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Metacognition, Strategy Use, and Instruction
Metacognition,
Strategy Use,
and Instruction

Edited by
Harriet Salatas Waters
Wolfgang Schneider

Foreword by John G. Borkowski

The Guilford Press

New York   London
© 2010 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording,
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Metacognition, strategy use, and instruction/Harriet Salatas Waters
and Wolfgang Schneider, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60623-334-4 (hardcover: alk. paper)
1. Cognitive learning. 2. Creative thinking. 3. Metacognition in
children. 4. Cognitive styles in children. I. Waters, Harriet Salatas.
II. Schneider, Wolfgang.
LB1062.M48 2010
370.15′23—dc22
2009025319
 About the Editors

Harriet Salatas Waters, PhD, is Professor of Psychology at Stony Brook

University, Stony Brook, New York. She received her MA in experimen-
tal psychology from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and
her PhD from the University of Minnesota’s Institute of Child Develop-
ment in 1976. Her research interests include memory development, the
development of prose production skills, strategy use, and the structure
and social co-construction of mental representations of early social expe-
rience.

Wolfgang Schneider, PhD, is University Vice-President and Professor

of Psychology at the University of Würzburg, Germany. He earned his
PhD in psychology from the University of Heidelberg in 1979. He is Past
President of the German Psychological Society and President-Elect of
the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development. His
research interests include the development of memory and metacogni-
tion, giftedness and expertise, and reading and spelling, as well as the
prevention of reading and math difficulties.

v
 Contributors

Peter Afflerbach, PhD, Department of Curriculum and Instruction,

University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
Martha Carr, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, University
of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
Byeong-Young Cho, MEd, Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
Jennifer L. Coffman, PhD, Center for Developmental Science, University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Cesare Cornoldi, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of
Padua, Padua, Italy
Steve Graham, EdD, Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt
University, Nashville, Tennessee
Jennie K. Grammer, BA, Department of Psychology, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Karen R. Harris, EdD, Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt
University, Nashville, Tennessee
Deanna Kuhn, PhD, Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, New York
Thomas W. Kunnmann, MA, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook
University, Stony Brook, New York
Xiaodong Lin, PhD, Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, New York

vii
viii   Contributors

Richard E. Mayer, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of

California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California
Peter A. Ornstein, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Maria Pease, PhD, Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, New York
Tanya Santangelo, PhD, Department of Education, Arcadia University,
Glenside, Pennsylvania
Wolfgang Schneider, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of
Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
Robert S. Siegler, PhD, Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Harriet Salatas Waters, PhD, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook
University, Stony Brook, New York
Theodore E. A. Waters, BS, Department of Psychology, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia
 In Memory of Michael Pressley

T hroughout his remarkable career in developmental and

educational psychology Michael Pressley explored the interplay between
metacognition, strategy use, and performance, and applications of that
knowledge to the classroom. Michael was convinced of Kurt Lewin’s
maxim “There is nothing so practical as a good theory”—or, better yet, a
good theorist—and his laboratory always encompassed and impacted real
children in real schools. His legacy includes a sophisticated developmen-
tal framework for understanding metacognition and strategy develop-
ment. Always alert to new possibilities and applications, his recent chap-
ter for the Handbook of Child Psychology, 6th edition (2006) heralded
a new generation of research on strategy development. Where many of
his colleagues saw a mature field, Michael argued that we are only at the
threshold of understanding how strategy discovery, cognitive growth, and
metacognition interact and play out in classroom settings. Many in the
field now agree with that assessment. The current book brings together
leading contributors to the study of metacognition, strategy develop-
ment, and instruction to celebrate Michael’s contributions and frame the
key questions in the field for a new generation of researchers.
The chapters address different issues about how metacognition and
strategy use relationships are best conceived, always with an emphasis on
the implications for instruction. They are organized into three areas of
investigation: (1) skilled memory; (2) math and science; and (3) reading,
writing, and academic performance. These areas reflect the broadening
investigation of metacognition and strategy development over the years
into diverse cognitive domains beyond their early roots in memory. The
different contributors highlight common threads in their investigations
based on their interests in metacognition, strategy development, and

ix
x   In Memory of Michael Pressley

instruction, in spite of the differing skill domains in which they work.

This book provides a single source for researchers who want to better
understand metacognition and strategy use commonalities across cogni-
tive domains.
Michael had an unbridled enthusiasm for the field of metacognition
and strategy development, and we think that he would be particularly
pleased with this volume. He always had time to talk to anyone who
was interested, whether it was at a conference or in a chance encounter,
and was equally open to conversing with students as well as with col-
leagues. He understood the importance of sharing ideas and maintain-
ing open lines of communication across different cognitive domains. The
present volume honors that insight by bringing researchers together to
share ideas about metacognition and strategy use, and we hope in doing
so to frame future investigations on strategy growth through discovery
and instruction.

HARRIET SALATAS WATERS

Wolfgang Schneider
 Foreword

H idden in the 2004 version of his vita, Michael Pressley

provided a unique and fascinating self-portrait: “Mr. Pressley does not
align consistently with the political perspectives of either major political
party with respect to literacy (or any other issue for that matter). He is
not a registered member of either party, but rather prefers to be fiercely
independent in his political affairs, sometimes characterized as moderate,
but always advocating for the rights of children and families, especially
their educational rights. He is a career supporter of foreign policy initia-
tives that are more likely to bring lasting peace to the world rather than
proliferate conflict.”
“Mr. Pressley” was indeed an iconoclast. Rarely do scholars include
such personal reflections in their vita, and generally for good reasons.
Yet, I believe Michael penned these comments for a good reason—a
reason, in retrospect, related to the themes, scope, and importance of
Metacognition, Strategy Use, and Instruction.
As in his political life, Michael did not align himself in his profes-
sional life to a single methodological perspective. His award-winning
work on children’s strategic learning in controlled settings used experi-
mental designs, while his last empirical paper (published in the Journal
of Educational Psychology) on the reasons for the striking educational
successes at Chicago’s Providence St. Mel school used a comprehensive,
ethnographic approach. He was not a registered member of any particu-
lar theoretical camp, although he found the good information-processing
model reasonably comfortable. He accepted this framework so as to
focus on the nature of competent teaching to improve children’s literacy
and classroom achievements, using knowledge tested in diverse method-
ological paradigms.

xi
xii   Foreword

If Michael sometimes saw himself as a political moderate, he was not

a moderate in his search for sound answers to complex educational prob-
lems. As an editor and critic, he pushed friends and colleagues hard—as
well as the field at large—to improve the preciseness of their thinking
and the soundness of their methodological approaches. While there was
for Michael—as for all of us—a deeply personal factor in his scholarship
and its subsequent recognition by many professional organizations, he
maintained an overwhelming desire to influence children’s lives through
quality education and, thus, to improve the world’s chances for peace by
elevating literacy and making “best teaching practice” available to all,
rich and poor. Perhaps this is why he put so much time and energy into
editorial assignments and tutoring young scholars, knowing full well his
own limited time to effect sweeping changes in strategy-based teaching
and learning in classrooms here and around the world.
Michael would be pleased with Metacognition, Strategy Use, and
Instruction. His friends Harriet Salatas Waters and Wolfgang Schneider
have assembled a group of colleagues who represent methodological
diversity, theoretical richness, and innovative insights in their scholarly
work. Their collective scholarship summarizes much of what we know
about the meaning of skilled memory, how mathematical and scien-
tific reasoning can be advanced through strategic learning, and how to
improve academic performance in a variety of domains and settings.
What is unique about this book is the integration of laboratory and class-
room research. Michael Pressley was equally passionate about studying
cognition in the classroom and in the laboratory and was convinced that
research on cognitive development was of profound relevance for under-
standing children’s progress in school.
The individual threads of Michael’s scholarship over nearly four
decades can be woven into a set of five interrelated themes: (1) under-
standing children’s development of cognitive and metacognitive strate-
gies; (2) designing interventions that promote complex strategy use, espe-
cially in early reading readiness; (3) classifying how motivation affects
strategy use and self-regulated learning; (4) searching for strategy use in
classrooms led by expert teachers; and (5) translating all of this knowl-
edge—derived from controlled and naturalistic research settings—so as
to improve teacher training. This is how Michael hoped to shape the lives
of children and, in turn, to prod the world toward peace and prosperity.
This book reflects the major themes of Michael’s research agenda.
The first set of chapters—Waters and Kunnmann on strategy discovery
in early childhood (Chapter 1); Ornstein, Grammer, and Coffman on
teacher’s mnemonic styles and children’s development of skilled memory
(Chapter 2); and Schneider on metacognition and memory development
(Chapter 3)—emphasize the complexity involved in the development of
 Foreword   xiii

skilled memory. In contrast to the first phase of memory research (around

1975 to 1995), the new wave explores the precise conditions under
which goal-directed strategy use develops in young children, the role of
strategic teachers in prompting children’s enduring use of strategies in
classroom contexts, and the process through which a child’s knowledge
of mental verbs (e.g., knowing or forgetting) and acquisition of a “the-
ory of mind” become precursors to metamemory, and, subsequently, to
enhanced recall performance. These three chapters reflect more complex
theory, more intense data gathering, and greater respect for individual
differences in background, talent, and motivation than the first wave of
memory research.
The second set of chapters analyze the role of cognitive and meta-
cognitive processing for success in math and science as well as the impor-
tance of contextual supports sometimes provided by peers. Siegler and
Lin begin by focusing on how self-explanations promote children’s learn-
ing (Chapter 4); Waters and Waters study how children and adult bird
experts differ in knowledge utilization and self-monitoring (Chapter 5);
Kuhn and Pease analyze how production and inhibition are key com-
ponents in developing an effective use of strategies (Chapter 6); Mayer
shows how multimedia instruction fosters scientific reasoning (Chapter
7); and Carr reports on how metacognition influences conceptual changes
underlying children’s math strategies (Chapter 8). These five chapters are
noteworthy for their emphases on microgenetic designs in which vari-
ability among children—measured intensively over time—becomes the
venue for observing stability and instability in strategy use. The field is
indebted to Siegler, Kuhn, and other researchers for developing this meth-
odological approach, whose impact is seen in many of the chapters in this
section. Parenthetically, Michael’s own use of the ethnographic method
in classrooms at Providence St. Mel and at Benchmark School in Media,
Pennsylvania, bears similarities to the microgenetic approach. Given the
typical variability observed in individual behavior, even over short time
spans, “single-shot, one-look” approaches to studying complex cognitive
processing yields confusion and chaos rather than reliable, profound
insights.
The third and final set of chapters—on reading, writing, and academic
performance—mirror Michael’s main concerns during the final phase of
his illustrious career. Afflerbach and Cho demonstrate the potential role
of the Internet in fostering reading strategies (Chapter 9); Harris, Santan-
gelo, and Graham show the power of strategy instruction on skilled writ-
ing (Chapter 10); and Cornoldi develops an integrative model of meta-
cognition, working memory, and intelligence as they conjointly influence
academic performance (Chapter 11). These final chapters reflect specific
interventions and a working theoretical framework that together point
xiv   Foreword

the way to improving classroom performance through the enhanced use

of novel strategies in the essential skills of reading and writing. Waters
and Schneider provide a summary and analysis of the book and highlight
its major themes in the conclusion (Chapter 12).
The last decade of Michael’s research career focused on the nature
of classroom instruction, with a keen eye toward how expert and novice
(or poor) teachers employ a variety of strategies useful to students in
carrying out reading and reasoning assignments and how they motivate
students to persist in the face of challenging work. In many respects,
Metacognition, Strategy Use, and Instruction fulfills Michael’s dream of
using research in controlled and naturalistic settings to influence a new
generation of teachers who will inspire their students to become lifelong
learners, morally conscious about the world around them, and dedicated
to peace and justice. Michael would be happy to read about the diverse,
high-quality scholarship that has been assembled in this book—a book
that sets the stage for the next generation of research on metacognition
and strategy use.

       John G. Borkowski, PhD

       University of Notre Dame
 Contents

PART I. SKILLED MEMORY

1 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery 3

in Early Childhood
Harriet Salatas Waters and Thomas W. Kunnmann

2 Teachers’ “Mnemonic Style” and the Development 23

of Skilled Memory
Peter A. Ornstein, Jennie K. Grammer, and Jennifer L. Coffman

3 Metacognition and Memory Development 54

in Childhood and Adolescence
Wolfgang Schneider

PART II. MATH AND SCIENCE

4 Self-Explanations Promote Children’s Learning 85

Robert S. Siegler and Xiaodong Lin

5 Bird Experts: A Study of Child and Adult 113

Knowledge Utilization
Harriet Salatas Waters and Theodore E. A. Waters

6 The Dual Components of Developing 135

Strategy Use: Production and Inhibition
Deanna Kuhn and Maria Pease

xv
xvi   Contents

7 Fostering Scientific Reasoning 160

with Multimedia Instruction
Richard E. Mayer

8 The Importance of Metacognition for Conceptual 176

Change and Strategy Use in Mathematics
Martha Carr

PART III. READING, WRITING,

AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
9 Determining and Describing Reading Strategies: 201
Internet and Traditional Forms of Reading
Peter Afflerbach and Byeong-Young Cho

10 Metacognition and Strategies Instruction 226

in Writing
Karen R. Harris, Tanya Santangelo, and Steve Graham

11 Metacognition, Intelligence, 257

and Academic Performance
Cesare Cornoldi

PART IV. CONCLUSION

12 Common Themes and Future Challenges 281
Harriet Salatas Waters and Wolfgang Schneider

Author Index 289

Subject Index 295

Par t I

SKILLED MEMORY
 1
Metacognition and Strategy
Discovery in Early Childhood
Harriet Salatas Waters
Thomas W. Kunnmann

S ince the field of the memory development began several

decades ago, evidence has accumulated on important age differences in
strategy use, metacognition, and the impact of both on memory perfor-
mance (Schneider & Pressley, 1997; Schneider & Bjorklund, 1998; Press-
ley & Hilden, 2006). Young children are capable of using strategies, but
only if the materials are just right, the processing conditions are right,
and instructions are set up to prompt strategy use. It is only as children
mature that they broaden their strategy use across different materials and
processing conditions. Hand-in-hand with strategy development, there
are comparable changes in metacognition, with an increasing awareness
of strategy use and its impact on performance (Pressley, Borkowski, &
Schneider, 1987; McCormick, 2003).
Thus, we have a general picture of the developmental pattern leading
toward more skilled memory, but have learned very little about how indi-
vidual children make the transition from the more passive, less deliber-
ate strategy use of early childhood toward the more active, goal-directed
strategy use typical of older children. Part of the problem has been that
early work on memory strategy development relied on adult experimen-
tal paradigms adapted for children. These paradigms were primarily
used in cross-sectional designs and did not provide information about
intra-individual patterns of development. Not surprisingly, researchers
continue to bemoan how little we know about factors that propel chil-
dren toward skilled remembering (e.g., Ornstein & Haden, 2001).

3
4   SKILLED MEMORY

In the most recent decade, however, there has been a movement

toward longitudinal and microgenetic investigations that can track
individual performances across several years in the case of longitudinal
designs and several sessions in the case of microgenetic designs (Schneider
& Weinert, 1995; Schneider, Kron-Sperl, & Hunnerkopf, 2009; Siegler,
2006). This change in methods gives us an opportunity to answer a range
of questions concerning intraindividual differences in patterns of devel-
opment. Not too long ago Crowley, Shrager, and Siegler (1997) noted
the interplay between both associative and metacognitive mechanisms
in strategy discovery, pointing out that both play a significant role. Of
particular interest to the current chapter is their discussion of the role of
metacognitive awareness in children’s ability to adapt and generalize a
strategy to new contexts. Although strategy discovery can be accompa-
nied by varying degrees of metacognitive awareness, such awareness often
accelerates the generalization process (e.g., Siegler & Jenkins, 1989).
Granting that there is an interplay between associative and metacog-
nitive mechanisms during the typical move toward more sophisticated,
goal-directed strategy use, it is worth asking whether we can enhance
that progression by intervening on the side of metacognitive processes.
The literature on the links between metacognition and strategy use has
produced a wealth of information, but has left us with a somewhat
unsatisfactory result. Sometimes children will link their behavior to their
performance, and sometimes they will not (e.g., Andreassen & Waters,
1989; Fabricius & Hagen, 1984; Pressley, Borkowski, & O’Sullivan,
1985). Particularly disconcerting is the fact that researchers can prompt
strategy use that appears “strategic” but may not generalize or result in
metacognitive awareness.
In light of the importance of enhancing children’s memory skills as
they proceed through the education system, the current investigation
takes a closer look at the on-again, off-again pattern of early strategy use
along with the unevenness of metacognitive awareness that accompanies
that strategy use. The goal is to better understand “the forces that propel
the development of skilled remembering” (Ornstein & Haden, 2001, p.
202). In turn, this understanding should provide some direction in how
our society can produce students who are well equipped to meet the cog-
nitive challenges of our information-rich age.

Transition to Active,
Goal-Directed Strategy Use

On the surface, it is obvious that older children are more goal-directed

than younger children in their use of strategies like rehearsal, organiza-
 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery   5

tion during study, and elaboration. They are more likely to report what
they are doing during study and can evaluate the effects of their strategy
use (Schneider & Pressley, 1997). But there are degrees of “doing some-
thing” during study, some more obviously going beyond the task instruc-
tions and materials and some less. When an older elementary school
child groups unrelated words together to form subjective clusters, there
is little doubt he or she is organizing the materials for recall. But what
about a younger child who is given a categorizable list of words compris-
ing familiar categories and typical examples of those categories? If the
child’s recall should be grouped by semantic category, how confident can
we be that he or she is being strategic? After all, the materials almost
“shout out” to be grouped by category. Thus, we are still left with the
key developmental question “How do we know when we have active,
goal-directed strategy use?”
Some promise in answering this question more fully has come with
an expansion of methods. Not only have researchers adopted longitudi-
nal designs, but they are relying more on detailed analyses of ongoing
study behavior within and across experimental sessions that come with
microgenetic designs (Siegler, 2006). These designs open up the possibility
of a more fine-grained examination of ongoing strategy behavior, ranging
from timing characteristics, variations on strategy implementation, and
strategy choices. And with these developments, there is the opportunity
to reexamine the question about what constitutes active, goal-directed
strategy use.
For example, Lehmann and Hasselhorn (2007) tracked the use of
different rehearsal strategies, from simple labeling to single-item rehearsal
to cumulative rehearsal, within and across sessions (with repeated assess-
ments every 6 months for 2 years). The movement toward the more active,
cumulative rehearsal across sessions was not unexpected, but closer anal-
yses within sessions revealed list position effects and the coexistence of
several strategies within single sessions. A more recent analysis of this
study by Lehmann and Hasselhorn (in press) also showed differences in
recall inter-response times between items rehearsed together compared
with items that had not been rehearsed together. In sum, research indi-
cates that movement toward active, goal-directed rehearsal involves more
than just an increasing rehearsal set, and that there are important details
in the study and recall dynamics of strategy use that are only revealed
with detailed within-session analyses.
Earlier analyses available for organization during recall also reported
some interesting details on the recall dynamics of that strategy (Hassel-
horn, 1992). Children from second to fourth grade showed greater dif-
ferences between within-category and between-category latencies under
circumstances where they were more likely to engage in goal-directed
6   SKILLED MEMORY

strategy use (i.e., in a sort-recall situation with materials comprised of

typical examples of familiar semantic categories). In addition, the size
of organization chunks during recall has been associated with deliberate
organization during recall (Bjorklund & Buchanan, 1989). With these
findings, it becomes evident that researchers can take advantage of online
strategy features to determine whether children are engaging in deliber-
ate, goal-directed strategy use.
In the present investigation, we examine one of the classic paradigms
that first tackled the question of strategy use, metacognitive awareness,
and generalization of strategy use (Salatas & Flavell, 1976; Andreassen
& Waters, 1989). Children in all three of our studies were asked to study
and remember categorizable picture sets placed on a lectern-like appara-
tus that provides rows for picture placement that map onto the category
structure of the picture sets. Both organization during study and orga-
nization during recall can be assessed in this paradigm. Our first goal
was to pinpoint key processing features of goal-directed strategy use by
using detailed assessments of strategy implementation. Once these were
identified, our goal shifted onto how to best prompt strategy discovery.
Specifically, the aim was not to simply prompt strategy use in a particular
context, but also to prompt metacognitive awareness of strategy use in
a manner that leads to transfer to more difficult variants of the memory
task. In addition, the current investigation focused on early elementary
school children who are rarely credited with deliberate, goal-directed
strategy use.

Study 1: Characteristics of
Goal-Directed Strategy Use

In order to highlight key features of goal-directed strategy use, this first

study manipulated cognitive load during the memory task at two dif-
ferent ages in early childhood (first and third grades). By manipulat-
ing information-processing demands, the hope was to manipulate the
relations between important aspects of strategy implementation, recall
performance, and metacognition, and thereby identify features of recall
dynamics that are tied to deliberate strategy use. In the light cognitive
load condition, children were asked to study and recall a categorizable
set of eight pictures, two from each of four familiar semantic categories.
In the heavy cognitive load condition, children were asked to study 16
categorizable pictures, four from each of the four semantic categories.
Two different picture sets were constructed from which both 8-item and
16-item sets were selected (see Figure 1.1 for one of the picture sets).
Category organization was chosen as the strategy under investigation
 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery   7

because objective and independent measures of both organization during

study and recall are available.
In addition to the standard measures of organization during study
and recall, aspects of strategy implementation were more closely moni-
tored by including several additional measures. First, the number of items
per category chunk was also assessed. In the heavy cognitive load condi-
tion in particular, it would be more efficient to recall all four items from
a category before moving on to the next category. Although associative
processes might produce some two-item clusters and give the appearance
of strategy use, consistent three to four items in a cluster more strongly

FIGURE 1.1. One of the two categorizable picture sets used in the present series
of studies.
8   SKILLED MEMORY

suggest deliberate organization in recall. Second, all of the memory ses-

sions were tape-recorded and recall time between items within and across
category boundaries was measured. Both adult and child studies of cat-
egory clustering have reported faster times for items within category
boundaries, suggesting that efficient implementation of category cluster-
ing during recall entails greater speed in moving through items within a
category cluster (Hasselhorn, 1992; Pollio, Richards, & Lucas, 1969).
Third, correlations between organization during study and recall were
examined in order to determine whether organizational processes at the
time of study were coordinated with organizational processes at the time
of recall, a mark not only of strategy effectiveness, but of goal-directed
strategy use (Lange, Guttentag, & Nida, 1990).

Procedure
Once again, 40 first-grade and 40 third-grade children were given an
opportunity to place categorizable pictures on rows on a lectern-like
apparatus, with the number of rows matching the number of semantic
categories in the picture set. The children were shown their picture set
and asked to name each picture. The pictures were presented in a blocked
format with the category names mentioned in passing, without calling
undo attention to them. After the children named all of the pictures, the
experimenter placed the pictures randomly on the table in front of the
children such that no two same-category pictures were contiguous. The
children were then free to place the pictures on the rows of the lectern-
like apparatus any way they thought would help them remember. After
the children had studied the pictures for 1 minute, they were covered by
an opaque cover and the children were asked to recall as many as they
could in any order they wanted.

Findings
Organization during study was determined by first counting the number
of picture pairs on the lectern rows that represented the same category.
Perfect clustering for an 8-picture set would be a score of 4, and for a
16-picture set it would be a score of 12. Each child received a percentage
score, that is, how many clustered pairs out of the possible maximum
for each picture set. Organization during recall was assessed using the
Adjusted Ratio of Clustering (ARC) measure (Roenker, Thompson, &
Brown, 1971). Table 1.1 presents the means on all of the performance
measures across age and experimental conditions. Percent recall was used
because of the different sizes of the picture sets used in the two cognitive
load conditions.
 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery   9

Two (age) by two (cognitive load) analyses of variance were con-

ducted for each of the performance measures. Not surprisingly, third
graders showed better recall performance, and recall rates were higher
for the 8-picture set, F(1,76) = 28.92, p < .001, and F(1,76) = 70.13, p <
.001, respectively. In addition there was a significant interaction between
age and cognitive load, F(1,76) = 4.11, p < .05. Although both ages
show a clear decrement in recall performance with the more cognitively
demanding 16-picture set, the effect was more pronounced for the first-
grade children. For the organization during study and recall measures,
the 2 × 2 analyses of variance only produced an age effect in both cases,
F(1,76) = 4.39, p < .05, and F(1,76) = 6.04, p < .05, respectively.
More interesting patterns regarding organization emerged when we
examined the additional measures for monitoring recall dynamics. Begin-
ning with the size of the category clusters during recall, main effects were
accompanied by a significant interaction, F(1,76) = 8.79, p < .01. Mean
differences across picture sets are not surprising since there is a maximum
of two per cluster for the 8-picture set and a maximum of four per cluster
for the 16-picture set. The key question was really whether the children
at either age adapted the size of their recall clusters to better map onto
the category structure of the different picture sets, an indication of inten-
tional strategic behavior. The significant interaction indicated that first

TABLE 1.1. Mean Scores on Strategy and Performance Measures across

Cognitive Load and Age—Study 1
8 pictures 16 pictures
First grade
% recall 86% 49%
% pairs clustered during study 64% 50%
Recall clustering (ARC) .54 .33
Number of items per category cluster 1.55 1.56
Number of categories recalled 3.70 3.60
Within-category times 2.88 sec 7.06 sec
Across-category times 6.16 sec 8.88 sec

Third grade
% recall 98% 76%
% pairs clustered during study 76% 70%
Recall clustering (ARC) .73 .64
Number of items per category cluster 1.70 2.46
Number of categories recalled 4.00 3.85
Within-category times 2.05 sec 4.16 sec
Across-category times 4.18 sec 7.90 sec
10   SKILLED MEMORY

graders failed to increase their category cluster size as they went from
the 8- to the 16-picture set, whereas third graders showed a significant
increase, p < .001, post-hoc Newman–Keuls analysis.
Further evidence of differences in intentional behavior across con-
ditions and age was found in the analyses of time latencies within and
across category boundaries. In these analyses we made specific compari-
sons within groups in order to test the hypothesis that within-category
times should be faster than across-category times whenever children
engage in deliberate category clustering during recall, a pattern consistent
with adult strategic behavior (Pollio et al., 1969). Although unintentional
associative processes can also produce some level of category clustering,
these processes should not have as pronounced an effect on within- ver-
sus across-category times. Only four children who did not have both
within- and across-category times were omitted from the analyses. Indi-
vidual within-subject t-tests produced significant results for three of the
four comparisons. Within-category times were faster than across-cate-
gory times for the first-grade/light cognitive load condition, t(18) = 3.12,
p < .01; for the third-grade/light cognitive load condition, t(19) = 2.71,
p < .01; and for the third-grade/heavy cognitive load condition, t(18)
= 3.02, p < .01, two-tailed tests. The comparison between within- and
across-category times in the first-grade/heavy cognitive load condition,
however, was not significant, t(17) = .88. It appears that first graders
under the more demanding cognitive load were not engaging in deliber-
ate, goal-directed strategy use.
One final set of analyses included correlations among measures of
recall, organization during study, and organization during recall (see
Table 1.2). Time parameters were omitted because they are primarily
relevant in terms of the relation within and across categories, not in terms
of absolute means. Correlations from the third-grade, 8-picture-set group
were also omitted because of ceiling effects. The patterns of significant
correlations among measures in Table 1.2 identify under which conditions
we have deliberate, goal-directed strategy use. Starting with the third-
grade children with the more demanding 16-picture set, we see that all
measures are correlated. Organization during study predicts organization
during recall and organization during recall in turn predicts overall recall
performance. In addition, organization during study is significantly cor-
related with the size of the category clusters, suggesting that the children
are recalling all items from one category before they move on to the next.
With all this evidence we can reasonably be certain that the third graders
under these circumstances are engaging in deliberate strategy use.
Using the third-grade pattern of correlations as our metric, we can
then move on to the question of whether the first graders are engaging
in goal-directed strategy use in either the light or the heavy cognitive
 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery   11

TABLE 1.2. Intercorrelations among Performance Measures across Cognitive

Load and Age—Study 1
Recall clustering Items per cluster % recall
First grade—8 pictures
 Organization during study .79** .84** .45*
Recall clustering (ARC) — .90** .30
Items per cluster — — .42*

First grade—16 pictures

 Organization during study –.04 .32 .48*
Recall clustering (ARC) — .84** –.29
Items per cluster — — –.20

Third grade—16 pictures

 Organization during study .78** .79** .65**
Recall clustering (ARC) — .82** .65**
Items per cluster — — .79**
p < .05, **p < .01, one-tailed tests.
*

load conditions. First, in the light cognitive load condition, correlations

between organization during study and the two measures of recall cluster-
ing (ARC scores and number of items per cluster) are highly significant,
.79 and .84, respectively. The correlations between the two measures of
recall clustering and percent recall are weaker, with only the correlation
between cluster size and percent recall being significant, .42. But when
you consider the small picture set, and that category clustering is not nec-
essary to be able to remember quite a number of the pictures, these weaker
correlations may not surprising. Overall these results point to deliberate,
goal-directed strategy use in this condition. In contrast, the results from
the heavy cognitive load condition tell a very different story. Not only is
there no difference in the time latencies within and across category clus-
ters in that condition, the correlations between organization during study
and the measures of organization during recall are not significant. Nor are
the measures of recall clustering related to percent recall. In sum, there
is no evidence that first graders are engaging in deliberate, goal-directed
strategy use in the more cognitively demanding 16-picture set.

Study 2: Priming Strategy Discovery

Study 1 produced the standard developmental pattern of strategy use in

which younger children are capable of deliberate strategy use only under
12   SKILLED MEMORY

circumstances that encourage such use. The more manageable, smaller

8-picture set enabled the first-grade children to engage in deliberate orga-
nization during study and recall. This kind of developmental pattern
lends itself to the typical interpretation that with time and practice in
strategy use, children will eventually be able to implement the strategy in
question under more cognitively demanding circumstances. The purpose
of this investigation is to challenge this interpretation. Do we really have
to wait for strategy use to become more practiced before children can
use the strategy under more demanding circumstances? In Study 2 we
explore two different options to prompt immediate broad-based strategy
generalization. One possible approach is to double our efforts to prompt
strategy use under the more demanding circumstances, anticipating that
these efforts will lead to genuine strategy discovery. If so, there will be
evidence in measures linked to goal-directed use and in transfer. A second
approach relies on the importance of metacognitive awareness of strategy
use and its links to performance. Here the hypothesis is that once a strat-
egy is “discovered,” children will be able to generalize the strategy to the
more demanding cognitive circumstances. In other words, metacognition
trumps the more incremental, steady progress associated with practice
and automaticity.
In order to evaluate these two approaches, the present study manip-
ulated cognitive load in a memory situation in which the children are
prompted (by task circumstances) to implement an organization strategy,
that is, category clustering. The same procedure and materials of Study 1
were used. Forty first-grade children were introduced to the materials by
asking them to name the pictures as the experimenter presented them in
a blocked format, with the experimenter mentioning the category labels
in passing. In Study 2, however, the experimenter placed the pictures in
both the light and the heavy load conditions on the lectern by category,
guaranteeing that all of the children would study the materials by cat-
egory. After the children had 1 minute to study their pictures, they were
asked to remember as many of the pictures as they could in any order
they wanted. We anticipated high rates of category clustering in both
cognitive load conditions.
The children then returned in 1 week for a second session in which
everyone was given a new 16-picture set. The purpose of the second ses-
sion was to evaluate whether the children continued to use the strategy
after their initial “discovery” of the category-clustering strategy during
Session 1. Once again pictures were presented by category, but this time
the experimenter randomly arranged the pictures next to the lectern after
the naming procedure. Thus the children were given an opportunity to
place them on the lectern by category or not. After recall they were also
asked whether they had done anything to help themselves remember in
 Metacognition and Strategy Discovery   13

order to assess their metacognitive awareness of strategy use. If practice

in using the strategy under cognitive demanding circumstances enhances
strategy implementation, then children assigned to the heavy cognitive
load condition in Session 1 would be more likely to generalize to Session
2. If the key is metacognitive awareness of strategy use, then the light
cognitive load condition would give the children an opportunity to reflect
on what they were doing during recall and prompt generalization to the
more demanding 16-picture set in Session 2.

Findings
The key question for the first session was whether the children would
encode the category structure of the pictures during study and therefore
use category clustering to help themselves to remember regardless of
the cognitive load condition. Table 1.3 presents mean scores across the
two conditions on all of the strategy and performance measures. For
Session 1, there were no differences across the two cognitive load con-
ditions (t-test comparisons) for any of the organization measures (ARC
scores, number of categories, number of items per category chunk).
Children in both groups also showed faster times for within-category
items compared with across-category times, even though the children in
the 16-picture condition were overall slower in recalling items (p < .05).
In sum, children in both conditions appeared to be engaging in deliber-
ate, goal-directed strategy use, based on key markers regarding recall
dynamics.
With comparable levels of organization established in Session 1, the
next step was to compare changes in performance in Session 2. In order
to test for differences relative to Session 1, 2 (cognitive load training) × 2
(session) analyses of variance were conducted on all measures except for
organization during study (only Session 2 data available). The first and
most important question was whether children in both cognitive load
groups, having experienced the value of category-clustering in recall,
would initiate a category clustering strategy during study. The results
were quite dramatic. Out of a possible 12 clustered pairs on the lectern
(perfect organization) the mean scores were 8.60 versus 1.90 (light vs.
heavy cognitive load training), producing a highly significant difference,
t(38) = 7.25, p < .001. Other organization measures followed suit, with
both ARC scores and number of items per category chunk greater in the
light (vs. heavy) cognitive load training groups in Session 2 compared
with no differences in session one, F(1,38) = 4.88, p < .05, and F(1,38)
= 29.38, p < .001, respectively. Experiencing the value of category clus-
tering under light cognitive demands led to transfer to a more difficult
memory task (16 pictures in the second session), but not so if the experi-
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