ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND PRODUCT

PROCESSING IN VALUE CHAIN

(ABVM 212)

LT 2. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION AND

PRODUCT PROCESSING (2 ECTS)

Compiled by:

Amsalu Sisay (MSc)

Lemma Fita (PhD)

JULY, 2012
Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Table of Contents
3.2.1 Introduction 3

3.2.2. Objectives 3

3.2.3. Systems of Beef Cattle Production 3

3.2.3.1. Types of Beef Cattle Production Systems: 3

3.2.4. Beef Cattle Management 8

3.2.4.1 Beef Cattle Feeds and Feeding 8
3.2.4.2 Systems of Cattle Fattening in Ethiopia 11
3.2.4.3 Beef Cattle Selection and Breeding 15
3.2.4.4 Growth and Development in Beef Cattle 17
3.2.4.5 Housing System for Beef Cattle 23

3.2.5. Meat Quality and Processing 25

3.2.5.1 Meat Consumption & Contribution of Meat to the National Economy 25
3.2.5.2 Meat Production and Carcass Composition 26
3.2.5.3 Meat Processing 28

3.2.6. Hides quality and processing 31

3.2.6.1. Role of Hides and Skins 31
3.2.6.2. General Structure of Hides 32
3.2.6.3. Pre-slaughter and Slaughtering Operations 32

3.2.7. The beef value chain 38

3.2.7.1 Beef cattle production system and market sources 38
3.2.7.2 The marketing systems and the main actors in marketing live animal export 38
3.2.7.3 Challenges & opportunities for beef production & value chain 40

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

3.2. Beef cattle production and product processing

3.2.1 Introduction

This learning task is aimed to help the students realize the general aspects of beef cattle
production. It will enable them to describe the different systems of beef cattle production.
They will see also the major indigenous and exotic beef cattle breeds with their
distribution and characteristics. In addition to this, it will enable them to know which beef
cattle breeds are used for the purpose of meat production in different parts of the world in
general and in our country in particular. The unit also deals with the management
practices such as feeding, breeding, housing and health care of beef cattle. Here the
students are highly required to make great efforts in their study in order to achieve the
objectives of this learning task.

3.2.2. Objectives
At the end of this learning task, the learners would be able to:-

 understand system of Beef cattle production in Ethiopia,

 describe types and breeds of beef cattle,
 understand reproduction and breeding methods of beef cattle,
 understand different feeds and feeding systems of beef cattle,
 describe different types of housing for beef cattle,
 understand production and management of Hide and its method of preservation,
storage and transportation,
 describe different methods of processing ,storage and marketing of beef products
and
 acquire knowledge on how to align beef animal and their products to value chain.

3.2.3. Systems of Beef Cattle Production

Do you know beef production systems in Ethiopia?

3.2.3.1. Types of Beef Cattle Production Systems:

1. Cow-calf producers,
2. Purebred breeders,
3. Cattle feeders.

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Cow-calf system
The cow-calf system of beef production involves keeping a herd of beef cows. These
cows are bred each year to produce calves. The calves are then sold to cattle feeders who
feed them to slaughter weights. Most of this type of beef production is done in the range
lands. Beef cows (Dairy cows in Ethiopia) are maintained mainly on roughage. Usually
no concentrate feed is needed for this type of beef production. This type of operation
requires less labor and a lower investment.

The cows are usually bred to calve in the long rainy season. Most weaned calves are sold
as feeders. Sometimes the calves are fed roughage for a year and sold as yearlings.
Feeder calves are weaned calves <1 year of age and are sold to be fed for more growth.
Yearlings are 1 to 2 years of age and are sold to be fed to finish for slaughter.

Purebred Breeders (Cattle Breeding Ranches in Ethiopia)

Purebred breeders keep herds of purebred breeding stock. They provide replacement bulls
for cow-calf operations. Cow-calf farmers sometimes buy cows or heifers from the
purebred breeder to improve the herd.

Ranches in Ethiopia are responsible for the genetic improvements in beef cattle. A great
deal of knowledge and skill are required to Ranches. The costs are usually higher in this
type of cattle business. It takes many years to develop a high-quality herd.

Cattle Feeders (Small Scale fatteners in Ethiopia)

Cattle feeder, feeds animals for the slaughter market. The objective is to produce
finished cattle in the shortest time possible. The operator buys feeders or yearlings and
finishes them in the feedlot. Some producers feed cattle on pasture for a time and then
finish them in the feedlot. This enterprise requires more concentrate feed than cow-calf or
purebred production. It usually takes concentrate to get the quality of finish that is in
demand in the marketplace.

Feeder operations can easily adjust to changes in feed supplies, operating costs, labor
supply, and economic outlook. The cattle feeder can expect a return on investment in 4 to
6 months.

The facilities required for feeding of cattle are more expensive than those required for
cow-calf operations. Feed, labor, and transportation costs are higher. Cattle-feeding is a
high-risk enterprise because of the fluctuations in the price of finished cattle.

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Breeds of Beef Cattle

What breeds of beef cattle are found in the World in general and in Ethiopia in
particular?

Tropical Indigenous Beef Cattle Breeds

A breed can be defined as a group of domestic livestock having definable and easily
identifiable external characteristics that distinguish it visually from other similar groups
within the same species.

Like that of dairy production there is no as such well appreciated beef type cattle breed in
the tropics. However, there are some cattle breeds like Africander, Boran, Brahman, Gir,
Nelore, Guzerate, Red Sindhi, Indo-Brazilian and Ankole-Watusi. These cattle breeds do
have good beef parameters in relation to weaning weight, slaughter weight, carcass
percentage, dressing percentage and meat quality. Currently they have been used for
crossbreeding purpose with local animals to improve their beef production and
productivity.

Exotic Beef Cattle Breeds

The temperate/exotic cattle breeds refer to cattle that found in the temperate zones
especially USA and Europe. The temperate breeds have been deliberately selected for
various purposes and can be easily differentiated with their peculiar features such as body
color, length and shape of horn, hump-essness and other traits. Temperate cattle breeds
encompass Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn, South Devon, Red Poll, Simmental, Limousin,
Charolois and others. They are well known for their good beef traits and provide more
meat. But they are not adapted to the tropical conditions and for this reason they usually
perform low due to poor tolerance to high temperature and diseases. The reduced
performance is also aggravated by their poor foraging ability under the local management
practices.

Temperate animals are at high risk if any one aspect of management breaks down.
Importing European stock into high-temperature, high-humidity, monsoonal areas has
resulted in heavy stock losses. Fertility and calf mortality for the pure-breeds tend to
remain poorer than for the crossbreeds. In areas with medium potential for dairying (meat
and draught), like semi-arid grazing lands and on mixed farms, there is a need for a dual
purpose breed with some indigenous blood (50-75% temperate blood). In areas of high
potential for dairying only productive cattle can be competitive. The climate in these
areas, particularly over 760 mm rainfall and 1525 m altitude, is suited to pure-bred
European cattle. On smaller holdings where husbandry and nutrition may not be
improved, some proportion of Bos indicus or indigenous blood should be retained.
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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Figure 3.1 Hereford breed

Figure 3.2 Red Angus Breed

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Figure 3.3 Simmental Breed

Figure 3.4 Charolais Breed

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Learning Activities:
Practical 3.1
Body condition scoring and identification of beef characteristics.
Individual Studies 3.1
James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production.6th ed. Pp 110-400
(instructors can opt for alternatives relevant reference materials)

Assessments
-Group work/assignments
-First quiz
-Practical report

Section Summary
The aim of this section was to help the students to realize the general aspects of beef
cattle production. The section describes the different systems of beef cattle production. It
also sees the major indigenous and exotic beef cattle breeds with their distribution and
characteristics. In addition to this, it enables the student to know which beef cattle breeds
are used for the purpose of meat production in different parts of the world in general and
in our country in particular. Learners understand system of Beef cattle production in
Ethiopia and identify indigenous and exotic types and breeds of beef cattle.

3.2.4. Beef Cattle Management

3.2.4.1 Beef Cattle Feeds and Feeding
Can you mention some feed resources fed by cattle?

What do understand by animal feed requirement?

What do we mean by economic feeding of beef cattle?

There are various feed resources used for beef cattle. These feed resources are commonly
grouped into three forms as below.
A) Dry feeds

This type of feed resources includes hays, grains, oilseed meals, straw, Stover, corn cobs,
corn husks, SB hulls, SB mill feeds, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, oat hulls, rice hulls

B) Green feeds
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Such type feed resources includes pasture and green chop (feeds are roughages chopped
daily in the feed and brought to livestock for feeding.

C) High moisture feeds

Here feed resources like high-moisture grain, wet byproduct feeds, roots & tubers, fresh
milk, silage, cactus, Enset etc could be mentioned.

In the other hand the feed resources could be also categorized into two as roughage and
concentrate based on the quality or feeding level.

Roughage feeds: Concentrate feeds

 are feeds that are high in fiber and  are feeds that are low in fiber and
low in TDN high in TDN
 contain above 18% CF when dry  contain below 18% CF when dry

Two types of Roughage

Legumes Grass
 have on their roots nodules  include timothy, brome grass,
containing bacteria that fix orchard grass, blue grass, Sudan
nitrogen from the air grass, millet hay, oat hay, etc.
 include alfalfa, clovers, peanut
hay, SB hay etc.
Two types of Concentrate

a) Grain feeds
 corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat
b) Supplement feeds
 include protein feeds, minerals and vitamins
Mineral feeds

 are used to provide the mineral needs of the animal

 are of two types: Macro and Micro Minerals
Vitamin supplements

 are available to provide necessary vitamins in the ration

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Byproduct feeds

 From the milling & brewing are used in the feeding include wheat bran, rice bran,
molasses, brewer’s grain, beet pulp, malt sprouts, whey, etc.
Important Feed Components

1. Carbohydrates 4. Minerals

2. Lipids (Fats & Oils) 5. Vitamins

3. Protein 6. Water

The level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depend on whether the animal is
being fed for:

 maintenance
 maintenance + production
 maintenance + production + reproduction
Most nutrients can be fed in excess, but if any nutrient is not present in an adequate
amount, the performance of the animal will be limited.

Requirements for maintenance

- is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a particular weight without
any significant change in body composition is that amount of feed needed to maintain
essential body functions such as respiration, heart rate, eating, keeping warm, etc.
- includes also the feed needed to replace the nutrients that are excreted daily from the
body
- tissue of the body are constantly undergoing breakdown and repair, therefore
nutrients are required to replace this loss
Requirements for production

- are met after maintenance requirement

- are the amount of feed needed for growth or milk production
- need large quantities of feed
Requirements for reproduction

- are very important in a cow-calf operation

- are the amount of feed needed above that for maintenance, for the cow to conceive
and produce a healthy fetus and calf

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Factors determining the level of nutrient requirement:

- breed - overall balance of nutrition

- age and sex - stress from the environments

- level of production - hormonal and physiological activities

Types of Feeding Operations

Commercial Cattle Feedlots

Commercial cattle feedlots are those with a capacity of 1,000 cattle or more. Oft en,
many thousands of cattle are fed in these feedlots at one time. Most or all of the feed
needed is purchased rather than grown by the cattle producers. The number of large
commercial feedlots is increasing in the mid Rift valley areas where industrial by-
products are common.

Farmer-Feeders
Farmer-feeders are farm operators who feed cattle mainly as a way of marketing feed
raised on their own farms. Feedlot capacity of these operations is usually less than 5
cattle. The size of some of these feeding operations is large enough to make it necessary
to purchase additional feed. The majority of the cattle-feeding operations are located in
the central highlands of Ethiopia, near towns.

3.2.4.2 Systems of Cattle Fattening in Ethiopia

Traditional Systems

In such type of systems, oxen are usually sold after the plowing season when they are in
poor condition. Meat yields are low, the beef is of poor quality and the farmer returns are
often inadequate to buy a replacement ox. This is obvious scope to improve this
traditional and inefficient system through strategic feeding of good quality forage to
fatten animals before they are sold, or to buy and fatten animals sold by others. In the low
lands, where pastoralists do not use cattle for draft, cattle are sometimes fattened on
natural pasture in good seasons. In average or poor seasons, low land cattle are rarely
fattened and often have to be sold in poor condition at low prices.

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By-product-Based Fattening

This is a type of fattening in which the agro-industrial by-product such as molasses,

cereal milling by-product and oilseed meals is the main sources of feed. In this system
grazing land is completely unavailable and crop-residues are only significant roughage
source.

The Hararghe Fattening System

In this system peasants buy young oxen from the adjacent lowlands pastoral areas, use
them for several years, and then fatten and sell them before they become old and
emaciated. The system is largely based on cut-and carries feeding of individual tethered
animals. Grazing is rare. Few concentrate are used.

Types of Cattle for Fattening

There are many choices for the cattle feeder when selecting cattle to feed.
Selection is made on the basis of sex, age, weight, and grade of cattle.

Sex
Steers gain about 10 percent faster than heifers if both are fed for the same length of time.
Steers are 10 to 15 percent more efficient in gains. Efficiency in gain refers to the
amount of feed needed for each pound (kilogram) of gain. The less feed required, the
higher the efficiency. Heifers finish at lighter weights than do steers and are usually
bought and sold for less money. Heifers are better fit for shorter feeding periods than
steers are. Feeder heifers may be pregnant when purchased. This may result in discounts
when they are sold for slaughter. The developing fetus is of lower value to the packer
than is the rest of the carcass. Young bulls may be fed for market. At the same age and
weight as steers, they gain faster and more efficiently. Bulls produce lean carcasses of
about the same quality as steers. However, bulls are not as well accepted in the
marketplace. Generally, the feeding of young bulls for market is not recommended.

Age and Weight

Feeders are generally divided into three groups; calves, yearlings, and older
Feeders based on age and weight.
Calves
Calves are feeders that are less than 1 year old, usually weighing about. They are adapted
to many different systems of cattle feeding. Gains are more efficient than they are in
older cattle. However, it takes longer to feed calves to slaughter weights. Calves need
more grain and less roughage than older cattle when fed immediately for slaughter. They
do not make good use of low-quality roughage. Death losses are usually higher with
calves, and health problems are greater. Since calves are lighter in weight when bought,
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most of the weight sold is gain. Success in feeding calves depends more on feeding skill
than it does on ability to buy and sell.

Yearlings
Yearlings are feeders that are between 1 and 2 years old. Yearlings are well adapted to
feeding programs using more roughage than that given to calves. Less time in the feedlot
is necessary to finish yearlings for slaughter, and there are fewer health problems.

Older Feeders
Older feeders are those that are 2 years old or older. These feeders are fed for a short
period of time, usually 90 to 100 days. Gains are fast but not as efficient as in younger
feeders. Older feeders can make use of more roughage in the ration. Death losses are low.
Much of the profit comes from reselling purchased weight. Therefore, more skill in
buying and selling is needed for this type of feeder.

Feeding Management
Cattle should be fed at least twice a day. Increasing the frequency of feeding to four or
five times daily may increase feed intake. Increasing the frequency of daily feeding also
makes the estimate of how much feed will be eaten between feedings less critical. Cattle
should eat all the feed in the bunk each day; however, they should not be out of feed for
an extended period of time. Other good feeding management practices include calculating
rations on a dry matter basis, cleaning the feed bunks at least once a week, and following
proper mixing procedures to ensure that all ingredients, including additives, are
thoroughly mixed into the ration. Proper mixing of the feed improves palatability and
decreases the tendency of the cattle to sort through the feed, leaving some portions
uneaten.

Starting Cattle on Feed

Many cattle coming into the feedlot have had little or no concentrate in the growing
ration. If cattle are put on a full feed of concentrate too quickly, the microbes in the
rumen do not have time to adjust to the new ration. This will put the cattle off feed. A
good-quality grass or alfalfa hay is good roughage for starting cattle feeding. Cattle will
often eat grass hay better than legume hay when starting on feed. Alfalfa hay will often
cause the cattle to scour (have diarrhea). Grass hay helps to stop scours in cattle.
Other roughages that may be used are oat hay, Sudan hay, or green chop.

A starting mixture of 80% concentrates and 20% roughage may be used for cattle that
have been fed Concentrate. The roughage is decreased by 10% and the concentrate

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increased by 10% percent at the end of the first week. For the rest of the feeding period
90% percent concentrate and 10% roughage should be offered.

For Cattle which come from pasture, start feeding on a mixture of 60% concentrates and
40% roughages. After 2-week, the concentrate is gradually increased & roughage is
decreased. On full feed, they receive 90% concentrate and 10% roughage in the ration.

Ration Formulation

Rations need to be formulated in such a way that fulfills the nutrient requirements of the
animals. The animals need to be fed to optimum level so that to exploit their real genetic
potential. This is to get the expected production from the animals. Ration formulation
enables to alter or substitute expensive feeds with the cheap one without changing the
nutrient contents. This maximizes the profit of the beef business venture. Ration
formulation can be done using manually or using computer. Nowadays, modern
technologies are being harnessed in the animal ration formation work. Models are also
developed by the nutritionists to predict the need nutrients requirements of each animal
species, breed, class, age, weight and sex. The objective is to formulate balanced rations
that supply all the required nutrients: at adequate level, in a proper balance and at
minimum cost. To formulate the ration the following information are needed:

 Feed resources available at hands (locally available feed resources need to be

considered)
 Chemical composition of the feeds (this is found by chemical analysis in nutrition
laboratory)
 Weight, sex, breed, species, age, production status of the animal
 Purpose of animal feeding (finishing, growing, breeding, lactating etc)
 Nutrient requirement of the animal

Calculating Total Feed Needed

Some general guidelines may be used to calculate the total amount of feed needed to
finish cattle. The exact amounts needed vary according to the age and condition of the
cattle, kind of feed used, weather conditions, and management practices of the feeder.
Fattening cattle will eat about 2.5 to 3 percent of their body weight in feed each day.
Multiplying the average weight of the animal by 2.5 to 3 percent and then multiplying by
the number of days in the feeding period gives the amount of feed needed.

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Example:
 Starting weight of steer 272 kg
 Length of feeding period 210 days
 Average daily gain 1.1 kg
 Ending weight 500 kg

Daily ration:
 W Bran 75%
 Protein supplement 10% kg
 Mixed hay 15% kg
 Feed intake 2.5 % BW

Calculation:
 (IWt + Fwt)/2 X FI X No days = Total Feed/h.
 (272 + 500)/2 X 0.025 X 210 = 2,026.5 kg/h

Amount of each feed:

W Bran 0.75 X 2027 = 1520 kg
Protein 0.10 X 2027 = 203 kg
Mixed hay 0.15 X 2027 = 304 kg
Total = 2,027 kg

3.2.4.3 Beef Cattle Selection and Breeding

Selection

As mentioned in the dairy cattle production selection is one of the genetic improvement
options in beef cattle production system. Beef animals with good performances are
selected to be the parents of the next generation. In a condition where there is high
variation in the individuals of the population selection can brings about large genetic
improvements in the beef herds. This is there is a room to narrow the difference amongst
the individuals of the beef cattle population. Beef cattle can be selected based on the pre-
set objectives. The producer needs to achieve his/her interest by selecting animals of
good performances. The good performances could be high meat yield. Quality meat, fast
growth rate, high feed intake, disease and heat tolerance, foraging ability etc. Beef cattle
can be raised from either feeder or from dairy animals.

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Cross breeding

Here animals of different breeds are to be mated with the aim to combine the genetic
materials. The offspring/hybrid is expected to have average performances of his parents.
For example, Ethiopian Boran cattle can be bred with England Angus breed to get cross
breed. The cross breed animal (Boran vs Angus) owns good meat traits and well
adaptability such as disease and heat tolerance. The good meat traits and adaptability are
inherited from the Angus and Boran, respectively. Cross breeding is usually implemented
if the genetic change through selection is obtained to be low as the individuals of the
given breed are almost similar in performances. Cross breeding achieves substantial
genetic change in the cattle herd.

Inbreeding
Inbreeding is the mating of related animals. Close-breeding represent inbreeding. The
most intensive form of inbreeding is close-breeding. Examples of close-breeding include
sire to daughter, son to dam, or brother to sister.

Close-breeding (sire to daughter, A represents the male; B the female)

 1st mating: AXB
 F1: 50%A,50%B
 2nd mating: A X F1
 F2: 75%A,25%B

Inbreeding increases the genetic purity of the stock. The pairing of the same genes is
increased (homozygous). The result of inbreeding is a high degree of homozygosity.
Undesirable genes and desirable genes become grouped together with greater frequency.
This makes the undesirable traits more visible. The breeder can eliminate animals with
these traits from the breeding program. Desirable traits also become more visible.

Inbreeding requires a carefully planned program of selection and culling. It is expensive

because all animals with undesirable traits must be removed. Animal breeders generally
do not use it. It is used more by universities for experimental work.

Grading up
Grading up is the mating of purebred sires to grade females. The mating of purebred sires
with grade animals is a good way to improve the quality of animals.
The amount of improvement is dependent on the quality of sire. Get your purebred sires
from purebred breeders.
Grading up (A1, A2, A3, represent purebred sires of a given breed; G represents a
grade female)
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 1st mating: A1 X G
 F1: 50%A, 50% G
 2nd mating: A2 X F1
 F2 : 75%A, 25% G
 3rd mating: A3 X F2
 F3: 87.5% A,12.5% G
The greatest percent of improvement comes in the first cross. Second-generation will
be 75% pure. The third generation will be 87.5% pure. If the use of a purebred sire
continues long enough, the amount of grade breeding left in the off spring will be less
than 1 percent.

3.2.4.4 Growth and Development in Beef Cattle

Growth and Development

Growth: refers to change in size and developmental changes associated with it. Growth
is a dynamic process, which continues through the life of an individual animal. Growth
leads to maturity, which is the process of becoming fully developed.

Development: is a gradual progression from a lower to a higher stage of complexity, in

association with a gradual expansion in size. Hyperplasia: an increase in the number of
cells.

Hypertrophy: an increase in the size of cells

Chronological and physiological growth

Chronological growth refers to increase in size or body function due to an animal

growing older. While physiological growth refers to increase in size or body function due
to increase in tissue and organ growth and development. As farm animals grow there is
change in weight and conformation (body proportion). Thus it develops locomotive,
tactile skill, intelligence and reproductive function.

Measurement of growth

Objective measurements: include weight, loin-eye area and back fat thickness

Subjective measurements: visual appraisal of growth

Objective measurements

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• Live body weight (LBW)

• Average daily gain (ADG)= LBW/Days fed
• Weight per day of age (WDA)
• Relative growth rate (RGR)= Gain per day per unit LBW on that day
• Body surface measurements (body length, body height, heart girth etc)

Figure 4.1. Linear body measurement in female cattle

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Figure 4.2. Top line linear body measurement in male cattle

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Figure 4.3. Rear linear body measurement in male cattle

Growth Curve and its Phases

Growth curve can be separated into three phases:

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Prenatal growth: is the increase in weight from conception to birth (includes ovum,
embryonic and fetal phases)

Ovum phase: fertilization – placental attachment (11 days)

Embryonic phase: differentiation of tissues and organs (25 – 45 days)

Fetal phase: rapid increases in weight and dramatic tissue and organ development (lasts
until birth)

Pre-weaning growth: birth – weaning (when the offspring is nursed by the dam)

Post-weaning growth: weaning – slaughter

Animal continues to increase in size but growth rate declines as maturity approaches.

Factors Affecting Growth

Here below are mentioned some important factors that determine the growth of beef
cattle animals.

Breed: heavy and lean cattle breeds grow faster than small breeds

Age: younger animals are capable of growing faster than older ones

Sex: males have more rapid growth rate than females due to high androgen hormone in
male

Animal class: bulls have 10 – 20 % higher rate of gain than steers. Intact/normal heifers
are 5 % more faster gainer than spayed heifer.

Nutrition: Animal fed well grows faster than animals fed poor. There is direct
relationship between feeding level and body weight gain. But excessive feeding early in
life will cause fattening and may inhibit bone growth and organ development.

Antibiotics: improve growth rate and feed efficiency by reducing the incidence of
diseases

Growth of Muscle, Fat and Bone

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Growth is accompanied by modification in body composition due to differential growth

of various tissues and chemical body components. Bone achieves its maximum growth
rate first, followed by muscle and finally fat. Partition of nutrients gives preference to
bone and muscle development over fat development. When animals are fed sub-
maintenance diets, fat is drawn on preferentially as source of energy. At birth a calf is
bony, with a big head and feet connected by long legs to a slight body. At birth there is
high muscle content resulting in higher muscle: bone ration. At early during birth muscle
weighs about 37 – 45 % of empty body weight (EBW), adipose tissue (5 %), and bone
(16 – 17 %). As maturity approach fattening takes place and thus muscle comprises
about 50 % of EBW, bone (8 - 9 %), and adipose tissue (15 – 18 %). In the over fat
mature animals fat can equal the weight of muscle.

Dressing Percentage

Dressing percentage is defined as the proportion of carcass weight to the live body weight
of the animal. Dressing percentage varies with animal species, breed, sex, age, gut fill, fat
deposit, trimming, and body condition. Different cattle breeds may have different
dressing percentage. For example, exotic cattle breeds like Angus and Simmental have 55
– 65 % and local cattle breeds like Boran, Arado and Foggera do have 45 – 55 %.

Dressing percentage= Carcass weight x 100/Live body weight

There are also other factors that determine carcass percentage. The longer the fasting
period between feeding and slaughter weight taken, the higher is the dressing percentage.
If the internal fat deposits, kidney fat and channel fat are considered in the carcass
weight, the carcass percentage is increased. Animals with good body condition will have
higher carcass percentage.

3.2.4.5 Housing System for Beef Cattle

It is quite important to have proper housing system for animals so that to perform better
and protected from healthy problem. Housing gives protection to the animals from
various environmental stresses such as sun radiation, rain shower, cool, strong wind,
predators and so on. The housing system varies with areas in which the housing that
being employed in tropical is different from that of temperate regions. In tropic areas
cattle houses are constructed in such a way that it can reduce heat stress. Appropriate
housing beyond protection from stress and potential diseases it makes easier other
management practices such as feeding, watering, clearing and breeding. There are many
determinant factors that need to be considered as pre-requisite for before establishing
dairy farms. These are:

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(1) Location: this refers to the place where the farm to be located in relation to soil
structure, drainage, road access and proximity to other farm houses etc. The house should
be constructed in areas where that anticipated to be affected by flood problem. It should
be considered also the access to transportation of inputs and outputs.

(2) Ventilation: the farm must be located in high areas that can secure sufficient
ventilation so that to allow air circulation within the house. This keeps the relative
humidity to be optimum. Usually high relative humidity aggravates the effect of high
temperature. The roof needs to be high enough to release excess heat, moisture and
pollutants.

(3) Direction of the house

The house of animals should be located in the direction of East-West that enables to
protect from morning and afternoon sun and rain.

(4) Roof

For the purpose of animal house it is recommended to use gable roof which is highly
preferred for its protection of sun and rain. Having appropriate roofing secures free
movement of air with in the farm and that maintain the room to be conducive for animals.
A well designed roof is quite important in reducing heat and cold stresses. In hot areas
like tropical and sub-tropical areas thatched roofing is commonly used for its good
protection and cheapness. In addition to this, tiles are used as roof in commercial farms
but not commonly used by smallholder farmers for its expensiveness.

Learning Activities

Practical 4.1. Identification Methods of Beef Animal:

Exercise various methods of beef cattle identification.

Practical 4.2. Estimation of Beef Cattle Age:

Estimate age of beef cattle based on dental examination.
Practical 4.3 Body Condition Scoring:
Practice body condition scoring in beef cattle
Practical 4.4
Exercise dehorning, castration, dipping and spraying, restrain beef animals.
Problem Based Learning Tasks 4.1.

Examine the existing beef cattle management systems your locality, identify major
constraints and suggest possible strategies that help improve beef cattle management
systems.
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Individual Studies 4.1.

S2.2 J.A.Payne and R. Trevor Wilson (2003) introduction to Animal husbandry in the
tropics 5th ed.

Assessment

- Individual assignment
- Group work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
- Practical report,

Section Summary

In the section beef cattle feeding, breeding, housing, managements were discussed. The
relationship of beef cattle growth pattern with the composition of meat is also described.
Determination of nutritional status by body condition assessment is also described.

3.2.5. Meat Quality and Processing

3.2.5.1 Meat Consumption & Contribution of Meat to the National Economy

Can you mention the contribution of meat to the national economy?

Do you know the per-capita consumption of meat in Ethiopia?

Meat is defined as all animal tissues suitable as food for human consumption. This
includes all processed or manufactured products prepared from animal tissues. The
majority of meat consumed comes from domestic and aquatic animals, but a number of
less well known species and products are continuously added to the list.

Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. It includes:

 Red meat - it is the largest category in terms of volume of consumption e.g. Beef,
mutton, goat meat, pork etc
 Poultry meat/white meat - includes flesh of domestic birds e.g. chicken, turkeys,
ducks etc
 Sea food - this includes fish, lobsters, oysters etc.
 Venison - includes meat from game or traditionally non-domesticated animals e.g.
rabbit, llama, camel, eland, impala, game birds etc.
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The domestic meat demand is believed to increase with increasing literacy and family
income. Meat consumption is often an indicator of the economic status of a country or an
individual. People with a higher social or economic status demand a greater amount of
high-quality meat products. The per capita consumption of meat in
developed/industrialized countries is much higher compared with developing countries.
Countries whose population consumes the least amount of meat are located in Africa and
Asia. The ten lowest-ranking countries in meat consumption consume 3–5 kg per capita
per year. In Ethiopia, the average annual meat consumption per capita is estimated to be 9
kg/year. Consumption of meat in the USA is 124 kg per capita per year (340 g/day). The
global average meat consumption is 38 kg (104 g/day).

3.2.5.2 Meat Production and Carcass Composition

Meat Production

Ethiopia has the leading livestock population in Africa and the animal population census
estimates the livestock population of Ethiopia at 49.3 million cattle. In Ethiopia meat is
produced from livestock and poultry for domestic and export market.

The major proportion of beef comes from old oxen kept for draft purpose, culled cows and
surplus young bulls. Consequently, the major proportion of beef produced in Ethiopia is not
of high quality. In the majority of dairy farms beef production is not a primary objective.
Ethiopia has one of the lowest levels of beef production per animal of any country. An
estimated 3.0 million head of cattle are slaughtered annually (an off-take rate of
approximately 7.4 %). In terms of beef production, the level of productivity in Ethiopia (110
kg/head) is about 25-30 % lower than East Africa (143 kg/head) or continental average (156
kg/head) while the world average was 212 kg/head.
Carcass Composition

A carcass is made up of various proportions of muscle, bone and fat. The ideal carcass
can be described as one that has a minimum amount of bone, a maximum amount of
muscle and an optimum amount of fat. Market requirements differ in size of carcass and
level of fatness acceptable. A certain proportion of fat is desirable to reduce drying out of
the carcass. On the other hand, too much fat is undesirable.

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Muscle: Water makes up 74% of the total muscle weight. The remainder of the muscle is
protein, lipid, minerals and some vitamins.

Bone: Bone provides the rigid support to which the muscles are attached. The hard,
calcified cells give bone the strength needed to support the weight of the animal.

Fat: Fat is basically a food or energy reserve for the animal and is laid down in special
cells in various sites of the body. The various fat depots found on a carcass are
subcutaneous, inter-muscular, intramuscular and miscellaneous. Subcutaneous fat is the
fat immediately under the skin and lies on the outside surface of the carcass.
Subcutaneous fat minimizes drying out of the underlying meat. A high content of
intramuscular fat is known as marbling, a common feature in feedlot and heavy-weight
cattle, but seldom seen in sheep or goats.

Major Factors Affecting Carcass Composition

Weight: Carcass weight is a main factor affecting the composition of the carcass and is
closely related to age at slaughter. As animals mature, they normally gain weight
resulting in a heavier carcass. Much of the weight gain of a mature animal is fat rather
than muscle. Thus, at heavier live weight, an animal’s carcass will have lower
proportions of muscle and bone and a higher proportion of fat.

Age: Increases in age, independent of changes in weight, tend to have little influence on
the carcass composition of sheep. Normally, as animals age they gain weight that is
largely made up of fat. It is this increase in weight that results in an increase in fatness.

Sex: At all weights, females tend to be fatter than ram lambs under similar management.

Breed: Some breeds mature earlier than others and the main breed differences in carcass
composition are related to the rate of fat deposition during the later stages of growth.

Nutrition: The effect of nutrition on carcass composition is not a simple one as it

involves the interactions among level of intake, the composition of the feed, and nutrient
needs of the animal. As more food energy is required to produce a kilogram of fat than a
kilogram of muscle, one has to be conscious of the type of market targeted during the
feeding operation.

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Animal Husbandry in the Lairage

Minimizing stress in the period immediately before slaughter is important for economic
reasons related to meat quality as well as for animal welfare. Animals must be handled
carefully at all times with minimal use of force.

 Most lairages in the abattoir should have solid non-slip floors suitably sloped for
adequate drainage. They must be well-lit and ventilated.
 Animals should receive ample drinking water during their stay in the lairage as
this serves to lower the bacterial load in the intestine and facilitates the removal of
skin during the dressing of the carcass.

 Stock should not be held for more than a day in the lairage and must not be
slaughtered in sight of other stock. Animals should be held without feed but with
access to water for 12–24 hours prior to slaughter.

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Post-slaughter Factors

The post-harvest refers to practices of livestock slaughter and subsequent meat

processing. To produce quality meat, appropriate temperature, airflow and relative
humidity must also be employed in the chillers.

3.2.5.3 Meat Processing

In your view, what is the importance of meat processing?

Meat processing involves a wide range of physical and chemical treatment methods,
normally combining a variety of methods. These treatments go beyond the simple cutting
of meat into meat cuts or meat pieces with subsequent cooking for meat dishes in order to
make the meat palatable.

Physical/technical processes such as:

 Cutting, chopping, comminuting

 Mixing, tumbling
 Stuffing/filling of semi-fabricated meat mixes into casings, synthetic films, cans
etc.
 Heat treatment
On the other hand, chemical or biochemical processes, which often go together with the
technical processes, are also part of meat processing technology such as

 Salting and curing

 Utilization of spices and additives
 Smoking
 Drying
Uses of Processing

 The advantage of meat processing is the integration of certain animal tissues

(muscle trimmings, bone scraps, skin parts or certain internal organs which are
usually not sold in fresh meat marketing) into the food chain as valuable protein-
rich ingredients.
 Animal blood, for instance, is unfortunately often wasted in developing countries
largely due to the absence of hygienic collection and processing methods and
also because of socio-cultural restrictions that do not allow consumption of
products made of blood.
 While half of the blood volume of a slaughtered animal remains in the carcass
tissues and is eaten with the meat and internal organs, the other half recovered

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from bleeding represents 5-8 percent of the protein yield of a slaughter animal. In
the future, we cannot afford to waste such large amounts of animal protein.
 Meat processing offers a suitable way to integrate whole blood or separated
blood fractions (known as blood plasma) into human diets.
 All edible livestock parts that are suitable for processing into meat products are
optimally used. In addition to muscle trimmings, connective tissue, organs and
blood, this includes casings of animal origin that are used as sausage containers.
 Lean meat is one of the most valuable but also most costly foods and may not
regularly be affordable to certain population segments.
 Unlike fresh meat, many processed meat products can be made shelf-stable. Such
shelf-stable meat products can conveniently be stored and transported without
refrigeration and can serve as the animal protein supply in areas that have no cold
chain provision.
 Meat processing “adds value” to products. Value-added meat products display
specific flavour, taste, colour or texture components, which are different from
fresh meat. Such treatments do not make products necessarily cheaper; on the
contrary in many cases they become even more expensive than lean meat. But
they offer diversity to the meat food sector, providing the combined effect of
nutritious food and food with excellent taste.
Salting

The water holding capacity of meat can be increased with the addition of salt up to a
concentration of about 5% in lean meat. Sodium chloride has only a very low capacity to
destroy microorganisms, thus almost no bacteriological effect. Its preserving power is
attributed to the capability to bind water and to deprive the meat of moisture.

The preservation effect, which is microbial inhibition and extension of the shelf-life of
meat products by salt in its concentrations used for food (on average 1.5-3% salt), is low.
Meat processors should not rely too much on this effect unless it is combined with other
preservation methods such as reduction of moisture or heat treatment.

Curing

Curing is the treatment of muscle meat with common salt (NaCl) and sodium nitrite
(NaNO2). In order to achieve the desired red or pink color, meat or meat mixes are salted
with common salt (sodium chloride NaCl), which contains a small quantity of the curing
agent sodium nitrite (NaNO2).

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Smoking

Smoke for meat treatment is generated through the thermal destruction of the row wood
components lignin and cellulose. The thermal destruction sets free more than 1000
desirable or undesirable firm, liquid or gaseous components of wood.

Depending on the product, smoke is applied at different temperatures. There are two
principal smoking techniques:

1. Cold smoking

2. Hot smoking

The principle of both methods is that the smoke infiltrates the outside layers of the
product in order to develop flavour, colour and a certain preservation effect.

Meat Drying

Drying may be done for the single purpose of dehydrating fresh meat for extension of
storage. To have an extended shelf life, fermented products need to lose moisture during
their fermentation, they are dehydrated or “dried” to a certain extend.

Drying and fermentation must go hand in hand to achieve the desired flavour and shelf
life. The drying of such products is mostly done in climatized chambers with exact
temperature and humidity parameters.

Another example is the drying of meat preparations in ovens with temperatures in the
range of 70-80°C, to become fast-dried products such as beef sticks formed of ground,
salted and flavoured meat.

It is still a popular method in many developing countries, in particular where no cold

chain is available. It is predominantly carried out for meat preservation, based on the
experience that dehydrated meat will not spoil easily.

Meat Canning

Unlike pasteurized “cooked” meat products where the survival of heat resistant
microorganisms is accepted, the aim of sterilization of meat products is the destruction of
all contaminating bacteria including their spores. In practice, the meat products filled in
sealed containers are exposed to temperatures above 100°C in pressure cookers.
Temperatures above 100°C, usually ranging from 110-121°C depending on the type of
product, must be reached inside the product. Products are kept for a defined period of
time at temperature levels required for the sterilization depending on type of product and
size of container.
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The canning process involves two essential operations:

 The product must be heated at a sufficiently high temperature and for long enough
to make it fully or commercially sterile, and
 It must be sealed in a hermetic container which will prevent recontamination of
the product.
Usually heat processes for canned products are designed to inactivate large numbers of
spores of the organism Clostridium botulinum.

Learning Activities

Practical 5.1 Meat preservation methods

Exercise the different meat preservation methods.
Individual Studies 5.1
David Richardson and J. Smith (2008). Beef. The tropical agriculturist CTA series

Assessments
 Assignments
 Test/quiz
 Practical reports

Summary
In this section meat production, consumption pattern and contribution of meat to the
national economy, carcass composition, and major factors affecting carcass composition
and meat processing preservation methods have been discussed.

3.2.6. Hides quality and processing

3.2.6.1. Role of Hides and Skins
What is the contribution of hides and skins in the national economy?

In Ethiopia hides and skins contribute much to the export earnings from the livestock
sector. In addition, it has a large contribution to the leather industry in the country.
Ethiopia has been exporting hides and skins in the past 100 years. The country has big
potential to develop the sub-sector. In 2002 hides and skins represent major source of
foreign exchange earnings for the country accounting for 14-16% of the total export
revenue.

The major export contributor of the manufacturing sector in Ethiopia is the leather and
footwear industries, which contributed 70% of the export earnings for the year 2005-

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2007. The total value of the export of the leather and leather products is USD 66.9
million, 75.3 million and 98.4 million in the years 2005, 2006 and 2007, respectively.

3.2.6.2. General Structure of Hides

There are three layers to the hide, of which two, the epidermis or outer layer and dermis
or middle layer, are important in leather making. The third layer is the flesh layer and is
composed of meat, fat, etc., and is removed in the tanning process. The most important
layer for leather production is the dermis that is composed of a network of finely
interwoven bundles of tissue. The dermis is composed of the grain layer, the corium
layer, and the junction or layer where the grain and corium meet.

3.2.6.3. Pre-slaughter and Slaughtering Operations

Pre-Slaughtering Care

Hides and skins in Ethiopia have greater economic return than most agricultural products
and by-products. As a result, animals should be given due care from birth to slaughter.
Management practices should ensure the health of the animal and reduce the likelihood of
injuries that could damage the skin. Treatment and vaccinations should be given on time
as required. Treatment against ticks should be given through regular dipping or spraying.
Providing proper feed and watering sites will help to prevent animals from damaging
their hides and skins while searching for feed in the bush.

Fatigued animals, especially after a long trek on foot or rail, should be allowed to recover
prior to slaughter or incomplete bleeding may occur. Removing the hide/skin is also
difficult in fatigued animals leading to more chances for the skin being cut. Animals
should have free access to drinking water for at least 24 hours before slaughter and either
held off-feed or given very little feed.

Slaughtering Techniques

Animals for slaughter should be delivered with as little stress as possible. If they are
being transported in trucks, care should be exercised to prevent injury from sharp edges
which could cut and damage the hide or skin. Other damage may occur if the animals are
continuously bumped against the side of the truck. The resulting bruises are not a serious
problem, but the effect of an impact and associated abrasion may damage the delicate
epidermis and even the underlying dermis. If the animals are being moved on-the-hoof,
excessive heavy beating with hard or sharp objects should be avoided.
At the place of slaughter, it is good practice to rest the animals in holding pens for 12-24
hours with access to water only. This is principally to improve the quality of the meat
which is adversely affected when un-rested or excited animals are slaughtered.

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Immediately before slaughter, each animal should be given an ante-mortem inspection by

a qualified veterinary inspector. Only if the inspector approves should the animal be
slaughtered.
Preservation of Hides

Preservation prevents putrefaction and keeps hides in good condition until they are
processed in tanneries. Being protein in nature, hides are susceptible to attacks by
bacteria or mold that leads to putrefaction in hot and humid climates. Dust, dirt, soil,
water, blood, fodder, etc., are sources of infection apart from microorganisms that could
be transmitted by air, insects, or contact with diseased animals.

In tropical countries, it is advisable to begin curing within four hours of flaying

depending upon outside temperature. Raw hides should be sent to the curing facility in
closed carts and protected from exposure to the sun and without being rolled. Hides can
be dried with or without a frame, in the sun or in a shed. Wet salting, dry salting and
brining are other methods of hide preservation. There are also more recent techniques not
yet universally applied.

Principles of preservation

The following points should be considered in undertaking hide preservation:

 Point of application of the treatment and how long preservation is required.

 Methods of application and any extra equipment and handling involved.
 The cost-effectiveness of the treatment for the required period of preservation.
 The effect of salt and other chemicals in causing pollution.
Air Drying

Drying of hides can be done in different ways. The techniques include drying on the
ground, using suspension/frame drying, drying by suspension over cords or wires, and
tent and parasol drying. Drying depends on the temperature, relative humidity and
movement of air. For example, a hide can be dried in three hours in a dry atmosphere. A
fresh hide placed in warm surroundings will dry more rapidly in moving air. It is bad
practice to hang a hide in a closed space with solid walls and no air movement, as this
leads to putrefaction. Air currents should move freely in drying hide even if the air is hot.
If a hide does not dry in 2–3 days, the chance of putrefaction is very high. Air drying can
be done in the following ways:

a. Suspension frame drying: This can be practiced in different ways depending on local
conditions and availability of hide. The best option is to frame-dry under a shed. While
frame-drying in the open is cheaper, it is better to use a shed where suitable cross-

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ventilation occurs. Shed drying also allows for close supervision as well as protection
from theft and control of damage from vermin. Drying sheds can have regular frames
made of wood or metal pipes that are permanently fixed. Large frames meant for hides, 3
m × 3 m, can be adapted for skins by partitioning allowing four skins to be stretched.

Suspension frame drying in the sun is acceptable provided that the temperature of the
skin does not reach the point of degradation of collagen. Sun drying makes skins crack
when folded and become very difficult to soak in the tanneries. Suspension frame drying
has the following advantages:

 It allows free flow of air on both sides of the hides.

 If not in a shed, rain drains off the surface and does not collect in puddles on the
hides.
 Sun rays strike obliquely not directly.
 It permits the hides to cool off rapidly from the large exposed surface area.
 Neither hair slip nor putrefaction begins as there are no folds or points of contact
between the hides and any solid object. But during the rainy season, due to still air
and high relative humidity, some percentage of hides and skins may putrefy.
 Better grading possibilities.
 Dried hides can be stored for a longer period of time than salted hides.
 Transporting dried hides is cheaper as the weight is only half that of the salted
hides.
 Corrosion is avoided as opposed to the case of salted hides where containers and
transporting vehicles may become corroded.
 It is less expensive as salt is not purchased.
 Less worry of environmental contamination as compared with disposing used salt.
The following problems are associated with suspension frame drying:

 Difficulty in rehydrating dried skins including extra cost and potential loss of
hide substances leading to holes.
 Uneven shape by improper stretching during drying.
 Loss of surface area by the cuts for lacing and consequent trimming.

One has to make sure the hides are not overstretched. The method of stretching and
securing to the frame is called lacing. The best lacing materials are strips from waste
hides. Ropes are commonly used. Often, the slits made by knives are very long and an
area inside the hide is wasted. It is better to use a punch for lace holes.

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Fig 6.1. Frame drying of hides

b. Suspension drying over cords or wire: This technique is employed where wood is
scarce. Hides are suspended symmetrically along the backbone with the hair or wool
hanging down over a wire not thicker than one’s little finger. The overhanging sides of
the belly and flanks must be prevented from touching each other and the shanks from
folding inwards. Sticks or straw can be used to adhere to the wet flesh, ensuring that
every part of the skin is free and open to the air.

Figure 6.2. Suspension drying over cords

C. Ground drying: This method, in which hides and skins are placed directly on the
ground, is the worst technique to use. It produces dried material of the most appalling
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quality, and consequently of the poorest value to the producer. Because of the lack of air
circulation between hides and soil, moisture is trapped under the hides and the physical
damage is irreparable. Much of the damage caused at this stage may not be fully seen
until processing.

Figure 6.3. Ground drying

Salting

There are two main variants of curing employing salt as a means of desiccation of hides
instead of relying solely on evaporation as in air or suspension-drying. These are known
as wet and dry salting depending on the technique employed in applying salt for this
purpose.
a. Wet salting: The hide is spread on the floor or a wooden pallet and common salt is
uniformly applied on the flesh side equal to 30–40% of the green hide weight. A second
hide is now spread on the first one with the flesh side up and salt applied in the same
manner. A pile of about 100 skins may be made or to an approximate height of 1 m.

Any salt used should have a sodium chloride content of 94–95%. The salt should not be
too fine or too coarse. If too powdered; the salt flows out as brine and is not absorbed to
the desired extent. The suggested size is two to three millimeter grain. Rock salt is the
most ideal salt for curing but sea salt is most commonly used. The main disadvantage of
wet salting is the formation of “red heat” which makes the flesh side of the skin red
through the action of halophilic (salt-loving) bacteria and other organisms that have salt
tolerance.

Dry salting: This technique is very similar to wet salting but hides/skins are dried after
the initial salting. This method gives the advantage of both drying and salting. This
technique is especially well-suited for preparing skins/hides for export and at the same
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time overcoming the problem of wet salting. The initial steps are the same as in wet
salting; however, salting has to be done without any delay after flaying.

Improvement of the Quality Hides and Skins

One of the important factors in the improvement of hide and skin production as a whole
is the system of collection, which is far from efficient or complete. Lack of hide and skin
supply is evident almost entirely due to the lack of an effective collection system. A
collection system based on incentives to encourage animal producers to collect and sell
hides and skins would result in establishment of its own network of traders in due course
after mutual confidence has been established.

As the greater part of the supply of raw stock comes from the rural areas, small farmers
or butchers, the functions of grading, sorting and selection must be exercised in the
collection centers. The success depends on the size of the collecting agency. Price
incentives are built into the system and the number of middle men between the primary
producer and the final buyer is determined not by custom but by necessity. The advantage
of improving quality or grading of hides and skins is unlikely to be appreciated. Market
value would strengthen the bargaining position of the original sellers.

Learning Activities

Practical 6.1. Flaying, Ripping, preservation of Hides:

Practice appropriate methods of flaying, ripping and preservation of hides

Problem Based Learning 6.1:

Identify major constraints of beef cattle production in your vicinity and suggest possible
means for improving productivity

Assessments

- Problem/case analysis
-Group work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
- Practical report

Summary

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

In this section students were awarded with the classification, structure and composition of
hides, pre-slaughter and slaughtering operations, hides preservation methods. The
students have also studied the improvement of hide quality.

3.2.7. The beef value chain

3.2.7.1 Beef cattle production system and market sources
Based on integration of livestock with crop production, level of input and intensity of
production, agro-ecology and market orientation, livestock production systems in
Ethiopia is categorized as pastoral, agro-pastoral, mixed crop-livestock farming, urban
and peri-urban farming and specialized intensive farming systems. However, the
livestock production systems are predominantly categorized as agro-pastoral system in
the lowlands, and the mixed crop–livestock system in the highlands. Traditionally,
fattening of animals in both systems concentrates on male animals and on females which
are either infertile or have finished their reproductive cycle. In the lowland agro-pastoral
system, grazing is the most common source of feed, with limited use of crop residues,
whereas in the highland system, crop residues are the most important source of animal
feed. During the wet season, when crop residues are scarce in the highlands, male
animals are taken to the lowland areas for grazing.

There is little evidence of strategic production of livestock for marketing except some
sales targeted to traditional Ethiopian festivals. The primary reason for selling livestock is
to generate income to meet unforeseen expenses. Sales of live animals are taken as a last
resort and large ruminants are generally sold when they are old, culled, or barren. In the
highlands, large numbers of cattle are kept to supply draft power for crop production,
whereas prestige and social security are the predominant factors in the lowland pastoral
areas.

3.2.7.2 The marketing systems and the main actors in marketing live animal
export
Markets are dispersed with remote markets lacking price information. Generally, the
number of animals offered in the local market is usually greater than the number
demanded, so there is excess supply. This effectively suppresses producer prices since the
more mobile trader is better informed on market prices, while better information
combined with excess supply place the trader in a better position during price negotiation.
Livestock are generally traded by ‘eye-ball’ pricing, and weighing livestock is
uncommon. Prices are usually fixed by individual bargaining and depend mainly on
supply and demand, which is heavily influenced by the season of the year and the
occurrence of religious and cultural festivals. Ethiopia’s livestock supply is heavily
influenced by the severity of the dry season.
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The livestock marketing structure follows a four-tier system, of which different actors
involve in buying and selling of beef cattle in the market system .The main actors of the
1st tier are local farmers and rural traders who transact at farm level with very minimal
volume, 1–2 animals per transaction irrespective of species involved. Some traders may
specialize in either small or large animals. Those small traders from different corners
bring their livestock to the local market (2nd tire). Traders purchase a few large animals
or a fairly large number of small animals for selling to the secondary markets. In the
secondary market (3rd tier), both smaller and larger traders operate and traders and
butchers from terminal markets come to buy animals.

In the terminal market (4th tire), big traders and butchers transact larger number of
mainly slaughter type animals. From the terminal markets and slaughterhouses and slabs,
meat reaches consumers through a different channel and a different set of
traders/businesses.

In Ethiopia, both legal and illegal livestock marketing systems are operating at different
magnitudes. Small farmer exporters and traders are the major actors in the illegal cattle
marketing system while medium- to large scales licensed exporters are dominantly
operating in the legal system. Most cattle sales are related to farm households’ cash needs
and commercial orientation. However, cattle sales are also induced by fear of theft and
insecurity. Unofficial cross-border trade is practiced in the eastern, western, and southern,
and north western borderlands of Ethiopia. In addition to the Ethio-Sudan cross-border
huge livestock trade, there are other important cross-border livestock trade operations:
Ethio-Somalia, Ethio-Kenya and Ethio-Djibouti. The cross-boarder trade with Sudan
involves predominantly male cattle. Un-castrated and fattened oxen are also exported
legally. Few medium to high quality female animals are also exported, which are used for
slaughtering in Sudan or for live animals re-export to Egypt, Libya and Yemen. Most of
the borders are characterized by arid and semi-arid agro-ecologies where livestock play
dominant role in household livelihoods. Eastern Ethiopian/Somaliland cross-border
livestock trade accounts for the largest share among the four borders in terms of the
volume and value of export from Ethiopia. Port of Berbera is the main outlet for livestock
exports.

The purpose of the meat processing industries in Ethiopia is to produce and supply high
quality meat products to the domestic and export markets. The export market is the main
market of the meat processing industries of the country. Products supplied to the local
and overseas markets by these companies are chilled/frozen beef, goat meat, mutton,
chilled veal, chilled camel meat and red offal.

Consumers buy meat through one of the three channels: buying and slaughtering live
animals, from markets and from abattoirs. They may purchase live animals directly from
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the terminal market and slaughter by themselves or they may get meat from markets,
which by-pass the formal procedures through abattoirs; or they may access from butchers
who process the meat via abattoirs. Livestock market locations in primary and secondary
markets are typically not fenced; there are no permanent animal routes and no feed and
watering infrastructures. Yet buyers and sellers are subjected to various service charges
by the local authority as well as other bodies.

3.2.7.3 Challenges & opportunities for beef production & value chain
Challenges:

The major challenges facing the beef cattle marketing and value chain are:

 Less competitiveness of these firms in the domestic and export markets which has
been limited by the underutilization of the processing capacities.
 It has been observed that the live animal throughput is inadequate resulting in the
existing meat processing facilities operating at less than 50% of their operational
capacities. This is apparently due to inadequate supply of the required quality live
animals for meat processing by the export abattoirs which makes them less
competitive in the global or regional meat market.
 The export abattoirs are competing for the domestic supply of live cattle with the
demand for live cattle for domestic consumption, and for formal and informal
(cross-border) trade.
 The annual outflow of beef cattle from Ethiopia through illicit (informal) market
is huge. The legal export of both live animal and processed meat is thus
constrained due to shortage created by the illicit export. The existing beef cattle
sources and market channel of livestock trade in Ethiopia are indicated in the
Figure 1.
As a whole, the following are the main challenges faced beef cattle production, value
chain and marketing:-

1. Lack of well defined breeding program and production systems.

2. Lack of an integral connection between the stakeholders involved in the production

chain.

3. Inadequate market promotion and study tours to potential importing countries

4. Lack of efficient air transport for export of fresh and chilled meat.

5. Some markets are also dominated by influential personalities and illegal exporters.

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

6. Limited access to market-related information (e.g. on prices, value chains,

competitors, consumer preferences).

7. Lack of capital to invest in assets, equipment and inputs that would improve quality.

Figure 7.1. Existing beef cattle sources and market channel of livestock trade in Ethiopia.

The Figure illustrates that beef cattle is brought to market primarily from three sources:
from farmers which produce the beef cattle, small scale to large scale producers
organized in the form of cooperatives to fatten the cattle and some brokers which buy
either from directly from producers and fattening cooperatives. Those animals brought to
the market are exported legally by small and medium scale exporter and illegally by
small scale exporter and farmers.

Opportunities
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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

High demand of animals by the local abattoirs

The export abattoirs are required to ensure a consistent and continuous supply of meat in
order to meet the demand of the customers in the importing countries. Thus, there is an
urgent need for export abattoirs to devise alternative strategies to ensure adequate market
supply of quality live animals to meet their processing needs in order to improve their
efficiency and competitiveness. There are seven abattoirs in Ethiopia which processe
canned meat products mainly for the army, domestic market and some exports. These
abattoirs are located in Addis Ababa, Melge Wondo, Dire Dawa, Kombolcha, Gondar
and Debre Zeit. Of these plants, Melge Wondo is to some extent preparing frozen beef
and that of Debre Zeit abattoir produce chilled beef, sheep and goat meat for both
domestic and export markets.

Official exports

There are few legal exporters engaged in the export of live animals and meat in the
country. These exporters secure livestock from pastoral areas by themselves or through
agents for export in live or meat form (chilled mutton, goat meat and beef). The
Livestock Marketing Authority (LMA) (2004) estimated the annual potential for export at
72,000 metric tons of meat. NEPAD-CAAD (2004) identified the Middle East and North
African countries which are considered important for the country’s export in livestock
and livestock products (LLP) to be Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Yemen,
Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Iran, Syria and Egypt. The annual demand of these
countries is estimated to be 206,846 tons of meat and 12 million heads of live animals
(cattle, sheep and goats). The estimated national off take rates of 10% for cattle, pastoral
areas of the country alone, could produce 734 000 heads of beef cattle per annum. When
these are compared to the current demand in the Middle East, they meet only 42% for
beef. However, the live beef cattle supplies are well over the demand (144%), thus
requiring new market outlets.

The exports of meat and live animals have dramatically increased in 2010-2011 Ethiopian
fiscal. Ethiopia exported 16,877 tons of meat and 472,041 head of live animals, recording
a 69 % increment from last year’s export revenue. Ethiopian revenue and customs
authority reported that live animal export in 2010 contributed 70% of the earnings while
30% was obtained from meat export. Chilled sheep and goat carcass accounted for 80%,
beef 9% and offal 11% of the exported meat. Of the number of exported live animals,
cattle accounted for 46%, sheep 35%, camels 13% and goats 6%. In terms of revenue,
cattle contributed 67%, camels 25% and sheep and goats 8% to the revenue generated.

Domestic Consumption

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The domestic meat demand is believed to increase with increasing literacy and family
income. Meat consumption is often an indicator of the economic status of a country or an
individual. People with a higher social or economic status demand a greater amount of
high-quality meat products. The per capita consumption of meat in
developed/industrialized countries is much higher than in developing countries. Countries
whose population consumes the least amount of meat are located in Africa and Asia.

Developed countries consumed a consistent level of 77 kg of meat per capita annually,

while developing countries struggled to maintain a diet with only 25 kg of meat per
capita annually. Ethiopians remained slightly below the meat intake of all low-income
countries and consuming 9 kg per capita annually. Livestock market value chain structure
that should be taken as an opportunity is indicated in Figure 2.

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Figure 7.2. Livestock market value chain structure

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Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Learning Activities:

Problem Based Learning 7.1

Indentify and assess the existing beef value chain structure in your locality and suggest
appropriate chain.

Assessments

-Group work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
Summary

Under beef value chain, different value chain related issues viz., value chain mapping from
beef production to consumption, value chain actors and their transactional relationships in the
value chain, the key market channels- formal and informal beef channels and challenges and
opportunities with respect to smallholder beef farming were discussed.

3.2.8 Proof of Ability:

Summative exam that includes different types or methods of assessment put to use as a proof
of ability. This includes simulation, written exams; project work; scenario/case studies;
individual and group assignment; and presentations.

Its Purpose is to evaluate the extent to which the learner has captured the intended knowledge
and skills in this learning task within a specified date and period.

Finally students will be assessed out of 50%.

3.2.9 Major References

1. James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production. 6th ed. Pp
110-400
2. S2.2 J.A.Payne and R. Trevor Wilson (2003) introduction to Animal husbandry in
the tropics 5th ed.
3. David Richardson and J. Smith (2008). Beef. The tropical agriculturist CTA series.
4. .K. Theodorous and J. France (2000). Feeding system and feed evaluation Models
5. Alemu Yami and R.C. Merkel (2008). Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for
Ethiopia. Ethiopia Sheep and Goat productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP).

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 Animal Production & Product Processing in Value Chain: Beef Cattle Production & Product processing

Annex

Learning Part curriculum Dura- Moment + Description Material Assessment

task tion location
LT 2 Beef Cattle Production and 20 This learning task enables learners to understand system of Beef -Continuous
Product Processing cattle production in Ethiopia, types and breeds of beef cattle, Assessment
reproduction and breeding, feeding, growth mechanism, housing, - Proof of Ability
Production and management of Hide and its method of preservation,
storage and transportation, meat storage and processing, and
marketing of live animals and their products. The learners will also
acquire knowledge on how to align beef animal and their products to
value chain.
L2.1 Systems of Beef Cattle 2+2 Explain major types of beef production systems ( intensive and -Handouts -Criteria based interview
Production + PBL2.1 + PBL2.2 extensive ),suitability of the systems in different agro ecologies -Presentation (pictorial, oral, -Problem/case analysis
Indentify the various breeds (local and exotic) of the beef cattle by video show...) -Individual assignment
viewing pictures or live animals -Group
work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz

L2.2 Management of Beef Cattle and 14 Feeding practices of beef animals, Breeding of beef animals, growth -Handouts -Criteria based interview
Meat Processing and development of beef animals, housing, meat quality and -Presentation (pictorial, oral, -Problem/case analysis
processing. video show...) -Individual assignment
-Group
work/assignments
- Written
exam/test/quiz
- Practical
demonstration,
observation
L2.2.1 1 Reproduction and breeding -
L2.2.2+ PBL2. 3 Feeding practices of beef animals -
L2.2.3+ 1 growth mechanism of Beef Animals -
L2.2.4 1 Housing -
L2.3 Meat quality and processing 5 Meat consumption and contribution of meat to human society; meat -
production and carcass composition; and major factors affecting
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carcass composition.
L2.4 Hide Processing 3 Histology , pre and post slaughter handling, processing, preservation, -Handouts -Criteria based interview
transportation and grading of hide - Presentation (pictorial, oral, -Problem/case analysis
video show, models...) -Individual assignment
-Group
work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
- Practical
demonstration,
observation
L2.5 Aligning Beef Cattle and 1+1 -Describe the characteristics of the beef industry Criteria based interview
Product Processing to Value Chain -Value Chain structure of beef products -Problem/case analysis
+ PBL2.3 -Individual assignment
-Group
work/assignments
- Written exam/test/quiz
- Practical
demonstration,
observation
Practical Activities
P2.1 Identification methods of beef 3 Demonstrate various methods of beef cattle identification -Demonstration (live - Practical
animals animal…) demonstration,
- manual, - Practical observation
P2.2 Estimation of ages 1 Make estimation of age through dentition -Demonstration (live -Practical
animal…) demonstration,
- manual, - Practical observation
P2.3 Body condition scoring and 2 Judge animals by observing body condition -Demonstration (live Practical demonstration,
identification of beef animal…) - Practical observation
characteristics - manual,
P2.4 Evaluation and Grading of 4 Classify animals according to kind, sex, age and grade classified -Demonstration -Practical
Carcass animals into sub-groups based on the relative merit of the meat - manual, demonstration,
produced. - Practical observation
P2.5 4 - Dehorning, castration, dipping and spraying -Demonstration -Practical
- restrain beef animals - manual, demonstration,
- Practical observation
- Handling of beef animals
Flaying, ripping ,
2. Problem Based Learning Tasks
PBL 2.1 Examine the existing beef cattle management systems in your locality -checklist -Report writing

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and suggest possible strategies that help improve beef cattle -proceedings - presentation
management systems. -reports relevant to case at -Criteria based interview
hand
PBL 2.2 Identify major constraints of beef cattle production in your vicinity and -checklist -Report writing
suggest possible means for improving productivity -proceedings - presentation
-reports relevant to case at -Criteria based interview
hand
PBL 2.3 Indentify and Assess the existing beef value chain structure in your -checklist - Report writing
locality and suggest appropriate chain -proceedings - presentation
-reports relevant to case at -Criteria based interview
hand
3. Individual Studies
S2.1 3 James.R. Gillespie (2002). Modern livestock and poultry production. -Assignment
6th ed. Pp 110-400 (instructors can opt for alternatives relevant -Tests
reference materials) -Quizzes
-Exams
S2.2 3 S2.2 J.A.Payne and R. Trevor Wilson (2003) introduction to Animal Assignment
husbandry in the tropics 5th ed. -Tests
-Quizzes
-Exams
S2.3 3 David Richardson and J. Smith (2008). Beef. The tropical -Assignment
agriculturist CTA series -Tests
-Quizzes
-Exams
S2.4 2 M.K. Theodorous and J. France (2000). Feeding system and feed -Assignment
evaluation Models -Tests
-Quizzes
-Exams
5. Training of General Skills
T2.1 5 - Invite expertise in related area to share his/her -manuals -report writing
experiences. -dehorning, castration , -Demonstration
restraining, flaying, and - Presentation
ripping facilities,
-demonstration (carcass and
hide)

LT = Learning Task, L =Lectures, P= Practicals, T= Training, IS =Individual Study, S/WS = Seminar/WS working in small groups with supervision, PA= Practical attachment, A/PoA =
ssessment / Proof of ability

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