1.

Definition of e-commerce
Electronic commerce, or e-commerce, encompasses the buying and selling of goods, services,
and digital products over the internet. It represents a modern business methodology that aims
to reduce costs, improve quality, and increase the speed of delivery in commercial
transactions. E-commerce transcends geographical limitations and allows for 24/7 business
operations. It draws on technologies like mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply
chain management, and online transaction processing.
2. Additional e-commerce terms
 M-commerce (Mobile Commerce): Refers to transactions conducted using mobile devices
like smartphones and tablets.
 Omnichannel: A retail strategy providing a seamless and integrated customer experience
across various channels (online, mobile, physical stores).
 Dropshipping: An order fulfillment method where the online store doesn't keep products in
stock; instead, a third-party supplier ships directly to the customer.
 Affiliate Marketing: A performance-based marketing strategy where a business pays
commissions to affiliates for driving sales.
 Payment Gateway: A service that processes electronic payments for online transactions.
 CRM (Customer Relationship Management): Strategies and systems for managing customer
interactions and data to improve relationships and business goals.
 SEO (Search Engine Optimization): Optimizing websites to rank higher in search engine
results and attract organic traffic.
 CLV (Customer Lifetime Value): Forecasts the total profit an e-commerce company will
generate from a customer over their relationship.
3. Business models related to e-commerce
E-commerce employs various business models, categorizing transactions based on the
participating entities:
 B2C (Business-to-Consumer): Businesses sell products or services directly to individual
consumers (e.g., online retail stores like Amazon).
 B2B (Business-to-Business): Businesses sell products or services to other businesses (e.g.,
software-as-a-service for businesses).
 C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer): Consumers sell products or services to other consumers,
often facilitated by online marketplaces (e.g., eBay, Etsy).
 C2B (Consumer-to-Business): Individuals sell goods or services directly to companies (e.g.,
freelance services platforms like Upwork).
 B2G (Business-to-Government): Businesses sell products or services to government
agencies.
 D2C (Direct-to-Consumer): Brands sell directly to consumers, bypassing traditional
retailers and distributors (e.g., Warby Parker).
 B2B2C (Business-to-Business-to-Consumer): One business sells to another business, which
then sells to the end consumer (e.g., a wholesale distributor selling to a retail store).
4. Advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce
 Advantages
 Convenience and 24/7 Accessibility: Customers can shop anytime, anywhere, at their own
pace.
 Wider Product Range: Online stores offer a vast selection compared to physical stores.
 Global Reach: Businesses can reach customers worldwide, expanding their market beyond
local limitations.
 Lower Overhead Costs: Reduces or eliminates the need for a physical storefront, saving on
rent, utilities, and staff.
 Personalized Shopping Experiences: Data analytics and AI can tailor product
recommendations and promotions.
 Data-Driven Decision Making: E-commerce platforms provide valuable data on customer
behaviour for improved strategies.
Disadvantages
 Security Risks: Vulnerability to cyberattacks, data breaches, and fraud.
 Lack of Personal Interaction: Some customers miss the human touch and physical interaction
with products.
 Shipping and Logistics Challenges: Managing inventory, dealing with delays, and handling
returns can be complex and costly.
 Intense Competition: Low barriers to entry lead to crowded markets and intense competition.
 Technical Issues: Website downtime, integration problems, and software glitches can disrupt
operations and customer experience.
 Dependence on Technology: Reliance on internet connectivity, payment systems, and e-
commerce platforms.
 Sustainability Concerns: Increased packaging and transportation can impact the
environment.
The 5-C model in e-commerce
The 5-C model is a strategic framework that helps businesses understand their internal and
external environment to make informed decisions.
 Company: Analyze your strengths, weaknesses, unique selling propositions, and how your
offerings differentiate you from competitors. A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats) can be a useful tool here.
 Customers: Understand your target audience, their demographics, psychographics, buying
behavior, and pain points. Creating detailed customer personas can be beneficial, according
to Practical Ecommerce. Customer segmentation helps tailor your marketing and products to
specific groups.
 Competitors: Identify your direct and indirect competitors, analyse their strengths,
weaknesses, market share, and marketing strategies. According to College Hive, this includes
brand, industry, form, and generic competition.
 Collaborators: Analyse external entities that support your business, such as suppliers,
distributors, payment processors, and marketing agencies. Consider how their operations
impact your business and vice versa.
 Context (or Climate): Examine the broader external factors affecting your business,
including economic conditions, technological advancements, political and legal regulations,
social trends, and environmental factors. A PESTEL analysis (Political, Economic, Social,
Technological, Environmental, and Legal) can be helpful. For example, the COVID-19
pandemic significantly impacted e-commerce and shifted consumer behavior, says Ascension

Web 2.0 in e-commerce

Web 2.0 principles emphasize user participation, social interaction, and dynamic content.
This translates into advanced e-commerce marketing strategies:
 Content Marketing: Create valuable and relevant content such as blogs, videos, infographics,
and podcasts to attract and engage your target audience. This includes addressing customer
pain points, showcasing product benefits, and offering insights into industry trends.
 Search Engine Optimization (SEO): Optimize your website and product pages with relevant
keywords to rank higher in search engine results and drive organic traffic. Improve website
speed, mobile responsiveness, and build high-quality backlinks.
 Social Media Marketing: Leverage social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook, TikTok,
and Pinterest to connect with customers, build brand awareness, and drive sales. Utilize
features like shoppable posts, live streams, and user-generated content (UGC).
 Influencer Marketing: Partner with relevant influencers to promote your products and reach a
wider audience. Focus on building genuine relationships with influencers.
 Email Marketing: Build an email list and implement effective campaigns to nurture leads,
drive conversions, and foster customer loyalty.
 Paid Advertising: Utilize pay-per-click (PPC) campaigns on search engines and social media
platforms to target specific audiences and generate immediate sales.
 Data Analytics and AI: Leverage AI-driven tools to analyze customer behavior, personalize
experiences, automate customer service with chatbots, and make data-driven marketing
decisions.
 Omnichannel Marketing: Integrate your online and offline channels to provide a seamless and
consistent customer experience across all touchpoints, according to Webiators.

Addressing e-commerce technical challenges

Technical challenges are an inherent part of the e-commerce landscape.
 Cybersecurity: Implement robust security measures like encryption (SSL), secure payment
gateways, two-factor authentication, and regular security audits to protect customer data from
breaches and fraud. Stay compliant with data protection laws like GDPR.
 Scalability: Design your e-commerce platform and infrastructure to handle increasing traffic
and order volumes, especially during peak periods. Consider auto-scaling, load balancing,
database sharing, and micro services architecture.
 Mobile Optimization: Optimize your website and apps for mobile devices, ensuring
responsive design, fast loading times, and an intuitive user interface.
 System Integration: Integrate your e-commerce platform with other essential systems, such as
payment gateways, inventory management systems, and CRM platforms.
 Website Performance: Optimize images, leverage content delivery networks (CDNs), and
minimize server response times to ensure fast page loading speeds and a positive user
experience.
E-commerce economic challenges
E-commerce businesses face unique economic challenges:
 Intense Competition: The low barriers to entry create a highly competitive environment.
Differentiate your brand through unique value propositions, excellent customer service, and
innovative products.
 Customer Acquisition Costs (CAC): The rising cost of online advertising on platforms like
Google and Meta is a major concern. Focus on organic marketing strategies, building strong
brand loyalty, and leveraging partnerships.
 Logistics and Shipping Costs: Efficiently manage inventory, optimize shipping processes,
and choose cost-effective shipping providers. Consider utilizing fulfilment services for larger
operations.
 Returns and Reverse Logistics: Develop streamlined return policies and processes, manage
restocking efficiently, and aim to minimize losses from returns.
 Customer Expectations: Consumers expect personalized experiences, fast delivery, and
seamless interactions across various channels, creating pressure on businesses to meet these
demands.
 Data Privacy and Regulations: Navigate the complex landscape of data protection laws and
ensure compliance to build customer trust and avoid penalties, says IJFANS International
Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences.
 Global Expansion: While offering global reach is an advantage, it also brings challenges like
international shipping regulations, customs processes, and varying tax guidelines.

Actors and stakeholders

In the world of e-commerce, the individuals and groups involved in shaping or being
impacted by an online business are called stakeholders. Understanding their roles and
interests is crucial for the success of any e-commerce venture, according to Shopify.
Key stakeholders
 Customers: The ultimate target and most important stakeholder group. Their needs,
preferences, and purchasing power drive the e-commerce business.
 Employees: Internal stakeholders directly involved in the operations, customer service, and
development of the platform.
 Investors/Shareholders: Provide capital and expect returns, influencing strategic decisions
and business direction.
 Suppliers/Vendors: Provide the products or services sold through the e-commerce platform.
 Logistics and Distribution Partners: Essential for getting products to customers efficiently
and reliably.
 Payment Gateway Providers: Process secure online transactions, says the World Customs
Organization.
 Government and Regulatory Bodies: Set legal frameworks, ensure compliance, and oversee
issues like data privacy and consumer protection.
 Marketing and Advertising Agencies: Drive traffic and promote products and services.
 Competitors: Influence market positioning, pricing strategies, and product development.
 Communities: Local communities where businesses operate can be impacted by economic
and environmental factors.
Stakeholder analysis and management
Identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing these stakeholders is a critical part of a successful e-
commerce strategy, according to FasterCapital. This involves:
 Identifying all relevant stakeholders.
 Assessing their interest and influence.
 Prioritizing based on their impact and urgency.
 Developing effective communication strategies tailored to each group.
 Engaging them in decision-making and seeking their feedback.
 Managing and resolving potential conflicts and challenges.
 Monitoring stakeholder satisfaction and loyalty to ensure long-term success.

Fundamental sales process and the "7+1 process steps"

The sales process in e-commerce is the journey customers take from initial awareness to
making a purchase and becoming loyal advocates. A fundamental 7-step process often serves
as a guide:
1. Prospecting: Identifying potential customers or leads through various channels like SEO,
social media, ads, or content marketing.
2. Preparation: Researching the market and target audience to understand their needs and tailor
a relevant offering.
3. Approach: Making initial contact through personalized emails, calls, social media messages,
or in-person interactions.
4. Presentation: Showcasing the value and benefits of the product or service, demonstrating how
it addresses customer pain points.
5. Handling Objections: Addressing potential concerns and questions, clarifying any doubts and
reinforcing the value proposition, according to Flash Hub.
6. Closing: Obtaining the customer's commitment to purchase, potentially offering incentives or
addressing final details to finalize the sale.
7. Following Up: Nurturing the customer relationship post-purchase through support, follow-up
communication, and looking for opportunities for repeat business or referrals.
The "+1" in the 7+1 Process:
This often refers to Advocacy. After a positive post-purchase experience, satisfied customers
become brand advocates, sharing positive reviews and recommendations, driving further
sales and customer acquisition
 Technological elements of e-commerce architecture
The technical architecture of an e-commerce platform is the foundation upon which the
online business operates, says Binmile - Software Development Company.
 Presentation Layer (Frontend): The user-facing interface, including the website and mobile
applications, that customers interact with. This involves elements like the homepage, product
pages, search functionality, cart, and checkout process.
 Application Layer (Backend Logic): The "brain" of the platform, handling business rules like
product catalog management, order processing, payment integration, inventory management,
and customer relationship management.
 Data Layer (Databases): Stores all essential data, including product information, customer
profiles, orders, and payment details.
 Integration Layer (APIs & Services): Connects the e-commerce platform with external
systems like payment gateways, shipping providers, accounting software, and marketing tools
through APIs.
 Security Layer: Protects sensitive data and transactions using features like SSL certificates,
encryption, authentication protocols, and fraud detection.
 Network Infrastructure: Provides the stable network environment and hosting services, often
leveraging cloud computing and Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) for performance and
scalability.
 Microservices Architecture: A modern approach breaking down the platform into smaller,
independent services, allowing for greater flexibility, scalability, and independent
deployment of components.
 Headless Architecture: Separates the frontend presentation layer from the backend
functionality, enabling greater customization and omnichannel delivery.
 Analytics and Reporting: Tools for gathering and analyzing data on customer behavior, sales
performance, and website traffic to optimize the platform and make informed decisions.

Typical e-commerce applications

E-commerce extends far beyond simple online shopping websites and encompasses a wide
range of applications across various industries, according to HSBC Business Go.
 Online Retailing (e-tailing): The direct sale of goods to consumers through online stores,
like Amazon, Flipkart, and Shopify.
 Online Marketplaces: Platforms connecting multiple buyers and sellers, such as eBay, Etsy,
and Amazon, facilitating C2C and B2C transactions.
 Online Booking and Reservation Systems: Used for booking travel (flights, hotels, rental
cars), events (concerts, movies), and services.
 E-banking and Financial Services: Online banking platforms, stock trading platforms,
payment gateways, and digital wallets facilitate financial transactions.
 Mobile Commerce (M-commerce): E-commerce transactions conducted via mobile devices
and apps, offering convenience and features like personalized experiences and in-app
payments, says Mindster.
 Online Auctions: Platforms allowing buyers to bid on products, like eBay.
 Manufacturing and Supply Chain Management: E-commerce facilitates the electronic
exchange of goods and information between businesses in the supply chain, including
inventory management, ordering, and logistics.
 Digital Product Sales: Selling digital goods like e-books, software, online courses, and
music.
 Online Publishing: Digital newspapers, magazines, blogs, and e-books generating revenue
online.
 Social Commerce: Leveraging social media platforms and features (like shoppable posts) to
drive e-commerce sales and engagement.
 Content Commerce: Selling products and services directly integrated with content, such as
buying directly from a video or article.
 Conversational Commerce: Using chatbots and voice assistants for customer interactions
and facilitating purchases through conversational interfaces.
 Business-to-Business (B2B) E-commerce: Transactions between businesses, often involving
wholesale, procurement, and supply chain management.
 Direct-to-Consumer (D2C) E-commerce: Brands selling directly to consumers, bypassing
traditional retailers.
 Unit2

1. B2C basics (business-to-consumer)

 B2C refers to businesses selling products or services directly to individual consumers, also
known as end-users.
 It's a common model, especially with the growth of e-commerce and online shopping,
allowing businesses to reach a wider audience and potentially lower operational costs.
 Consumer behavior is a key driver in B2C markets; businesses must understand customer
needs, preferences, and motivations.
 Examples include online retailers, streaming services, travel booking sites, and mobile apps.
2. B2C business and CRM
 CRM (Customer Relationship Management) is a system for managing all interactions and
relationships with current and potential customers.
 In a B2C context, CRM focuses on individual consumers, aiming to build strong, lasting
relationships and drive repeat purchases.
 B2C businesses often handle a high volume of customer interactions and need to manage
customer data across various touchpoints, including social media, email, and website
interactions.
 Effective B2C CRM helps personalize marketing, improve customer service, and boost
customer retention.
3. B2C software systems
 B2C software or e-commerce platforms provide the tools and features businesses need to sell
products or services directly to consumers online.
 Essential features include product catalog management, shopping cart functionality, a secure
checkout process, inventory management, and order management.
 Advanced features often include marketing and promotion tools, customer relationship
management (CRM) capabilities, search and filtering options, and mobile optimization.
 Examples of popular B2C e-commerce platforms include Shopify, WooCommerce, Magento
(Adobe Commerce), and BigCommerce.
 Specialized B2C software exists for various industries like education (EdTech) or travel
agencies, says Digittrix Infotech.
4. Customer relationship management (CRM)
 CRM is a strategic approach for managing all customer interactions to improve customer
satisfaction and loyalty.
 Key features of a B2C CRM:
o Contact Management: Centralized database for storing customer details, contact
information, purchase history, and interactions.
o Interaction Tracking: Records customer interactions across various channels (emails, phone
calls, social media).
o Marketing Automation: Automates tasks like email campaigns, follow-ups, and targeted
promotions.
o Sales Management: Tracks leads through the sales pipeline and supports sales activities.
o Customer Support: Manages customer inquiries, tracks issues, and helps resolve problems
efficiently.
o Analytics and Reporting: Provides insights into customer behavior, sales performance, and
marketing effectiveness through dashboards and reports.
o Personalization: Tailors product recommendations, offers, and communication based on
customer data and preferences.
o Mobile Accessibility: Enables access and updates to customer information from mobile
devices, supporting on-the-go teams.
 Benefits of CRM for B2C businesses:
o Improved customer relationships and increased loyalty.
o Enhanced sales performance and lead conversion.
o Better data analysis for informed decision-making.
o Increased efficiency through automation.
o Scalability to support business growth.
 Challenges of B2C CRM implementation:
o Data quality and migration issues.
o User adoption and resistance to change.
o Selecting the right CRM to meet specific business needs.
o Integration with existing systems.
o Cost and return on investment (ROI) concerns.
In essence, B2C businesses need to embrace a customer-centric approach, leveraging
dedicated B2C software and CRM systems to manage a large customer base, personalize
experiences, and ultimately drive growth in a competitive online marketplace.

B2B basics: a brief overview

Business-to-Business (B2B) refers to transactions where a business sells products, services,
or software to other businesses, rather than directly to individual consumers.

Here's a quick look at the core principles:

 Focus on Businesses: The target audience for B2B companies is other companies, who might
be purchasing to resell, to use in their operations, or as components in their own products.

 Larger Transactions: B2B deals often involve higher values and larger quantities of products
or services compared to consumer purchases.
 Relationship-Driven: Building and nurturing long-term relationships and partnerships with
clients is crucial for success, often involving ongoing support and collaboration.

 Longer Sales Cycles: Decisions are typically complex and involve multiple stakeholders
within the buying organization, leading to longer sales processes that can span months or
even years.

 Value and ROI: B2B buyers prioritize the value and return on investment (ROI) that a
product or service offers to their own business, Specialized Needs: B2B products and
services are often tailored to specific industry requirements and customized to fit the unique
needs of different clients.

 Variety of Models: B2B encompasses a range of business models, from manufacturers

supplying raw materials to distributors, to service providers offering IT support or
consulting, In essence, B2B is about businesses collaborating to meet their needs effectively,
driving efficiency and specialization within various industries.

Key differences between B2B and B2C

Here's a brief overview of the differences between B2B (Business-to-Business) and B2C
(Business-to-Consumer):
1. Target audience
 B2B: Businesses target other businesses or organizations as their customers.
 B2C: Businesses target individual consumers directly as their customers.
2. Sales cycle
 B2B: Longer and more complex sales process, often involving multiple decision-makers and
negotiations.
 B2C: Shorter and simpler sales process, often driven by immediate needs or impulse
purchases.
3. Order volume and value
 B2B: Larger transactions, higher volumes, and often involve higher value purchases.
 B2C: Smaller transactions, lower volumes, and typically for individual or personal use.
4. Customer relationships
 B2B: Emphasizes building long-term relationships and partnerships with clients.
 B2C: Focuses more on brand loyalty and customer satisfaction for repeat purchases.
5. Decision-making
 B2B: Rational and strategic decisions, considering factors like ROI and efficiency.
 B2C: More emotionally driven decisions, influenced by personal preferences, convenience,
and brand perception.
 6. Marketing
 B2B: Focuses on relationship-building, industry expertise, and delivering value to other
businesses.
 B2C: Emphasizes brand awareness, emotional appeal, and creating a strong customer
experience.
Essentially, B2B targets business needs with longer, more complex sales cycles and
relationship-focused strategies, while B2C targets individual consumers with shorter,
emotion-driven purchases and brand-centric marketing.
B2B software systems: key functionalities and examples
B2B software systems are designed to manage the unique demands of inter-business
transactions. Key types and features include:
 B2B E-commerce Platforms: These are online stores designed for businesses. They go
beyond basic shopping carts by offering features like:
o Customized Pricing: Tailored price lists for different customers or customer groups.
o Negotiation and Quotes: Supporting the request for quote (RFQ) process and negotiation.
o Account Management: Handling multiple user accounts, roles, and permissions within a
single corporate account.
o Bulk Ordering: Enabling easy placement of large orders, often by SKU or part number.
o Integration: Seamlessly connecting with ERP, CRM, and SCM systems.
o Self-Service: Allowing buyers to manage orders, track shipments, and view invoices.
o Examples: Platforms like Shopify Plus, Adobe Commerce (Magento), and BigCommerce
offer robust B2B capabilities.
 Customer Relationship Management (CRM): B2B CRMs, like Salesforce or
Microsoft Dynamics, manage client interactions, sales pipelines, and support. They
are crucial for maintaining strong client relationships and tracking the longer B2B
sales cycle.
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): ERP systems, such as SAP or Microsoft
Dynamics, integrate various business processes (e.g., finance, HR, manufacturing,
supply chain) to provide a centralized view and improve operational efficiency.
Integration with B2B e-commerce platforms is vital for real-time data sync.
 Supply Chain Management (SCM) Software: These systems optimize the flow of
goods and information throughout the supply chain. They cover areas like:


o Inventory management
o Demand forecasting
o Logistics and transportation management
o Supplier relationship management.
 Marketing Automation Platforms: These automate lead nurturing, email campaigns, and
content distribution for targeted B2B marketing.
4. Supply chain management in B2B e-commerce: the digital transformation
 B2B e-commerce significantly impacts Supply Chain Management (SCM) by driving digital
transformation and requiring enhanced efficiency:
 Streamlining Operations: B2B e-commerce platforms automate ordering, inventory
management, and communication, reducing manual processes and human error.
 Improved Visibility: Platforms provide a centralized view of orders, shipments, and
inventory, enhancing traceability and allowing for real-time monitoring.
 Enhanced Communication: B2B e-commerce platforms facilitate seamless data exchange
between businesses, suppliers, and distributors, fostering collaboration.
 Data-Driven Decision Making: Analytics derived from e-commerce data help optimize
demand forecasting, identify supply chain disruptions, and improve logistics.
 Challenges: B2B SCM faces challenges like the complexity of integrating diverse systems,
managing large data volumes, ensuring timely order fulfillment, and mitigating fraud risks.
 Solutions: Implementing SCM software, leveraging data analytics, embracing automation,
building strong partnerships with suppliers, adopting technologies like IoT and AI, and
focusing on supply chain resilience are crucial solutions.
 Future Trends: Expect increased adoption of AI and automation, a focus on sustainability and
circular supply chains, greater transparency through technologies like blockchain, and the
continued growth of cloud-based SCM solutions.
These points offer a more comprehensive understanding of the nuances and intricacies of
B2B e-commerce, the distinct characteristics that separate it from B2C, the software that
enables it, and the critical role of effective supply chain management in its success.
 Unit-3
Security and compliance management
1. Foundations of risk management
Risk management is a proactive, systematic approach to identifying, assessing, mitigating,
and monitoring risks that could hinder an organization's objectives. It is integral to good
governance and decision-making. Key elements include:
 Risk Identification: Recognizing potential risks from internal and external sources (e.g.,
market shifts, cyber threats, regulations).
 Risk Analysis & Assessment: Evaluating the likelihood and potential impact of identified
risks.
 Risk Mitigation: Developing and implementing strategies to reduce, avoid, transfer (e.g.,
through insurance), or accept risks.
 Risk Monitoring & Review: Continuously overseeing the risk landscape and adjusting
strategies as needed.
 Risk Governance: Establishing roles, responsibilities, and oversight to ensure risk
management aligns with organizational goals.
Popular frameworks like ISO 31000 and COSO ERM provide structured approaches to
embed risk management throughout an organization.
2. Compliance management
Compliance management is the process of ensuring an organization adheres to relevant laws,
regulations, industry standards, and internal policies. It's a continuous process that involves:
 Assessing Regulatory Requirements: Identifying all applicable rules and standards (e.g.,
GDPR, HIPAA, PCI DSS).
 Developing Policies and Procedures: Creating internal guidelines to ensure adherence to
compliance requirements.
 Implementing Controls: Putting in place technical and administrative measures to meet
compliance requirements and protect information.
 Training and Awareness: Educating employees on their roles and responsibilities in
maintaining compliance and good cybersecurity hygiene.
 Monitoring and Auditing: Regularly checking systems and processes for compliance and
potential breaches, according to Proofpoint.
 Reporting and Documentation: Maintaining records of compliance efforts and incidents for
transparency and accountability.
Effective compliance management is crucial to avoid fines, maintain reputation, build trust,
and ensure data privacy. It is closely linked with risk management, as maintaining
compliance helps mitigate various risks, including cybersecurity threats, says Proofpoint.
3. Information security management (ISM)
 ISM defines and manages the controls an organization implements to protect the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of its information assets. ISM is a core
component of risk management, focusing specifically on information-related risks, according
to IIBF.
 Key aspects:
o Risk Assessment: Identifying and evaluating risks to information assets.
o Control Implementation: Applying measures like access controls, encryption, and antivirus
software to mitigate risks.
o Policy Development: Creating and enforcing information security policies and procedures.
o Monitoring and Review: Continuously assessing the effectiveness of controls and adapting to
new threats.
o Security Awareness: Training employees on information security best practices.
 ISMS (Information Security Management System): A systematic approach, often guided by
standards like ISO/IEC 27001, to establish, implement, maintain, and continually improve
information security.
Technology electronic payment
4. Business and money in e-commerce
E-commerce fundamentally changes how businesses handle money by shifting from
traditional cash and check transactions to electronic payments, according to Instantpay.
 Benefits: Faster transactions, reduced handling costs, expanded market reach, improved
efficiency, and enhanced record-keeping.
 Challenges: Security concerns, integration complexities, regulatory compliance, and
managing chargebacks.
Fintech (financial technology) innovations are crucial for e-commerce, offering solutions for
payments, funding, and financial management.
5. The payment challenge in e-commerce
E-commerce payments face several challenges, impacting both businesses and consumers.
 Security Concerns: Protecting sensitive financial data from fraud, cybercrime, and data
breaches is a major concern.
 Regulatory Compliance: Navigating complex regulations (e.g., PCI DSS, GDPR) across
different regions is challenging, according to Pine Labs.
 Technical Issues: Ensuring seamless processing, minimizing downtime, and handling
integration complexities are vital.
 Fraud and Scams: E-commerce businesses are susceptible to various forms of fraud, requiring
robust fraud detection measures.
 Customer Trust: Building confidence in the security and reliability of digital payment
systems is paramount.
 Payment Failures: Technical glitches, network issues, or insufficient funds can lead to
abandoned carts and lost sales.
6. Payment procedures
 Online payment procedures involve a complex sequence of steps to ensure transactions are
processed securely. Key players and steps:
 Players: Cardholder (customer), merchant, payment gateway, payment processor, acquiring
bank (merchant's bank), issuing bank (customer's bank), and card networks (e.g., Visa,
Mastercard).
 Procedure:
1. Customer initiates payment at checkout.
2. Payment gateway encrypts and transmits data to the payment processor.
3. Payment processor sends transaction details to the card network.
4. Card network requests authorization from the issuing bank.
5. Issuing bank verifies funds and approves/declines.
6. Authorization response is sent back through the card network, processor, and gateway to the
merchant.
7. If approved, funds are transferred (settlement) to the merchant's bank.
8. Merchant receives confirmation and fulfills the order.
Payment orchestration solutions simplify managing multiple payment methods and
processors for businesses.
7. Receivables management
Receivables management in e-commerce focuses on effectively managing the money owed to
the business from credit sales, ensuring timely collection of payments.
 Objectives: Optimize cash flow, minimize bad debts, and maintain customer relationships.
 Process:
o Establishing Credit Practices: Setting credit limits and conducting checks.
o Issuing Invoices: Creating and sending accurate invoices promptly.
o Tracking Accounts Receivable: Monitoring outstanding invoices and payments received.
o Processing Payments: Collecting payments via various electronic methods.
o Reconciling Accounts: Verifying records against bank statements.
o Managing Collections: Following up on overdue accounts and setting payment arrangements.
o Reporting and Analysis: Tracking metrics like receivables ageing and average collection
period.
o Customer Relationship Management: Nurturing customer relationships and providing good
customer service, says Shiksha.
8. Cyber money
Cyber money (also known as digital currency or electronic money) refers to money that exists
only in electronic form, enabling secure, instant transactions.
 Characteristics: Intangible, often decentralized (like cryptocurrencies), uses cryptography for
security, globally accessible, and can offer varying degrees of anonymity.
 Types:
o Cryptocurrencies: Decentralized digital currencies using cryptography (e.g., Bitcoin,
Ethereum).
o Stablecoins: Pegged to reserve assets to maintain a stable value (e.g., Tether, USD Coin).
o Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs): Digital currency issued by central banks.
o Digital Wallets: Applications that store payment information and facilitate transactions (e.g.,
PayPal, Apple Pay).
 Role in E-commerce: Facilitates online payments, offers global accessibility, enhances
security, can reduce transaction costs, supports microtransactions, and can promote financial
inclusion.

Unit-4
1. Introduction to web development
Web development is the art and science of building websites and web applications for the
internet (World Wide Web) or a private network (intranet). It involves a blend of technical
skills and creative design. The process is often divided into:
 Frontend Development (Client-Side): This focuses on what users see and interact with
directly in their browsers. Key technologies include HTML for structure, CSS for styling, and
JavaScript for interactivity.
 Backend Development (Server-Side): This involves the server, applications, and databases
that enable the frontend to function. It handles data processing, storage, and application logic.
 Full-Stack Development: Combines both frontend and backend expertise, encompassing the
entire web development lifecycle from database management to UI/UX design.

2. Creating a website
Building a website follows a structured process to ensure functionality and effectiveness:
 Requirement Analysis: The foundational step involves understanding stakeholder needs,
defining the website's purpose, target audience, and business goals. This includes creating
functional (what the site must do) and non-functional (how it should perform) requirements.
 Planning & Strategy: This phase translates requirements into a detailed roadmap. Key
activities include defining project scope, setting timelines, selecting the technology stack,
assessing risks, assigning roles and responsibilities, developing a content strategy, and
creating wireframes and sitemaps.
 Design & User Experience (UX): Visual concepts come to life, focusing on aesthetics,
usability, and responsiveness. This involves wireframing and prototyping to define layout and
user flow, visual design to choose colors, fonts, and imagery that align with branding, and
ensuring accessibility and usability for all users. Feedback and iterations are crucial here.
 Content Creation: Developing the actual text, images, videos, and other media that will
populate the website. This should be high-quality, engaging, relevant, and optimized for
search engines (SEO).
 Development & Coding: This is where the website is actually built. Frontend developers
implement the design using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, ensuring responsiveness. Backend
developers create the server-side logic and database integration.
 Testing & Quality Assurance (QA): Rigorous testing is performed to ensure the website is
functional, secure, and compatible across different browsers and devices. This includes unit
testing, integration testing, system testing, user acceptance testing (UAT), performance
testing, and security testing.
 Deployment & Launch: Preparing the website for launch by configuring servers, setting up
domain names and DNS, installing SSL certificates, and transferring code to the production
environment.
 Maintenance & Updating: Ongoing activities to ensure the website remains current, secure,
and efficient. This includes monitoring performance, troubleshooting bugs, applying security
patches, and refreshing content based on user feedback and analytics.

3. HTML tags
 Definition: HTML tags are keywords or instructions that define the structure and content of a
webpage. They are enclosed in angle brackets ( <tagname> ).
 Purpose: Tags tell the browser how to render content (e.g., headings, paragraphs, images,
links).
 Opening & Closing Tags: Most tags come in pairs: an opening tag ( <p> ) and a closing tag
( </p> ) that enclose the content.
 Self-Closing (Void) Tags: Some tags do not require a closing tag because they don't enclose
content (e.g., <img> for images, <br> for line breaks).
 Importance: Tags are crucial for structuring content, ensuring accessibility, optimizing for
search engines (SEO), and maintaining cross-browser compatibility.

4. HTML elements
 Definition: An HTML element is the complete unit, including the opening tag, the content,
and the closing tag, according to GeeksforGeeks. Example: <p>This is a paragraph.</p>
 Building Blocks: Elements form the fundamental structure of an HTML document,
organizing and defining content.
 Categories: Elements are broadly categorized as block-level (e.g., <div> , <p> , <h1> , <ul> )
or inline-level (e.g., <span> , <a> , <img> , <strong> ).
o Block-Level: Start on a new line and take up the full available width, structuring major
blocks of content.
o Inline-Level: Appear on the same line as surrounding content and take up only the width
required for their content.
 Nested Elements: Elements can be placed inside other elements, creating a hierarchical
structure (e.g., <body> contains <p> ).
 Semantic Elements (HTML5): Elements like <header> , <footer> , <article> ,
and <section> provide meaning to the content they enclose, improving readability and SEO.

5. HTML attributes
 Definition: Attributes are special words placed inside the opening tag of an HTML element,
providing additional information or modifying the element's behavior/appearance.
 Syntax: Attributes are written as name="value" pairs.
 Common Attributes:
o href : Specifies the URL for a hyperlink ( <a> ).
o src : Defines the source path for media files ( <img> , <audio> , <video> ).
o alt : Provides alternative text for images (essential for accessibility and SEO).
o class : Assigns one or more class names for CSS styling or JavaScript targeting.
o id : Provides a unique identifier for an element for CSS or JavaScript targeting.
o style : Applies inline CSS styles directly to an element.
 Global Attributes: Some attributes can be used with any HTML element
(e.g., id , class , style , title , data-* ).
 Advanced/Accessibility Attributes:
o aria-label : Provides a text description for an element for assistive technologies like screen
readers, says The Tech Platform.
o tabindex : Specifies the order in which elements are focused during keyboard navigation, says
The Tech Platform.
o required : Indicates a form input must be filled before submission.

o autofocus : Automatically focuses an input field when the page loads.

o pattern : Specifies a regular expression for input validation.

6. CSS preview
 Definition: CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a stylesheet language used to control the visual
presentation and layout of HTML documents.
 Purpose: Separates content (HTML) from styling (CSS), making websites easier to maintain,
more flexible, and faster to load.
 Functionality: Dictates colors, fonts, spacing, layout (using techniques like the box model,
Flexbox, CSS Grid), backgrounds, borders, positioning, and animations.
 Syntax: CSS rules consist of a selector (targets HTML elements) and a declaration block
(contains property-value pairs).
 Methods of Application:
o Inline CSS: Using the style attribute directly on an HTML element (generally discouraged
for large projects).
o Internal CSS: Placing styles within a <style> tag in the HTML document's <head> .

o External CSS: Linking a separate .css file using the <link> tag in the
HTML's <head> (considered best practice).
 Cascading & Specificity: CSS rules cascade, meaning styles are applied based on priority
rules, specificity of selectors, and order of rules.
 Importance: Essential for responsive web design, creating visually appealing user experiences
(UX), improving website performance (faster loading due to streamlined code), and enabling
efficient maintenance.

7. History of HTML
HTML has evolved significantly since its inception:
 Conception (1991): Tim Berners-Lee created HTML at CERN to facilitate information
sharing, according to Tutorialspoint.
 HTML 1.0 (1993): The first version, focusing on basic document structure and hyperlinks.
 HTML 2.0 (1995): Became the standard, introducing features like tables and image
embedding.
 HTML 3.2 (1997): Focused on improving design structure and text formatting.
 HTML 4.01 (1999): A widely adopted version that introduced stylesheets (CSS), scripting
capabilities (JavaScript), extensibility (via XML), and improved accessibility features.
 XHTML (2000): An XML-based version of HTML with stricter syntax rules aimed at better
interoperability, though later overshadowed by HTML5's popularity and relaxed syntax.
 HTML5 (2012/2014): The current standard, designed to meet the demands of modern web
applications.

8. Differences between old HTML and HTML5

HTML5 brought major changes and new capabilities compared to its predecessors:
 Simplified DOCTYPE: HTML5 uses a much shorter and simpler <!DOCTYPE
html> declaration.
 Semantic Elements: Introduced tags
like <header> , <footer> , <article> , <section> , <nav> , <aside> , and <figure> for clearer page
structure and meaning.
 Multimedia Integration: Native support for audio ( <audio> ) and video ( <video> ) without the
need for third-party plugins like Flash.
 Graphics: Introduced <canvas> for drawing graphics and animations, and native support for
Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG).
 APIs: New APIs for features like geolocation, local storage (for client-side data storage),
drag-and-drop, and Web Workers.
 Form Enhancements: New input types (e.g., date, email, url, number), improved validation,
and attributes like placeholder and required .
 Error Handling: Browsers are more tolerant of minor syntax errors in HTML5, attempting to
render pages correctly even with some mistakes.
 Deprecations: Removed outdated or purely presentational elements like <font> , <center> ,
and <frame> , encouraging the use of CSS for styling.

9. How to check your HTML code (validation and debugging)

Regularly checking and debugging your HTML code is essential for ensuring website
functionality, accessibility, and SEO:
 HTML Validators:
o W3C Markup Validation Service: The official online tool to check HTML against W3C
standards.
o Browser Extensions: Tools like HTML Validator for Firefox can provide real-time feedback.
o IDEs/Code Editors: Many modern code editors (e.g., VS Code) have built-in validation or
extensions that highlight errors as you code.
 Browser Developer Tools:
o Inspect Element: Right-click on a webpage element and select "Inspect" to see its HTML
structure, CSS styles, and JavaScript interactions in real-time.
o Console: The browser console displays errors, warnings, and messages generated by
JavaScript or the browser itself. You can use console.log() to output values for debugging.
 Code Linting: Tools like HTMLHint analyze code for potential errors, bugs, and style issues,
helping to enforce best practices and maintain clean code.
 Live Reload: Tools like Live Server or BrowserSync automatically refresh the browser when
code changes are saved, providing instant feedback.
 Best Practices for Debugging:
o Start by validating your HTML to catch basic syntax errors.
o Use the browser dev tools to isolate issues by inspecting elements and checking the console.
o Add console.log() statements to track variable values and execution flow.
o Review code with linting tools to catch stylistic errors and potential bugs early.
o Test regularly across different browsers and devices (using browser dev tools or dedicated
testing services) to ensure compatibility.
o Leverage online resources (tutorials, blogs) and communities for problem-solving and
learning.
By mastering these foundational concepts and tools, you can effectively create, structure,
style, and debug web content, building robust and engaging websites