectives, various serious game structures like open-ended educational
games can be employed (Stoerger, 2007). In general, open-ended games possess
several pathways in a learning environment, which is less guided, offering a genu-
ine and personally purposeful learning experience to students by involving them
in problem-solving tasks (Spring & Pellegrino, 2011). On the other hand, serious
games are growing in popularity among architects as means for education, design,
and investigation (Dodig & Groat, 2019). With the participation of architectural
students in a game as a free activity with an indefinite result, the feeling of failure
can be remarkably reduced (Javid, 2014). Accordingly, the mechanism of serious
games can be used to create motivation and concentrated balance in architectural
education (Holenko Dlab & Hoic-Bozic, 2021; Mestadi et al., 2018).
Moreover, with respect to the motivations and issues of players and game
spaces, serious games can enhance the design capability of students in achiev-
ing a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of challenges (Azriel et al.,
2005). However, achieving a deep comprehension in learning means that learners
can get involved with evaluating their learning and knowledge and the intended
applications (Petersen et al., 2019). In other words, students can control and eval-
uate their learning trends in the educational process. The self-assessment helps
students to collect a vast amount of information and evaluate their feedback on

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the education process. It allows them to direct and control their learning, and
consequently, make a bond between their activities and educational goals (Hol-
gate, 2008; Sluijsmans et al., 2013). As a result, throughout this educational pro-
cess, the students change over to active elements and obtain independent think-
ing (Fernandez-Antolin et al., 2020). In this way, by employing an open-ended
game-based learning structure, as well as generating personal learning and self-
assessment motivation (Verpoorten & Westera, 2016), architecture students can
achieve a deep understanding of the design process under the supervision of their
teachers.
Furthermore, studies of researchers have shown that an interactive environment
increases students’ motivation and provides a better performance (Nataraja & Raju,
2013; Westera, 2005). The interactive mode in educational video games is known as
a useful element in learning since it allows the human-computer interaction (HCI)
to provide useful creative experiences (Hodhod et al., 2011). On the other hand,
designers should simultaneously use their minds, hands, and eyes to design from an
architectural standpoint (Lobel, 2009). Since observing, thinking, and creating are
the main components of the architectural design process, an unpredicted event or
movement by hands can reveal the possibilities and opportunities that were not pre-
viously observed by the eyes. This can allow the mind to achieve new alternatives
(Teng & Johnson, 2014). Thus, an interactive natural user interface can help archi-
tectural students strengthen the connection between their hands, eyes, and mind, as
well as increase their motivation throughout the design process. This interaction can
be regulated by multi-modal natural interfaces, including the gesture and speech rec-
ognition of a human to offer a happy and rousing mood throughout the design pro-
cess. In this vein, combining multi-modal natural interfaces and architectural appli-
cations, digital serious games can make students more engaged and interested in and
motivated to learn through the design process.
In the context of architecture, serious digital games with the goal of improving
architectural visualization have been a significant subtopic in design education.
Coyne (2003) discussed a theoretical basis to evaluate how the properties of com-
puter games coordinate with design activity in terms of variation and repetition.
In another study, Woodbury et al. (2001) evaluated the influence of applying seri-
ous games developed for architectural design to investigate form at the preliminary
design steps. Shiratuddin and Fletcher (2007) carried out a study on architectural
visualization and design, in which games helped the learners in the environment of a
classroom. Yan et al. (2011) proposed a framework to integrate BIM into games and
created a BIM-Game prototype, which combines gaming and Building Information
Modeling with architectural visualization. Their research was aimed at extending
the flexibility of computer games in building design education. Hence, while game-
based learning has been shown to improve the learning of the design procedure, the
previous studies have hardly provided sufficient details about the serious game’s
implementation and architecture. Additionally, the previous studies rarely examined
serious digital games using cutting-edge HCI technologies or collected data on stu-
dents’ perceptions and emotions about the role of technology in the design process.
Therefore, to ensure the effective use of serious digital games with HCI technolo-
gies in the design process, more information is needed about how students enhance

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their knowledge while playing. Moreover, in order to bridge the gap between knowl-
edge acquisition and knowledge application, in the first step, this study has devel-
oped an interactive motivating educational tool as an open-ended digital serious
game in the architectural design process. This tool, called Game of Design (GaoDe),
has been designed with multi-modal natural interfaces to recognize the speeches and
gestures using a motion controller and machine learning in a familiar CAD environ-
ment. The initial version of GaoDe consists of five different games of iconic build-
ings designed by known architects. Based on their knowledge and experience, stu-
dents can play with their gestures and speeches, immediately compare their design
results with the existing buildings in the real-life, and perform self-assessment.
Thus, the learning process is conducted unintendedly using a valuable indefinite
experience so that students can achieve active participation and more profound
understanding in their learning process without the fear of being judged. In the next
step, this study explores architectural students’ experiential learning processes while
playing the GaoDe to determine the usability and utility of the game-based learning
applications with HCI technology in the design process.
The main contributions of this paper are as follows.

(1) Using a self-assessment approach, this study proposes a serious open-ended

game that integrates design process and HCI technologies in order to bridge the
gap between the students’ knowledge acquisition and knowledge application.
(2) This study describes an empirical case of implementing a serious game with HCI
technology in architectural design.
(3) This paper provides the study results of the survey to evaluate the architectural
students’ perception and experiences of a serious game with HCI technology
during the design process.

2 Technical background

2.1 Human‑computer interfaces

The Human-System Interaction (HSI), as a research area, is associated with devel-

oping technologies that enhance the relationship between humans and systems. With
respect to the type of an applied program, such systems are also called Human-Com-
puter Interfaces (HCIs) or, generally, human-machine (Kumar & Goundar, 2019).
With the continuous advancement in information technology, natural human-system
interactions have become very popular in different fields (Ren & Bao, 2020). In
such conditions, due to their low flexibility, the conventional input devices, such as
mouses and keyboards, cannot create interactions between humans and computers,
as natural objects do (Westera, 2012). Therefore, in order for interaction between
humans and computers, new natural methods, such as commands based on voice and
body language, are being used in various fields (Tran et al., 2020).
Hand gesture recognition, as an interaction method between a human and a
machine, deals with those gestures of the humans’ hands, which transfer meaning-
ful thoughts and information to the computer. The gesture-based interaction allows

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humans to control computers instead of operating them (Rehman et al., 2020). On

the other hand, speech-based applications are among the fastest communication
means in the HCI. Such applications employ a speech recognition system to estimate
the most probable sequence of words for speech input. Therefore, automatic gesture
and speech recognition has been an active area of research over recent decades since
they are known as useful tools to create familiar, practical, intuitive, and natural
interfaces (Kraljević et al., 2020). Moreover, the use of the HCI approach enhances
the learning process and turns it into a happy and rousing process, although being
invisible (Kamel Boulos et al., 2011; Qi et al., 2019). Studies confirm that users
have found gesture- and speech-based interactions much more comfortable, in
terms of both learning and utilization, since they allow the users to conceptualize
the potential solutions faster and more effectively (Tunçer & Khan, 2018). On the
other hand, the evaluation of the traditional video games indicates that the interac-
tion in them is mostly through mouses, keyboards, or joysticks. However, with the
advance of technology, today, the use of methods in which hand gesture and speech
recognition is a means of HCI is more common and more comfortable (Khalaf et al.,
2019). The attractiveness of the virtual environment and offering new experiences
for users throughout the games are the other advantages of such tools (Mustafa &
Ismail, 2018).
In architecture, modeling their conceptual designs in the form of 3D models in
the CAD environment, architects and students seek to achieve the product concep-
tualization and visualization and improve their designs (Chang et al., 2019). This
process is adopted using conventional input paradigms, which are based on WIMP
(Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer), making the users tired and unmotivated through-
out the process. However, by using more natural HCI methods, a better and more
interesting interaction can be achieved in design and modeling (Rapp, 2020).
According to the results obtained from recent studies, the learning and use of multi-
modal natural interfaces composed of gestures and speech for 3D design in the CAD
environment improve the user’s performance (Khan & Tunçer, 2019; Nanjundas-
wamy et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the design of such systems requires interdiscipli-
nary research methods that include knowledge in architecture, electronic engineer-
ing, computer science, and information processing.
In general, two gesture recognition approaches allow for the independent devel-
opment of third-party developers. The first one is to use wearable sensors like gloves
or motion sensors like Leap Motion Controller (LMC) (LeapMotion, 2014) to track
the whole body of a user or his/her hands. The significant advantage of motion rec-
ognition devices is that they include an extensive range of possible motions pre-
cisely activated by a sensor array (Manolova, 2016). On the other hand, they are
discrete pieces of hardware that should be carried by the user, which is considered
a disadvantage (Alimanova et al., 2017). The second approach is to use HCI sys-
tems without any discrete hardware, which have received considerable attention
from the research society with the goal of developing natural indirect relationships
(Mazzini et al., 2019). Since gesture and speech recognition is the issue of detect-
ing a pattern in the continuous stream of data, the concepts from time series, signal
processing, analysis, and control theory can be used (LaViola, 2013). For this pur-
pose, machine learning concepts are generally used since one of the major ideas of

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machine learning is to provide the possibility to divide data into particular groups,
which is of great importance in gesture and speech recognition.

2.2 Leap motion controller

Given their new contact-free input, the interaction based on motion sensors is get-
ting very popular. They need no physical contact and allow humans to make rela-
tionships with computers simply. The devices, such as the Kinect controller (Yao
& Fu, 2014) and LMC, pave the path for humans to adopt the hand gesture-based
methods in the form of natural user interfaces with no need for wearable sensors. In
particular, the LMC and Kinect have been found as a strong basis to design natural
user interfaces for educational programs (Bachmann et al., 2018). The use of such
devices in the interactive education approaches makes the virtual environment more
attractive so that users can gain various new experiences. Furthermore, by using
them, the 3D CAD environments for design can be enhanced and turned into spatial
interaction environments, improving the designers’ performance (Bai et al., 2013;
Huang & Rai, 2018; Song et al., 2014). The Kinect is capable of detecting different
parts of the human body at a distance of one to five meters. Meanwhile, the LMC
can detect the gestures of hands and fingers at a smaller distance and with higher
accuracy (Brogårdh, 2007).
The information obtained by sensors (Fig. 1) is used to create symbols of two
hands, which are easily accessible through a software development kit (SDK). The
SDK of LMC deals with a wide range of applications and games. It allows third-
party developers to take advantage of interfaces, rigged characters, and conventional
hand animations simultaneously. LMC supports numerous platforms to implement
new applications. One of these platforms is the Grasshopper (Rutten, 2014), a para-
metric plugin for Rhino CAD software (McNeel, 2008) introduced by David Rut-
ten at Robert McNeel & Associates. Depending on the design context, it allows a
designer to plug and unplug various functions through developed tools and operates
as a graphical associative logic modeler and editor of algorithms (Goli et al., 2021).
Therefore, by using the Firefly tool (Payne & Johnson, 2013) in the Grasshopper
platform, the required numerical values can be received from the LMC sensor and
displayed in the form of hand characters based on the values obtained in the Rhino

Fig. 1  The Leap Motion system (Nam et al., 2014)

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CAD environment. The following are some of these values: pinch distance, bone,
finger, hand or arm location, hands or finger widths, the direction of members, state
of gestures, and count of fingers pointing.

2.3 Machine learning

As an advanced technology over recent years, machine learning is a data analysis

and prediction tool, which has widely been used in many fields (H. Zhang, 2019).
Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) that enables a com-
puter program to gradually improve its performance in performing a task using
statistical methods. The performance improvement ability is obtained through
experience (learning) with no need for explicit programming (Samuel, 2000). Never-
theless, the need for transforming the raw data to a proper representation through the
handcrafted process of feature construction is among the barriers to the efficiency
of conventional machine learning methods. Meanwhile, by automatically learning
the presentations from raw data using a nonlinear combination of simple data trans-
formation, deep learning has eliminated the mentioned barrier (Liapis et al., 2019).
Over recent years, the perception of computer vision and deep learning has widely
been applied for many applications in computer science and human-computer inter-
faces, such as speech recognition, gesture recognition, natural language processing,
computer vision, and control of robots (Fang et al., 2020).
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are deep learning models applied on
2D inputs, such as time-series images or data. A CNN consists of several convolu-
tional layers that remarkably help detect objects and patterns (Albawi et al., 2018;
Guo et al., 2017). Therefore, by using the combination of neural networks and com-
puter vision, the image features can be automatically extracted and used to learn
from trained data. The CNNs have components that produce a hierarchy of com-
plex features. These components include a sequence of 2D trainable filters (convolu-
tions), nonlinear activation functions, and pooling operations on raw data. Another
advantage of such neural networks is their transfer learning capability. This ability
removes the need for relearning caused by training from scratch and preserves time
and memory (Kouzehgar et al., 2019). The recent evaluations of the performance of
CNNs in HCI have indicated that the use of these networks markedly improves the
performance of systems (Deng, 2014). Since their success in the ImageNet competi-
tion in 2012, the CNNs have been considered the most marked method for almost
entire speech recognition and vision tasks (Liapis et al., 2019). In fact, speech recog-
nition is the first application in the field of deep CNNs that has achieved commercial
success (Hinton et al., 2012). Sound events, which are intrinsic to human activities,
have specific frequency bands and time lengths. These events emerge in different 2D
data models (i.e., spectrograms) that can be transformed through the feature extrac-
tion process. On the other hand, the CNNs can classify 2D data with high accuracy.
Therefore, many researchers of the sound recognition field use such networks as the
major classifier for the spectrograms. The results of these studies have revealed the
remarkable performance of this application (Cakir et al., 2017; Salamon & Bello,
2017).

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Hence, studies have been carried out to develop CNN-based models for the clas-
sification of sound signal patterns. These models are used to recognize human activ-
ities in indoor (or interior) environments (Jung & Chi, 2020). The first version (V1)
of the dataset for speech command was an innovation of Peter Warden, who later
published the improved version (V2) on a similar dataset with more commands. The
accuracy obtained for the first and second versions was 85.4% and 88.2%, respec-
tively. This version includes almost 65,000 audio files in the WAV format with 30
different speech commands collected from a large population of humans. The dura-
tion of each of the files is one second, and the sample rate is 16 kHz in all samples
of each file. Accordingly, each audio waveform includes 16,000 samples (Warden,
2018). The words composing the dataset for speech commands have wisely been
selected, and most commands are suitable for applications of the Internet of Things
(IoT). In order to assess the mentioned dataset, Peter Warden employed a CNN-
based model for small-footprint keyword spotting and reported the basic results for
both dataset versions (Sainath & Parada, 2015).

3 Implementation of GaoDe tool

3.1 Architecture and development

By developing an individual integrated serious game, the present study seeks to fill
the gap between the knowledge acquisition and knowledge application of architec-
tural students. Given the original elements of game-based learning, i.e., explora-
tion and discovery learning, GaoDe offers an environment, which has no correct or
incorrect solutions. However, the players should alter the issues or solutions to bal-
ance their knowledge through immediate feedback in a serious open-ended game
(Ke, 2011; Squire, 2008). Regarding such challenges, learners have to mentally
implement and make a comparison between numerous alternatives in the process of
choosing their problems or solutions. The main game action is represented by such
a mental practice with different integrations of design and self-assessment, which
should enhance the knowledge in students through empowering the recognition in
the problem-solving process (Brezovszky et al., 2019). As long as the students are
not satisfied with their results, the design procedure does not stop. Thus, consider-
ing the decisions made during the game, the player personalizes his/her experience
of the game. The immediate feedback motivates the students to be competitive with
themselves rather than the others.
Nevertheless, by introducing the personal information to the tool, the learners
may have concerns regarding the judgment of their activities by others that can
significantly affect their desire to employ the tool for self-assessment. By paving
the path for the boundless activity of students during design with no request for
their information, this tool provides a mindset that encourages them to perform
self-assessment. Moreover, while empowering them to experience interesting
learning activities, it eliminates the fear of failure in them (J. J. Lee & Hammer,
2011). Thus, by benefiting from the self-assessment strategy, the GaoDe enhances
the learning of content, as well as the meta-cognitive supervision procedures that

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are critical for their academic and professional life (Biggs, 2004). In addition, in
order to enhance motivation and provide more opportunities for self-assessment,
in the initial version of the GaoDe, five types of games with different styles of
five famous architects, including Brick Country House, Fallingwater, Dancing
House, HOUSE III, and Capsule Tower, are considered, which allow students to
immediately compare their design results with the existing buildings in the real-
life. By taking advantage of game-based dynamics, this tool motivates learners
to improve their learning and find solutions for problems, consequently help-
ing them to recall particular aspects and keep few analytical chronologies that is
enhanced in better balancing of their knowledge (Kadel et al., 2018).
Moreover, since the self-assessment is performed in the form of a serious game
in a virtual world, the players should enjoy interaction with the system that helps
them to feel that the system is useful and easy to use (Van Der Heijden, 2004).
Accordingly, if the students find the system easy to use and effective in enhanc-
ing their knowledge, they will be more eager to employ it as an educational tool.
Finding out that with each movement of hands, GaoDe can offer various new
alternatives encourages them to utilize it for self-assessments in the design pro-
cess (Sun & Zhang, 2006). Therefore, in order to eliminate the constraints and the
need for commands in architectural applications, the natural multi-modal interac-
tion between machine and human, which recognizes the hand and finger gestures,
as well as sound commands, is utilized, enhancing the attention and motivation of
the learners. By enjoying the natural multi-modal interaction, the students would
comprehend that self-assessments are easy to learn and easy to use since through
enjoyable experiences, they gain more positive perception of the related aspects
(Sun & Zhang, 2006; Van Der Heijden, 2004). However, with respect to the HCI
technique, in all five games, various interactions are considered to avoid repeti-
tions and enhance the students’ motivation.
In recognizing the hand gestures, given the high accuracy and speed required
for 3D coordinates in the modeling process and the adverse effect of hand gesture
recognition in improper time or repeated or wrong recognition during the real-
time process of the game, the LMC is used for the modeling. All values that LMC
can detect, including the hand pinch distance, bone, finger, hand or arm location,
hands or finger widths, the direction of members, state of gestures, and count of
fingers pointing, are used in the game process for different functions of modeling.
For instance, by clenching the left hand, and opening the right hand, and moving
it around the left fist, the camera’s movement can be controlled in the environ-
ment, or by making the right hand closer to or further from the left fist, one can
become closer to or further from the result designed in the game. By using this
function in all games, the camera can be adjusted at different angles, and the hid-
den angles of the designed model can be evaluated (Fig. 2). Moreover, machine
vision technology is also employed to carry out the required commands in the
modeling process. A webcam and a CNN model of the number of hand fingers
by Vasquez are used (Vasquez, 2017). In this stage of the GaoDe designing, the
number of fingers being equal to one and five are respectively used for the tempo-
rary saving of the design in the game process and finishing the game immediately
(Fig. 3).

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Fig. 2  Controlling the camera

for different views using the
movement of open hand around
the left fist

Fig. 3  a) Number of fingers equal to one to temporarily save the design performed through the game, b)
number of fingers equal to five to finish the game-design process

Regarding speech recognition, due to the marked tendency of the society to

develop an offline speech recognition system, which supports digital voice assistants
and has no need for a cloud computing platform (Murshed et al., 2019), the light
and practical model of Warden is used (Warden, 2018). The model is programmed
using the Zhang speech recognition code (A. Zhang, 2018) in an offline mode. The
unit words include “stop,” “off,” “on,” “right,” “left,” “down,” “up,” “no,” “yes,”
and “go.” Two specific groups are also considered in addition to these words: The
words “unknown” (the command not considered in the previous set) and “silence”

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Fig. 4  Activation of sound commands using the yellow color to and initiation of the game with the sound
command “Yes”

(no speech recognized in the sound file). The yellow color is defined for the sys-
tem to activate the sound commands using the OpenCV library. Once the webcam
detects the yellow color, the user can send his/her sound command to the system.
The command “Yes” is used to implement the game at its beginning, and the com-
mands “Up,” “Down,” “Left,” and “Right” are used to change the different views
during playing (Fig. 4).
Furthermore, students should be able to perceive their design results obviously
and evaluate their design process. This self-assessment can be performed digitally
in the intended CAD environment or physically according to the CAD platform (3D
print). Therefore, GaoDe requires a modern design process using the multi-modal
natural user interface in a familiar CAD environment for architecture students. It
should be capable of supporting the modeling, scripting for the human-machine
natural interface, digital display, and creating a special code to be read by a 3D
printer. In other words, it should overcome the limitations of existing game engines
on architectural design and visualization. Hence, the GaoDe tool takes advantage of
multi-modal natural user interfaces, including speech recognition, machine vision,
and LMC, in the Grasshopper platform.
However, a simple custom user interface can increase the readability and motivation
of students toward using the game. Different options were evaluated to find which user
interface could be imagined for the GaoDe tool that can encourage a student to use the
game (Malkawi et al., 2019). The main focus was on ensuring that the players could
quickly define their playing trend with no need to deal with the codes programmed
in the Grasshopper and Python platforms. Therefore, after the game is started by stu-
dents, two approaches are designed for interaction with them during the game using the
Human-UI (Heumann, 2016) and Conduit (Miller, 2017). At first, using the Human-
UI, a specific pop-up window is developed with visual analysis, providing a clean and
responsive view by active updates to help the students at the beginning and during the
game to control and choose the trend of their game without dealing with the Grasshop-
per environment (Fig. 5a). In this section, visual elements associated with each game
are used in order to make better relationships between students and GaoDe. Afterward,
using the Conduit tool, information is displayed in the Rhino environment that changes

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Fig. 5  The custom user interface of GaoDe educational tool: a) user-customized pop-up window, b) real-
time feedback according to the game process of the student

Fig. 6  Processing framework’s flowchart of GaoDe educational tool

in a real-time form throughout the game according to the information entered at the
beginning of the game (Fig. 5b). This information can help the students with the self-
assessment process and improve their performance. Figure 6 illustrates the processing
framework’s flowchart of the GaoDe educational tool.

3.2 GaoDe’s games

3.2.1 Brick country house

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is considered among the most effective architects and
architectural theorists in the 20s century. He is known as the pioneer of modernism

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in architecture, who searches for the nature of contemporary architecture and rarely
works based on the architecture concept, which indicates the specific characteristic
of his architectural activity. His specific style enjoys a clear definition of place, the
idea of global space, a definite construction logic, and precise details. In a brick
country house constructed in 1924, probably inspired by a drawing of Theo van
Doesburg, he comes up with an open-roof design having free slabs located in walls
(Stach, 2018). The brick country house is formed based on a geometric shape with
a vertical angle and a combination of opposite horizontal and vertical directions by
putting up interior walls (Fig. 7). The classification of the drawing of the house can
be observed in the 3D architectural drawing shown in the perspective design. The
cubic and composite blocks, which make up the main core of the building, have
established an iconoclastic architectural style in terms of structure. As the cubic
blocks with different areas and heights rise, their shapes gradually change while
getting further from the building core and forming walls inclined toward the out-
side. Thereafter, the walls do not limit the architectural space anymore. In turn, the
block design is the element establishing the connection between the inside and out-
side the building and somehow creates a communication space with nature (Gała-
Walczowska, 2015).
The goal of designing the Brick Country House game is to improve the motiva-
tion of students for design in a 3D environment and increase their 3D perception by
using self-assessment. The design is performed in a real-time form by displaying the
brick country house, and students are assisted with the design in the environment in
a more ordered form by defining a 3D cubic grade. At the beginning of the game,
students face three long walls, between which they should design vertical blocks in
three dimensions. Students can immediately evaluate and improve their designs by
turning around the environment. The vertical blocks are formed by the orientation of
one hand of the student. If the palm faces up, it can plot internal walls, and if it faces
the horizon, the blocks of the internal spaces can be designed. Given the change in

Fig. 7  Brick Country House project, Mies van der Rohe, 1923 (Steyn, 2017)

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11480 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

Fig. 8  Guide of the Brick Country House game

the dimensions and mode of one’s palm, the block can have different dimensions. By
showing a pointer finger to the camera, the block stabilizes in the GaoDe environ-
ment, and by showing the five fingers, the game finishes (Fig. 8).

3.2.2 Fallingwater

Frank Lloyd Wright is generally known as one of the greatest American architects.
His name invokes magnificent images of architecture astonishment, connection with
nature, and artistic success. He believes that a beautiful environment and objects
enrich and enhance life (Muratovski, 2019). In the architectural creativity of Wright,
from houses with vast plains to Fallingwater houses, the relationship between nature
and architecture is considered obvious interior and exterior visual integration (Gud-
kova & Gudkov, 2017). The Fallingwater house, also known as Kaufmann residence,
is a masterpiece of Wright that has brought about a creative integration of natural
architecture and cubist elements (Ahangar et al., 2015). The integrated connection
between the interior and exterior space has also been formed by the significant per-
ception of the spatial structure composing the building. In fact, the overlaps are can-
tilevers with concrete reinforced slabs that come out of the building center at various
elevations and directions (Fig. 9). This wisely combines the viewpoint of a person
from outside the Fallingwater house design with the seemingly random nature,
despite having a strong geometric order and structural logic (Gudkova & Gudkov,

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Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498 11481

Fig. 9  Frank Lloyd Wright,

Fallingwater (Kaufmann Resi-
dence)

2017). The Fallingwater house is undoubtedly a turning point in modern architecture

(Crosas Armengol, 2019).
The purpose of designing this game is to involve the students’ visualization while
playing. Therefore, unlike the Brick Country House game, the final style of the game
is not displayed as real-time so that the students can challenge their visual percep-
tion. In this game, some cubist elements are used that emerge with the orientation
and length of the student’s palm. By showing one finger to the camera, the element
stabilizes, and the students can freely design other elements of the game. When the
students are satisfied with the design by placing the cubes on each other, they can
high-five the camera to finish the game and make the cubes form the Fallingwater
house style. The concrete slabs and interior horizontal and vertical spaces of the
Fallingwater house at the end of the game are formed with respect to the proportions
of the elements and their orientation relative to the coordinate axes (Fig. 10).

3.2.3 Dancing house

Frank Gehry is a variety-seeking character. The specific characteristic of his works

is the avoidance of Euclidean forms, geometric shapes, and perspective. It seems
that unconventional and asymmetric shapes are the major priority for him (Bellone
et al., 2017). Gehry creates a new architectural world that is committed to free-
dom of speech. This is superior to any other thing and simultaneously defines new
boundaries that have not been governed by any other factor. For instance, the danc-
ing house building (Fig. 11) encourages its audience to think as an artist when look-
ing at a visual characteristic and ask themselves the question, “what happens when
the uncontrolled realism and irregularity are combined” (Kerle, 2017).
The goal of designing this game is to involve the students’ perception with the
design of soft curve forms using their finger gestures. The first and last fingers of
both hands help students model their design so that by placing the first hand in
front of the LMC, the size and location of the top of the building is defined, while

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11482 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

Fig. 10  Guide of the Fallingwater House game

Fig. 11  Dancing House (Prague,

1996) (Bellone et al., 2017)

the second hand determines the building’s waist in a similar way. Afterward,
depending on the space between the fingers of each hand, the buildings form vari-
ous styles. Eventually, when students ensure the dimensions and location of the
building design, they only have to lower the three middle fingers of their upper

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Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498 11483

Fig. 12  Guide of the Dancing House game

hand to save the designed building. Then, the students can continue the design by
creating other buildings besides each other (Fig. 12).

3.2.4 House III

In the case of considering only the amount of texts written about particular designs
of an architect as a symbol of his/her proper effect on the architectural training and
this specialized profession, Peter Eisenman and his studies on the house form have
undoubtedly been the source of attractiveness and effectiveness all around the world
(Major & Sarris, 2001). Such houses are of great importance in architecture history
since they seemingly indicate the emergence of post-functionalism and post-human-
ism (Ostwald & Vaughan, 2009a).
House III was designed for Millers located in Lakeville, Connecticut, and finished
in 1971. Like the first and second houses, this house is made of a coated wooden
frame, and its facade is made of color plaster. In this house, an attempt has been
made to create a physical environment with a limited set of combined and transfor-
mational rules. Among the formal works of Eisenman, the location of House III has
resulted in proposing plans at an angle of 45°, which is different from the typical 90°
orthogonal plan systems (Fig. 13) (Ostwald & Vaughan, 2009b). In House III, a ran-
dom shape is inserted into the drawing, based on which a plane is formed at an angle
of 45° relative to the ordering grid (Fig. 14). The two systems remain distinct, i.e.,
a rotating cube obviously overlaps with an orthogonal cube, where the geometries

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11484 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

Fig. 13  Peter Eisenman, House

III, 1969–1971 (EISENMAN
ARCHITECTS, 1971)

Fig. 14  Peter Eisenman, House III, 1969–1971 (EISENMAN ARCHITECTS, 1971)

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Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498 11485

are not yet merged. The house is meant to produce a feeling of estrangement in its
inhabitants (Lo, 2019; Major & Sarris, 2001).
Designing this game aims to make the students autonomous to design and receive
different feelings of their design so that they can insert every two cubes arbitrarily
at any angle relative to each other, perform a different design, compare them, and
change them again. The design of each cube depends on the order of putting the fists
(left and right) in front of the LMC. The students can immediately see their game
and challenge it at different angles (Fig. 15).

3.2.5 Capsule tower

Kisho Kurokawa is a famous modernist architect who founded the metabolism move-
ment in cooperation with a few others in the 1960s. He has carried out several major
projects in Japan and turned into one of the most famous Japanese architects in the
late twentieth century (Walliss et al., 2018). The Nakagin capsule tower, designed
by him in Shimbashi, Tokyo, is an important symbol of modular architecture. The
topology of the capsule tower is an idea inspired by theoretical topics raised by peo-
ple, such as Archigram groups in Great Britain and the metabolism movement in
Japan in the 1960s (Andrade et al., 2016). These projects were composed of struc-
tures that used building capsules, which could be plugged and unplugged from
buildings, but it has not occurred in practice so far (Fig. 16) (Jablonska et al., 2018).
The theoretical framework of these designs is a combination of architectural design

Fig. 15  Guide of the House III game

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11486 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

Fig. 16  Nakagin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan, 1972, idea vs. construction (Pérez, 2018)

and natural progress. In this vertical building, 144 capsules are connected to two
communication columns. The separate units have been designed such that they can
replace new and moving units.
The target of designing the Capsule Tower is to involve students in the design at
height rather than horizontal design. This game seeks to execute a random algorithm
that can excite the students and apply rapidity of action to the game to some extent.
The students should start the game with two fists and move their hands in differ-
ent directions. At the same time, they can observe the design resulting from their
hand gestures in the Capsule Tower style. When the students achieve their intended
design, they can open their hands and look at and save their design from different
perspectives. Otherwise, they can clinch their hands again and continue to the game-
design (Fig. 17).

4 Methodology

4.1 Research design

As a major characteristic, a serious game should be accepted by probable players. It

is a failure if they do not accept it. In addition, greater information on the students’
perception of a game through HCI technology in the design procedure is required
to make sure that the serious game is accepted in architectural design education.
Accordingly, a quantitative study was conducted to recognize the opinions of the
architecture students regarding usability of the GaoDe and whether it supports
them achieve better results compared to the traditional techniques used in schools
(Oyelere et al., 2018). The developed learning tool was examined in January 2020
to investigate its utility in an actual classroom environment as a part of an empiri-
cal study carried out during the educational procedure at Pars University. A survey
was performed on a sample to provide the empirical study with direct knowledge of

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Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498 11487

Fig. 17  Guide of Capsule Tower Game

reality and quick quantification of the outcomes (Feigin & Weisman, 1950; Stimson,
2014). The sample consisted of 41 first-year students, 24 males and 17 females, who
had attended the design studio, a mandatory course in architectural design. Never-
theless, the students were notified that they were able to withdraw from the study at
any time. Their rights were protected, and they were informed that their ideas would
not be associated with their identities.

4.2 Data collection and analysis method

At first, the relevant topics were explained to the students of the design studio course
as a part of the GaoDe tool according to the design study. In addition, the open-
ended game-based learning, along with the main idea of self-assessment and the
way it was employed in their learning procedure, were briefly introduced to the stu-
dents. Then, they were provided with the GaoDe user guides and subjected to game-
based learning using the GaoDe in their planned classes.
Afterward, assessment sheets, including some questions, were given to the par-
ticipants to investigate the performance of the learners and the effectiveness of the
game throughout the quantitative research procedure. According to (Mesquida &
Mas, 2018), the questionnaire consisted of 19 items that were arranged and struc-
tured in four subsets with respect to their topics in consistence with the IBM Com-
puter Usability Satisfaction Questionnaire (Lewis, 1995) for evaluating usability and

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11488 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

utility characteristics of computer systems: the usefulness of GaoDe (5 items), eval-

uation of games (6 items), improvement in the learning (6 items), and satisfaction (2
items). A 5-point Likert scale, offering a combination of responses, i.e., “strongly
agree,” “agree,” “undecided,” “disagree,” “ strongly disagree,” was employed so that
the participants could confirm their decided statements using them. A Microsoft
excel sheet was utilized to analyze the questionnaire data. The common descriptive
statistical values like mean and standard deviation were computed in the detailed
data analysis to recognize the students’ attitudes toward the utility of the GaoDe tool
in providing architectural education.

5 Results and discussion

As can be seen in Table 1, the answers are divided with respect to four validation
aspects. The responses that strongly agree or agree with the statements constitute
a larger portion, being more than 82% for the four studied aspects. It is notable
that none of the questions received the lowest score (strongly disagree). In particu-
lar (Table 2), concerning the usability of GaoDe (A1–A5), the mean values of all
questions were more than 4.0, therefore, being within the range of agreeing and
strongly agreeing with more participants inclined towards the strong agreement,
which can be due to its user-friendliness, ease of use, effortlessness, easy under-
standing, and proper interactivity through the design process. Similarly, concerning
the “evaluation of games,” the participants gave very good scores to all five games
of GaoDe. Most of the games (questions B1 to B5) had mean values of higher than
4.0, i.e., the students’ answers were within the range of agreeing to strongly agree-
ing regarding the involvement of the five games, indicating that the users had fairly
positive opinions concerning the joyfulness and playability. Generally, such a strong
attitude of students further ensures that GaoDe is easy to learn and easy to use,
maintaining high performance for long-term engagement through the design proce-
dure. Moreover, given the mean value and standard deviation being equal to 4.122
and 0.705, respectively, for question B6, the majority of the users reported pleasant
experiences of self-assessment throughout the design procedure using the GaoDe
tool (Sun & Zhang, 2006; Van Der Heijden, 2004). Nonetheless, the Fallingwater
game (question B2) received a lower score compared to the other games in GaoDe,
indicating the users’ tendency towards more immediate feedback, providing them

Table 1  Experimentation groups

Aspect Strongly agree Agree (%) Neutral (%) Disagree Strongly
(%) (%) disagree
(%)

Usability 32.68% 47.80% 17.07% 2.44% 0

Evaluation of game modes 32.11% 50.81% 15.45% 1.63% 0
Improvement inthelearn- 30.49% 51.63% 16.67% 1.22% 0
ing
Satisfaction 46.34% 42.68% 9.76% 1.22% 0

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 Table 2  Evaluation questionnaire
Aspect Question Mean SD

Usability A1 Are the graphical user interfaces of GaoDe user-friendly and easy to follow? 4.171 0.729
A2 Is the information provided through the guides comprehensible? 4.073 0.838
A3 Does the use of GaoDe require low mental effort? 4.049 0.697
A4 Is the interactivity level suitable? 4.146 0.813
A5 Is the GaoDe easy to use in the design process? 4.098 0.726
Evaluation of games B1 Was the Brick Country House game engaging for you? 4.195 0.706
B2 Was the Fallingwater game engaging for you? 3.878 0.802
B3 Was the Dancing House game engaging for you? 4.146 0.751
B4 Was the House III game engaging for you? 4.220 0.564
B5 Was the Capsule Tower game engaging for you? 4.244 0.725
B6 Were GaoDe’s games appropriate for self-assessment? 4.122 0.705
Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

Improvement in the learning C1 Did GaoDe attract your attention to design and keep you motivated? 4.073 0.677
C2 Did interactive play assist you in the design process? 4.098 0.655
C3 Did GaoDe lower your sense of failure in the design process? 4.024 0.749
C4 Did GaoDe assist you with enhancing your knowledge? 4.317 0.642
C5 Do you think you would remember the knowledge gained in the course better than the case 4.024 0.811
C6 you had only classes? 4.146 0.683
Were you capable of making a balance between your knowledge acquisition and your knowl-
edge application while playing the game?
Satisfaction D1 What is your overall evaluation of satisfaction with GaoDe during the design process? 4.049 0.764
D2 Would you suggest GaoDe to your colleagues? 4.634 0.482

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11490 Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498

with more autonomy to accelerate their self-assessment procedure (Annansingh,

2019; Sanchez et al., 2017).
While paving the path for self-assessment, GaoDe mainly focuses on encourag-
ing architecture students to create a suitable interactive environment, with no fear
of being judged, allowing them to fill the gap between their knowledge in the design
procedure. Accordingly, the respondents were asked whether GaoDe could make
them interested in the design and maintain them motivated. The outcomes revealed
a mean score of 4.073 and a standard deviation of 0.677, demonstrating that most
users believed GaoDe was capable of increasing their motivation and helping them
to continue their design activity through easy playing (C1). Furthermore, questions
C2 and C3 with mean values of 4.098 and 4.024 and standard deviations of 0.655
and 0.749, respectively, made it clear that the majority of the users had pleasant
experiences of interactive technology with an alleviated sense of failure through the
design procedure using the GaoDe tool. The learners also reported greater knowl-
edge of the studied topic after utilizing the tool. Concerning question C4, with a
mean value of 4.317 and a standard deviation of 0.642, most of the respondents
claimed that the GaoDe provided them with an opportunity to enhance their knowl-
edge. Similarly, question C5, with corresponding values of 4.024 and 0.811, illus-
trated that the users believed that they were more capable of recalling the knowl-
edge learned while playing the game compared to that gained through the traditional
face-to-face method. In this regard, according to the answers given to question C6
(with a strong mean value of 4.146 and a standard deviation of 0.683), most of the
learners thought that using the tool had assisted them to balance their knowledge
acquisition and knowledge application, as a critical attribute towards the develop-
ment of GaoDe. Nevertheless, the overall satisfaction with the game should also
be investigated. The mean value of 4.049 and standard deviation of 0.764 proved
that the learners mostly agreed that they had satisfaction with GaoDe through the
design procedure (D1). The answers given to question D2 with a strong mean value
of 4.634 and a standard deviation of 0.482 indicated that the users would highly sug-
gest it to their peers.
As a result, teaching with technological tools and self-assessment seems can
attract architecture students to learning, mainly because the HCI technology is asso-
ciated with the nature of design (Savazzi et al., 2018; Xinogalos et al., 2017). As
an interactive learning tool, the GaoDe can empower students in the design and
self-assessment procedure with a grown level of innate motivation, self-awareness,
and coherent knowledge (Rushton, 2005; Webb & Gibson, 2015). Accordingly, self-
assessment became more visible and deeper, helping to identify and narrow the gap
between their knowledge acquisition and knowledge application, and consequently,
address various misconceptions they had previously had in a traditional educa-
tion environment and lead them toward active elements in the learning procedure
(Azriel et al., 2005; Davydova, 2018; Groenendijk et al., 2020; Oyelere et al., 2018;
Palaigeorgiou & Papadopoulou, 2019). Hence, self-assessment directs the students
in their activities by playing the role of a meta-cognitive tool (Martínez et al., 2020).
While creating a mentality that inspires learners to experience new things, this tool
eliminates the fear of failure and gives them the power to get involved in fun learn-
ing experiences (Javid, 2014; Lee & Hammer, 2011). Overall, these findings are

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Education and Information Technologies (2022) 27:11467–11498 11491

promising and seem to support those of the prior research, which revealed that seri-
ous games using HCI technology were appreciated by students, improved their moti-
vation, and offer them higher self-confidence, in comparison with the face-to-face
method (Alexiou & Schippers, 2018; Alfalah, 2018; Barrón-Estrada et al., 2021; Dib
& Adamo-Villani, 2014; Ghanbarzadeh & Ghapanchi, 2021; Oyelere et al., 2018;
Westera et al., 2020).

6 Conclusions

With respect to the advances in contemporary architecture and technology, new

student-centered methods should be introduced in order to bridge the gap between
the students’ knowledge acquisition and knowledge application in architectural edu-
cation. Students should be active and contribute to their learning process, which
should be motivating and interesting for them. On the other hand, games have always
played a crucial role in the education of humans. By using serious open-ended
games, a high motivation should be provided to pave the way for open and explora-
tory learning in the field of architectural education, which uses proven approaches to
interact with a learner. Thus, using the educational method of student-centered and
game-based learning, the current article has depicted a serious open-ended game as
an educational tool to teach architectural design in a 3D CAD environment named
GaoDe.
The GaoDe allows the students themselves to determine their design problems
so that they can gain a better understanding of their learning process through self-
assessment, rather than collecting information or memorizing facts in a passive pro-
cess. This educational tool enjoys a natural multi-modal user interface for human-
computer interaction (HCI) using the LMC and machine learning. The initial version
of GaoDe is composed of different games of iconic buildings designed by famous
architects. Students can take advantage of the multi-modal user interface for gesture
and speech recognition while playing in a familiar CAD environment in an autono-
mous and real-time mode based on their knowledge and experience. Ultimately, they
can observe their result in the form of a digital model, compare it with the design of
the original architect, and perform self-assessment.
The questionnaire results revealed that GaoDe could aid the students in obtaining
improved achievement from their learning activities compared to the face-to-face
method. The integration of interactive technology and the self-assessment approach
provides a wide variety of motivations and opportunities for engagement while ena-
bling the learners to connect their activities and experiences with their learning and
development in a meaningful way, filling the gap between their knowledge acquisi-
tion and knowledge application. Accordingly, it is obvious that the GaoDe frame-
work provides an easy-to-use and robust tool, allowing the learners to comprehend
the complexities of the architectural design procedure and self-assess themselves
with no fear of being judged in architectural education using a 3D CAD environ-
ment. In addition, given its multi-modal natural user interface, the suggested tool
results in a faster and deeper perception of the architectural design education and
empowers the users with a limited experience for design in a 3D environment.

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However, it is worth mentioning some constraints of the present study. First of

all, a more long-term study is required to recognize the characteristics of game-
based learning effective in the learning of architecture students through the design
process, which can provide more information on the influence of self-assessment
according to the use of interactive serious games. Secondly, due to the small num-
ber of respondents, this research may not be considered a well-established observa-
tion and would need a thorough experiment for implementation and instruction in
the higher education system. Thirdly, GaoDe’s endorsement by teachers is critical
for guiding the self-assessment process and motivating students to engage actively
with GaoDe in order to avoid misunderstandings. To address these limitations, the
authors have planned to perform a comprehensive and long-term retention investiga-
tion into the effectiveness of GaoDe with a large sample of teachers and students
once the Covid-19 pandemic ends and students return to in-person classes. More-
over, a serious interactive game must be thoroughly developed to naturally stimu-
late student engagement using a combination of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.
Hence, further research is critical to enhancing the positive impacts of the GaoDe
tool on student learning and engagement. In the next step, the GaoDe educational
tool is expected to be developed to better understand for students given the Grass-
hopper’s capability of simulating various performances of a building, such as struc-
ture and energy.

Acknowledgments This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability Data transparency.

Code availability Software application or custom code.

Declarations

Conflict of interests Not applicable.

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