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01 What are the stages of the System Development Life

Cycle(SDLC)?
The stages are:
• Recognition of need
• Feasibility study.
• Analysis
• Design
• Implementation
• Post-Implementation
Recognition of need :
One must know what the problem is, before it can be solved. Then
the required information is improved.
Example: A supervisor may want to investigate the system flow in
purchasing.
R Report on Recognition of need
• Introduction :
• Problem :
• Necessity :
• Economic Value :
Conclusion
Feasibility study and Report on it :
Depending on the results of the initial investigation, the survey is
expended to a more detailed feasibility study.
A feasibility study is a test of a system proposal according to its
workability, impact on the organization, ability to meet user needs
effective use of resources. It focuses on three major questions:
• User’s demonstrable needs
• Resources available to solve problem
• The procedure to fit it within the organization’s master MIS
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plan.
Result of the feasibility study:
The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is
simply a report. The proposal summarizes what is known and what is
going to be done. It consists of the following.
• Statement of the problem
• Summary of findings and recommendations
• Details findings (with raw materials, users of finished good
• Recommendations and conclusions.
Analysis :
Analysis is a detailed study of the various operations performed by
a system and their relationships within and outside of the system.
Once analysis is completed and depending on this analysis we/it
move to the design phases.
Report on Analysis :
Introduction :
• Category of user :
• List of product :
• Raw Materials
• Making process
• Conclusion :
• Design phase :
The most creative and challenging phase of the system life cycle
is system design. The term design describes a final system and the
process by which it is developed. Graphically design phase can be
explained as follows.
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Book title: Systems Analysis and Design By Elias M. Awad
01 Define the system concept
The term system is derived from the Greek word systema, which
means an organized relationship among functioning units or
components.
In other words a system is an orderly grouping of
interdependent components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific objective.
02 The basic implication / meaning of the study of the systems
concepts:
It is comprised by three components (Implications)
(i) A system must be designed to achieve a predetermined
objective.
(ii) Interrelationships and interdependence must exist
among the components.
(iii) The objectives of the organization as a whole have a
higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.
03 Characteristics of a system
The characteristics that are present in all systems: are (a)
organization (b) Interaction (c) Interdependence (d) Integrations
and (e) Central objective
Organization:
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of
components that helps to achieve objectives. In the design of
business system, for example the hierarchical relationships
starting with the president on top and leading downward to end
workers represents the organization structure.

Figure : Organization structure (Book)

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Interaction :
Interaction refers to the manner in which each component
functions with other components of the system
Example: In an organization, purchasing must interact with
production, advertising with sales etc.
Interdependence:
Interdependence means that parts of the organization depend on
one another. They are coordinated and linked together according
to a plan.
Example: The output of one subsystem is the required input for
another subsystem.
Integration:
Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is
more than sharing a physical part. It means that parts of the
system work together within the system even though each part
performs a unique function.
Central objective:
The last characteristic of a system is its central objective.
Objectives may be real or stated.
Example: An analyst must know the central objective of a
computer application early in the analysis for a successful design
and conversion
01 Elements of system
In most cases, systems analysts operate in a dynamic
environment where change is a way of life. To reconstruct a
system the following key elements must be considered.
• Outputs and inputs.
• Processors(s).
• Control.
• Feed back
• Environment.
• Boundaries and Interface.

Outputs and Inputs:

A major objective of a system is to produce an output that
has value to its user. Inputs are the elements that enter the
system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing.

Processors(s) :
The processor is the element of a system that involves the
actual transformation of input into output. Processor may
modify the input totally or partially depending on the
specifications of the output.

Control :
The control element guides the system. It is the decision-
making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities
governing input, processing and output.
 Feedback:
Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback.
Feedback measures output against a standard communication
and control.
Feedback may be positive or negative positive feedback
reinforces the performance of the system. Negative feedback
generally provides the controller with information for action.

Environment:
The environment is the “super-system” within which an
organization operates. It often determines how a system must
function.
Boundaries and Interface:
A system should be defined by its boundaries-the limits that
identify its components, processes interrelationships when it
interfaces with another system.

Figure: Relation among elements of systems of a system.

N. B. You have to collect the figure from your book.
02 Types of a system:
Common classification are
• Physical and abstract.
• Open or closed systems.
• Man-made information system.
Physical or Abstract Systems:
Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or
dynamic in operation.
Example: The physical parts of the computer center are
 the offices, desks and chairs that facilitate operation of the
computer. They can be seen and count.
Abstract systems are conceptual or nonphysical entities.
Example: They may be as straightforward as formulas of
relationships among sets of variables or models.
Open or closed system:
This classification of systems is based on their degree of
independence. An open system has much interaction across its
boundary: it receives Inputs from delivers output to the
outside.
In contrast, a closed system is isolated from environment
influences. In reality. A completely closed system is rare.
03 Five important characteristics of open system can be identified
• Input from outside: It is self-adjusting and self-regulating
when functioning properly, an open system reaches
a steady state or equilibrium.
Example: In a retail firm, a steady state exists when
goods are purchased and sold without being either
out of stock or overstocked.
• Entropy: (loss profit)
• Process, output, And cycles.
• Differentiation (Divide to its components)
• Equal-finality (Path to its final goal)
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01 Categories of information
There are three categories of information related to managerial
levels and the decisions managers make.
First ( Long-range planning, upper management)
It is strategic information, which relates to long-range
planning policies that are of direct interest to upper management.
(Ex. Population growth)

Second ( Middle management, manager, Department head)

The second level of information is managerial information. It is
of direct use to middle management and department heads for
implementation and control. (Ex. Sales analysis)

Third ( Short term, day to day performance)

The third information level is operational information, which is
short-term, daily information used to operate departments and
enforce the day-to-day rules and regulations of the business.(Ex.
Daily employee absence sheets, current stocks available for sale.
Interfaces with another system.

02 MIS (Management Information Systems )

03 DSS (Decision Support System)

04 Project Termination:
05 Prototyping
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06 What is the role or task of a system analyst?
07 What does an analyst take to do systems analysis?
An analyst must possess various skill to effectively carry out the
job. Specifically they may be divided into two categories:
(i) Interpersonal skills
(ii) Technical skills

Interpersonal skill

(i) Communication skill

(ii) Understanding
(iii) Teaching
(iv) Selling

Personal Skill

(i) Creativity
(ii) Problem solving
(iii) Project management
(iv) Dynamic interface

Academic and personal qualification

Academic :
(i) A background in systems theory and organization behavior.
(ii) Financial accounting
(iii) Knowledge of one or more programming and database
language.
(iv) Hardware and software specification.
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Personal :
(i) Confidence to tell people what to do.
(ii) Communication skill-ability to articulate and focus on a
problem area for logical solution.
(iii) Creativity – try one’s own ideas.
(iv) Responsibility-making decisions on one’s own and
accepting the sequences of these decisions.
(v) Varied-skill-doing different projects and handling
change.
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0 The multifaceted Role of the Analyst:
1
The roles of an analyst are as follows:
(i) The change event.
(ii) Investigator and monitor.
(iii) Architect.
(iv) Psychologist: The analyst plays the role of
a psychologist in the way he/she reaches
people, interprets their thoughts, assesses
their behavior and draws conclusions from
these interactions.
(v) Salesperson.
(vi) Motivator.
(vii) Politician.
0 Base for planning in system analysis
2
i) Physical facilities
ii) Integral to business operations, top
management is paying more attention to its
development.
iii) Formal long-range planning with information
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systems that are complex, require months or
years to build.
0 Dimensions of planning
3
i) High interest rate makes it more important
that businesses realize a good return on
investment.
ii) Inflation puts pressure on profit when it occurs
iii) Guaranteed employment suggests that costs
are becoming fixed and commitment to
business expansion may not be easily
changed.
iv) Resource shortages impede (Delay) expansion.
v) Regulatory constraints slow entry into the
market.
vi) Increase productivity paves (Covers) the way
for expansion.
0 There are several reasons why it is difficult to
4 determine user requirements
i) System requirements change, and user
requirements must be modified to account for
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the changes
ii) The articulation of requirements is difficult,
except for experienced users. Functions and
processes are not easily described.
iii) Heavy user involvement and motivation are
difficult. Reinforcement for their work is
usually not realized until the implementation
phase-too long to wait.
iv) The pattern of interaction between users and
analysts in designing information
requirements is complex.
0 Strategies (Plan) for determining Information
7 Requirements.
i) Questions may be open-ended or close.
ii) Brainstorming is a technique used for
generation new ideas and obtaining general
information requirements.
iii) Group consensus asks participants for their
expectations regarding special variables.
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0 What do you mean by information gathering?
1
Information gathering is an art and science or the
methodology and tools that the analyst is expected
to have.
0 What are the phases during information
2 gathering tools?
i) Familiarity with the present system through
available documentation, such as procedures
manuals, documents and their flow.
ii) Definition of the decision making associated
with managing the system and clarifies the
decision points.
iii) Once decision points are identified, a series of
interviews may be conducted to define the
information requirements of the user.
0 (i) Draw a block diagram: Categories of
3 information.
(ii) System Flow-chart of a payroll system.
N: B: Collect the flow chart of diagram from your
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book.
0 Where does information originate?
4
Information is gathered from two principal sources:
The primary external sources:
(i) Vendors (Sales man).
(ii) Government.
(iii) Newspapers and professional journal
The primary internal sources are:
(i) Financial reports.
(ii) Personnel staff.
(iii) Professional staff.
(iv) System documentation or manuals.
(v) The user or user staff.
(vi) Reports and transaction documents.
0 Information gathering tools
5
(i) Review literature procedures and forms.
(ii) On-site observation.
(iii) Interviews.
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(iv) Questionnaires.
0 What are the problems/disadvantages of on-site
6 observation?
(i) Unfavorable reactions by the staff.
(ii) Attitudes and motivations of subjects cannot
be readily observed.
(iii) Unproductive long hours are often spent.
0 What are the four primary advantages of the
7 interview?
(i) Many people enjoy being interviewed
regardless of the subject
(ii) Easily information can be got.