Revolution- radical change in social, economic or political life of society.

can be sudden overthrow of

estd govt/ system by force and bloodshed/ great change that comes slowly and peacefully,
fundamental change in the entire political system(nature of govt, classes that hold political power, and
its aims), when existing system becomes unbearable to majority, are contagious,

The Russian revolution 1917

1. Expression of economic hardships faced by the Russian society. + incompetence of the
autocratic regime, Economic reasons:
1.​ Profits of then developed industry(by the end of 19th ct) confined to few hands.
2.​ workers suffered from long hours of work+low wages+Heavy fines+ treated inhumanely.
3.​ The capitalists blocked factory reform while the workers tried to protest through the
strikes.
4.​ peasantry= shortage of land+primitive tools/outdated methods+heavy taxation burden
5.​ Russia joined the WWI → food in country, but couldnt reach the cities because of the
war time arrangement of transportation.
2. War: Tsar refused to consult main parties in the Duma
-​ its severe impact on industry as was cut off from other suppliers of industrial goods by
German control of the Baltic Sea.-
-​ By 1916, railway lines began to break down.
-​ Able bodied men were called up to the war→labour shortages and small workshops
producing essentials were shut down.
-​ Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from using them→ ~3
mn refugees in Russia.
The situation discredited the government and the Tsar+Soldiers did not wish to fight such a
war⇒ Thus, corrupt rule of the Czar coupled with its inability to diffuse economic grievances
brought the revolution.

Russian peasants vs France peasants

1. FR: peasants respected nobles and fought for them.
2. Russia:
-​ peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them.
-​ Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
-​ Russian peasants pooled their land periodically and their commune (mir) divided it
according to the needs of individual families. Some Russian socialists felt that the
Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists.
What changed after 1918 October revolution
1. The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were
nationalised in November 1917. This meant that the government took over ownership and
management.
2. Trade unions were kept under party control.
3. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the
nobility.
4. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
5. They banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy.
6. Russia became a one party state. The secret police punished those who criticised the
Bolsheviks.
7. Russian civil war
-​ When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to break up.
Soldiers, mostly peasants, wished to go home for the redistribution and deserted.
-​ Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik
uprising. Their leaders moved to south Russia and organised troops to fight the
Bolsheviks. During 1918 and 1919, the greens (Socialist Revolutionaries) and whites
(pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire.
-​ They were backed by French, American, British and Japanese troops who were worried
at the growth of socialism in Russia.
-​ Supporters of private property among whites took harsh steps with peasants who had
seized land. Such actions led to the loss of popular support for the non-Bolsheviks.
-​ By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. They
succeeded due to cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists.
Cooperation did not work where Russian colonists themselves turned Bolshevik.
8. Global influence of Russian revolution
1.​ The possibility of a workers state fired people’s imagination across the world. In many
countries, communist parties were formed like the Communist Party of Great Britain.
2.​ Many outside USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920)
and the Bolshevik founded comintern (an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist
parties).
3.​ Some received education in USSR’s Communist university of the workers of the East.
By the time of the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a
global face and world stature.
4.​ A backward country had become a great power. Its industries and agriculture had
developed and the poor were being fed. But it had denied the essential freedoms to its
citizens and carried out its developmental projects through repressive policies.
5.​ Increased interconnectedness in 20th ct → easy spread of ideas -
-​ IR’s exploitative capitalist system→ workers looking for alternative→ Russian
revolution gave it to them. Communism then seemed appropriate & liberating.
-​ Colonialism & imperialism at peak in 20th ct+ colonies critical of capitalism(they
thought it is what impoverished them)+ Communism like Utopia→started
treating Russia as a father nation.
-​ Russia’s successful economic model in initial years→inspired 3rd world countries
-​ Leaders of communist Russia: Lenin & Stalin→ gave active support to
communist form of govt in world. Like Czechoslovakia.

French Revolution 1789-99

1. 3 estates: Clergy, Nobility, the Rest.
2. Social causes
-​ 60% of the land - owned by nobles/Church/other richer members of the IIIrd estate.
-​ Taxes= Nobel & clergy exempted+ Nobles collected feudal dues from the peasants.+
Church tax(tithes)+States tax by all members of the IIIrd estate
-​ rise of Middle class+ educated people believed= no group should be privileged by birth.
Rather, social position must depend on his merit.
-​ Nobility neglected their duties, into greedy & vicious courtiers.
 -​ Monarch was not ready to carry out the urgent reforms needed. His administration was
riddled with corruption.
3. Economic causes
-​ Long years of war+helping American rev→drained the financial resources of France.
-​ cost of maintaining an extravagant court at palace of Versailles.
-​ Unemployment and inequality rose.+ Wages did not keep pace with the price rise. A
situation has come where basic needs(Food) of livelihood are endangered.
4. Philosophers
-​ The 18th century= the Age of Reason⇒gave people idea of new society based upon a
new philosophy of life.
-​ Voltaire attacked the religion. Locke refuted the absolute right of monarch. Rousseau
asserted the doctrine of popular sovereignty. Montesquieu proposed a division of power
within the government btw the legislative, the executive and the judiciary.
-​ Intellectuals emphasised on social reforms+ condemned slavery+reason over prejudice.
-​ Their cumulative influence manifested→ liberty, equality, fraternity, as guiding principles
of revolution.
-​ BUT their doctrines later used to justify measures that philosophers themselves would
have opposed.
5. Post revolution
-​ continued to be tense
-​ Louis XVI had signed the constitution, but entered into secret negotiations w King of
Prussia. Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare
war against Prussia and Austria.
-​ The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. Large
sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further,
as the constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.
-​ Political clubs= important rallying point for people to discuss govt policies & plan their
forms of action. Ex- Jacobins(belonged to less prosperous sections)
6. Women’s revolution
-​ Active from beginning,
-​ IIIrd estate women worked for living+Mostly did not have access to education/ job
training. Only daughters of nobles/wealthier IIIrd estate could study at a convent.
-​ Own political clubs & newspapers.Ex- The Society of Revolutionary & Republican
Women. Demands: enjoy the same political rights as men+ right to vote, to be elected to
the Assembly and to hold political office.
-​ Revolutionary govt initially introduced laws to improve their lives⇒ creation of state
schools+ schooling made compulsory for all girls+ fathers could no longer force them
into marriage against their will.
-​ Even after revolution struggle for equal political rights continued.
-​ Reign of Terror⇒ new govt issued laws for closure of women’s clubs & banning their
political activities⇒ Many prominent women arrested or executed.
-​ for Voting rights & equal wages continue through the next 200 years in many
countries of the world. The fight for the vote was carried out through an international
suffrage movement during the late 19th & early 20th centuries. It was finally in 1946 that
women in France won the right to vote.
7. Impact of French revolution
 -​ The legal abolition of the nobility(+feudal privileges), by the National Assembly in
1789⇒ estb of capitalism. Even the restored monarchy could not bring it back.
-​ The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, considered 1 of the world’s
most important statements of universal HRights, issued just after the abolition of the
nobility.
-​ It gave the term “Nation” new meaning= not territory that people belong to but it is the
people themselves. From this flows the idea of sovereignty that people constituting the
nation are source of all power
-​ It was first genuinely democratic Government. So planted the seeds for other
democratic movements. For first time people such as workers, artisans, poor
peasants got equality in voting rights.
-​ Formal separation of church and state in 1794. This laid down the basis for
separation of state and religion and establishment of a secular state.
-​ France has abolished slavery in its colonies. And as a result Haiti, an french colony,
became a republic. This was the first republic established by the black people.
-​ The Civil Code of 1804, aka Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges based on
birth, estd equality before the law and secured RtoProperty.
-​ Re-organisation of inefficient governing system into departments & communes+
Metric system in 1793+ National system of schools(lycées) in 1803. Modernised
system of administartion. In India, Tipu sultan, Ram Mohan Roy were inspired
-​ Major impact on Europe & New World→ shaped politics, society, religion and ideas by
bringing liberalism + end of feudal/ traditional laws & practices.
8. Shortcomings of universal rights underlying the French Revolution
-​ Lacked Equality= Women given no political Rto Vote or to hold public offices+ Men w
only certain level of income were allowed to vote.
-​ Jacobins perpetuated terror in masses⇒ ag idea of liberty & freedom.
-​ began with being liberators but ended up being conquerors⇒ag own values of liberty
-​ Slave trade carried on by French⇒ gross violation of HRight.
9. Napoleon achievements
-​ In 1804, crowned himself emperor, set out to conquer neighbouring European countries,
creating kingdoms
-​ saw his role as a Moderniser of Europe⇒ protection of private property, uniform system
of weights, measures by the decimal system, Napoleonic Code(allowed religious
freedom in depsite natonal religin)
-​ Jacobin regime abolished slavery in the French colonies like Haiti. This, however, turned
out to be a short term measure as Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
-​ The idea of democratic rights was the most important legacy of the French revolution.
These spread to the rest of Europe during the 19th century, where feudal system were
abolished.
10. How did Napoleon fuse the old France with new France
-​ wanted to cement peace at home to bring French together & provide tranquility⇒
reconciled Monarchy with Revolution (a failed goal of Mirabeau in 1790).
-​ Attracting men from all parties= ex-Jacobins+nobles, to his Govt.
-​ Concordat→ reconcile Relg differences(which torn France apart during Revolution)
-​ General amnesty signed→ allowed 1000 most notorious emigrants to return to France.
-​ Napoleonic Code= Civil code⇒ merit based recruitment to govt jobs+ clearly written
law
 -​ freed peasants & other sections from serfdom⇒Anti-feudalism wave of Europe
11. Impact of French Revolution was local
-​ Ideals= Equality, fraternity and liberty. In our preamble BUT it’s spread took several years +
initially confined to Europe coz of Monarchy in all surrounding countries of France(they
tried hard to contain spread of ideals)+Lack global inter connectedness led to lack of
spread of ideas
-​ Napoleon captured the power & restored autocracy. France denied the very rights to
people after revolution..

Enlightenment
process in history: orthodox, superstitious & illogical thinking gave way to Reasoning & logical
behaviour in every aspect of life(social, religious, political)+ took society twds growth & progress.
Driving forces behind it
-​ Exploration: world sparked the curiosity & made Europeans question the old beliefs and
customs. They started enjoying the adventure in their lives.
-​ Reformation movements: Protestants like Martin Luther started reformation movements
which questioned the authorities of Church, Popes and the nobilities who were corrupt
and blinded the people with orthodox beliefs and instilled fear by penetrating state
violence.
-​ Scientific revolution: Scientists like Galileo and Kepler challenged the wrong concepts
given by church and introduced scientific ideas that sun was surrounded by planets,
earth revolves around the sun, etc which helped enlightening the masses.
-​ Philosophers: People from the middle class like Locke, Immanuel Kant became the voice
of the common people and created largE scale awareness among the masses through
their works.

Nation state:
State+ defined borders & territory. Country w same type of people (organised by race/cultural
background)+ speak same language+ share a set of cultural & national values. Coinciliation of
State & nation [State= political and geopolitical entity, Nation= cultural and ethnic one]. Its
formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world, and has become the
dominant form of world organisation.
Britain’s formation of the nation state=NOT coz of revolution. BUT long drawn out process. no
British nation prior to 18th ct. People’s primary identities= ethnic ones(English, Welsh, Scot or
Irish) All had their own cultural & political traditions. But as it grew in wealth & power⇒ able to
extend its influence over other nations of the islands Ex: The Act of Union (1707, btw England
and Scotland)⇒ formation of the United Kingdom. But British parliament was dominated by
English members⇒ suppression of Scotland’s culture & political institutions, similarly
Ireland(country divided btw Catholics & Protestants)⇒ English helped Protestants dominate
over largely Catholic country⇒ Catholic revolts ag British dominance were suppressed. A new
British nation was forged through propagation of a dominant English culture. The older nations
survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Colonialism:
practice of acquiring colonies by conquest and making them dependent. This is also called as
old imperialism. Neo-colonialism= practice of economic exploitation & domination of economically
backward countries, by the powerful countries.

Imperialism:
practice of extending the power, control by a industrialized country over political & economic life of other
areas to extract values/exploit just as you would from mine you owned, through military or
otherwsie
New imperialism
-​ In initial period of IR, pursuit of colonies slowed coz they became uneconomical(Br’s
New Guinea,German Cameroon). But pursuits & rivalries re-emerged in 1875s.
Industrialised capitalist countries estd political & economic control and domination
over the rest of the world.
-​ Nationalistic phenomena: myths of superiority over other people+ Germany and Italy
jealous of Britain & France ‘s huge empires. So, started conquering and grabbing
colonies in a small way.+ Asia & Africa ki military or strategic importance(naval
bases)+ manpower for war/conquests
Conditions that helped the rise of Imperialism
-​ IRevo: Need raw materials & new markets.
-​ Protectionism: of European powers wrt foreign goods had to find other regions for export
-​ Mercantilism: to incr wealth among competition believed that the volume of world wealth
and trade was relatively constant, so one country’s gain required another country’s loss.
A colonial possession should provide wealth to the country that controlled it.
-​ Extreme nationalism: greatness by seizing colonial territory
-​ Civilizing mission: Europe as moral responsibility to educate ignorant & convert to
Christianity. Hence thought imperialism was a noble task.
-​ Adventurers & explorers: role in Europe’s taking over Africa

Mercantilism
economic system + prevailed during 16th -18th ct+ nation states increase their wealth by promoting
exports & by limiting imports(imposing heavy duties).
Gave rise to Colonialism and IR- To maximise trade, expanded overseas, promoted naval force to
protect their vessels, lookout for new markets→ estb of trading ports→ later became forts. led to
conflicts w local rulers & drain of wealth from countries which later became colonies

Industrial Revolution
1750s series of changes which revolutionised production techniques & transportation methods
⇒ rise of new type of economy called Industrial economy. Produce goods on massive scale wrt
handicraft & handloom industries.
Why Britain?
-​ Fe+Coal, so steam engines used cheap british coal to keep british coal cheap, & it created opp to
create steel railroads +ve feedback loop
-​ High Wages of labor incentivise to automate & invent tech
-​ Cultural= superiority rationality+ developed large shipping industry.
 -​ politically stable & free since 17th ct+ England, Wales, Scotland unified⇒ common laws,
currency, market
-​ overseas trade se vast profits +provincial banks⇒ capital
-​ Colonies’ regular supply of raw materials(cotton) and markets
-​ Money used as medium of exchange by end of 17th ct→ wider choice to ppl→ expanded
goods market
-​ others didnt had all these advantages at this period. some were agrarian economies.
Italy & Germany=not united + suffered economic restrictions.
3. Cotton spinning and weaving= Flying shuttle loom(weave broader fabrics in less time)
Spinning jenny(1 person spin several threads of yarn simultaneously)Water frame(stronger
thread cud weave pure cotton fabrics)Power loom(stopped automatically every time thread
broke)
4. Transportation= connecting rivers and lakes with canals (Canals spread to Europe &
America) cheaper + for steam boats. Confluence of canals⇒ marketing centres in new
towns(city of Birmingham-connecting London, the Bristol Channel). BUT congestion of vessels +
frost, flood, drought ⇒ Railways 1825
-​ Penny post, by letter, in early 19th century⇒adopted in other countries, India.
5. Agriculture revolution= cash crops for market & raw materials for industries.
-​ iron plough and harrow, mechanical drill for seeding, horse drawn cultivator to replace
the hoe, machines for reaping and threshing, intensive manuring and crop rotation to
maintain soil fertility.
-​ With the enclosure movement, big landowners unfairly got possession of the peasant’s
small holding along with his own. The result was that the peasants were forced off the
land⇒With no other means of livelihood, they moved to the new industrial towns and
cities where they got jobs at whatever wage the factory owner would pay⇒Industries
thus benefited, but at the small farmer’s expense.
China
1. Opium wars
-​ The imperialist domination of China began with the opium wars. Before these opium
Wars, only two Chinese ports were open to foreign traders. China was already a
prosperous civilisation that had invented paper, printing and gunpowder. There was no
demand for British goods in China. So the British had to pay back in gold and silver for
importing Chinese tea, silk, jade and porcelain. This led to trade deficit for Britain.
-​ So, British merchant started smuggling opium from India into China on a large scale, to
cover up for their cost of importing Chinese goods. British east India company has
already established monopoly on the opium cultivation. But due to Chinese ban on
opium, British used country traders to ship opium to China.
-​ 1st Opium war: Chinese government officials seized an opium Cargo and destroyed it.
Britain declared war and easily defeated the Chinese. The Treaty of Nanjing was signed,
which forced China to pay fines to British or war damages. Hong Kong was to be given
to Britain. China had to open five port cities to the British traders. Chinese government
was no longer free to impose tariffs on the foreign goods.
-​ 2nd Opium War: Soon, England and France fought another war with China, on the
pretext that a French missionary had been murdered and again China lost. This again
led to opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence. Right of foreign
travel in the interior of China. By the end of 1860s, China had to open 14 ports to
Foreigners.
2. Sino-Japan war
-​ For centuries, Korea was tributary state of China. But important to Japan as strategically
located opposite to Japanese + its coal & F⇒War ⇒Japan coz of western military
tech⇒ China had to recognise Korea independent state & gave away Formosa, Taiwan
& part of Southern Manchuria to Japan and was forced to pay about $150 million to
Japan for war damages.
3. Influence by other : After Japan war China had no money for war damages⇒France,
Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans In return for exclusive rights in some parts of territories
in China. Ex: Britain over Yangtze valley, Russia Right to build railways in Manchuria. Described
as the cutting of the Chinese melon.
-​ After the economic depression of the 1890s, USA needed foreign trade to boost its
economy. In China, the American textile manufacturers had found markets for cheap
cotton goods. But US feared that China would be completely parcelled out to France,
Russia, Germany and Britain, because of those spheres of influences. So, US started it’s
Me too policy.
-​ Therefore United States suggested the policy known as Open door policy:all countries
would have equal right to make trade anywhere in China. Britain supported thinking it
would discourage annexation of China by Japan/Russia(as they can send their armies to
Chinese mainland easily)
4. Boxer rebellion
-​ China’s humiliating defeats in Opium wars & Sino-Japan war+ subsequent economic
exploitation by Western powers(by extraterritorial right to the foreigners)+ Corruption &
inefficiency of their royal govt+ resented Christian missionaries, blaming them for
harming traditional Chinese ceremonies and family relations
-​ This led to formation of a secret organisation=Yihetuan, foreigners called them Boxers.
Boxers violently started destroying properties of foreigners, Christian missionaries and Chinese
converts. secretly supported by many of the royal court.
-​ failure of boxer rebellion & imperialism continued with cooperation from Chinese
warlords. Foreign powers bought these military commanders by giving loans and in
exchange the warlords granted even more privileges to the foreign powers.
-​ Thus in few decades, China reduced to status of international colony. Altho not
conquered or occupied by any imperialist country, but the effect were same
5. Western influence
-​ Britain forced Indian peasants to grow opium⇒ sold illegally to China⇒got Gold,
Silver⇒exchanged for tea, silk from China. Triangular trade between Britain, India
and China.
-​ This undermined the ruling Qing dynasty & strengthened demands for reform and
change⇒ so came modern administrative system, new army, educational system, local
assemblies for constitutional government⇒ Manchu empire overthrown & republic
established in 1911 3 principles (San min chui)= Nationalism, democracy, socialism
7. Reasons for 1949 Chinese revolution
-​ KMT seized power but failed in estb communism, rather supported land lords & eliminate
communists+ was corrupt+ inflation+ KMT’s ineffective resistance towards Japanese
when they occupied Manchuria in 1931. KMT felt
-​ Areas of communists had lesser land inequalities + effective land distribution
-​ 1949 Communists seized power from KMT.
8. Significance of 1949 revolution
 -​ Communist Government in place of a corrupt capitalist + Rapid economic growth w
focus on agriculture and small scale industries+ Land reorganisation + efforts to improve
working conditions of industrial workers⇒ China taken more seriously at international
level due to economic and military strength.

Japan and Meiji restoration

1. Japan lay on the route to China which the USA saw as a major market. Also, their whaling
ships in the Pacific needed a place to refuel. At that time, only Holland traded with Japan. Perry
(1794-1858) came to Japan to demand that the government sign a treaty that would permit
trade and open diplomatic relations.
3. Officials and the people were aware that some European countries were building colonial
empires in India and elsewhere. So they wanted to save Japan from such subjugation. The
government launched a policy with the slogan fukoku kyohei (rich country, strong army). They
realised that they needed to develop their economy and build a strong army, to protect
themselves from Europeans. To do this they needed to create a sense of nationhood among the
people, and to transform subjects into citizens.
4. Modern education institutions were setup. The imperial rescript on education of 1890 urged
people to pursue learning, advance public good and promote common interests. A new school
system began to be built from the 1870s in which schooling was made compulsory for boys and
girls. Tuition fees were minimal. The curriculum had been based on western models but
emphasis was also on Japanese history.
5. To integrate the nation, a new administrative structure by altering old village and domain
boundaries. The administrative unit had to have revenue adequate to maintain the local schools
and health facilities, etc.
6. A modern military force was developed.
7. A legal system was set up to regulate the formation of political groups, control the holding of
meetings and impose strict censorship. Japan developed economically and acquired a colonial
empire that suppressed the spread of democracy at home and put it in collision with the people
it colonised.
8. Another important part of the Meiji reforms was the modernising of the economy. Funds were
raised by levying an agricultural tax. Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign
technicians were employed to train workers, as well as to teach in universities and schools, and
Japanese students were sent abroad. Modern banking institutions were setup in Japan. To
reduce population pressure government actively encouraged migration to colonies of Japan and
to other countries too.
9. The rapid and unregulated growth of industry and the demand for natural resources such as
timber led to environmental destruction.
10. The Meiji constitution was based on a restricted franchise and created a Diet with limited
powers.
3. Japan-China path to modernisation
how different historical conditions led them on widely divergent paths to building independent
and modern nations.
-​ Japan didn’t go through colonisation, -​China underwent colonial humiliation.
had colonial empires = Taiwan, -​Gave up traditional values, sought modern
Manchuria, ideas(cultural revolution under mao zedong).
 -​ Maintained traditional values=respect CCP saw them as keeping the masses in
for elders, worship of emperor, along poverty, the women subjugated and the country
with modern education system un-developed.
-​ Democracy & west inspired capitalistic -​1 party rule+ demands for democracy were
economy suppressed brutally+Socialistic path to economy

Colonisation in Africa
Largely to certain coastal areas. Slave trade. 15th ct mei Spanish were ruling Americas. and
large scale extermination of native Americans happened as forced to work in gold silver mines
in inhumane conditions & got European diseases. So slaves from Africa were brought to
America.
2. Why African slaves preferred
-​ Native American could easily run, hide in jungles, familiar with territories, blend in as
white town. Africans could neither go home nor disguise themselves among town folks.
-​ African slaves had some immunity to old world diseases: smallpox, mumps, measles⇒
lived 3-5 times longer wrt white labourers under difficult conditions on plantations.
3. Slave trade
-​ Medieval mei, Arabs dominated: organised slave caravans= moved them from interior to
Gold and Slave coasts. Then Portuguese entered slave trade business(for brazil sugar
plantations)
-​ African chiefs sold slaves to Europeans for ammunition, coins, decorative wear, horses
-​ then British came as later Spain gave monopoly of slave trade to Br.
-​ Triangular trade across Atlantic. African chiefs⇒ European merchants(gave
manufactured products to Af; caribbean ka sugar, cotton, tobacco in Europe & North
America.)⇒ sold in Caribbean(purchased transportable commodities as sugar, cotton,
tobacco).
4. Why slave trade declined after 1850s: European economies shift from Agri to industry+
American slave could reproduce enough offspring to meet needs. So, need for slave import
decreased+ Slavery as hindrance if Africa was to be colonialised(need public legitmacy)
5. Consequences of slave trade
-​ Millions uprooted from homes⇒ stifled African creativity & production.
-​ inhumane conditions+ slave trading stimulated warfare, corrupted laws+ created class of
elite rulers and traders.
-​ A beginning of dependency relationship with Europe. continued through colonial period
and beyond.
-​ African culture mixed with Europeans and Native Americans⇒ new mixed races, music,
literature, cuisine, culture, religious practices, deep impact on American history, civil
wars etc.
6. Why Africa was easily conquered: Economic & military strength(fast firing gun) of
imperialist powers>> african(axes, bows and knives)+ not political united & kings sought support
of the Europeans. While imperialist countries participating in scramble for Africa were united.
7. The Scramble for Africa
All European countries avoided war & signed agreements as to who will get which part of Africa.
In 1884-85, Congress in Berlin (No African state represented). Treaties btw African chiefs &
Europeans were fraudulent & bogus. Other European powers also accepted these so African
occupation done easily. Similarly By end of 19th century, Partition of Africa was completed ⇒
referred as paper partition as actual partition took longer(due to internal rebellions). ~30%
boundaries are straight lines coz done on paper map, in conference rooms of Europe.

American revolution
English colonies in America
1. By the middle of the 18th century there were 13 English colonies in North America along the
Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom, traders, and profiteers had
settled there. The bulk of the population consisted of independent farmers. Infant industries had
developed in such products as wool, flax, and leather.
2. In the north there were fishing and ship building industries. In the south, large plantations like
feudal manors had grown up where tobacco and cotton were grown with slave labour brought
from Africa.
3. Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters. These assemblies enacted
laws concerning local matters, and levied taxes. However, they were under the rule of the
mother country.
4. By the 18th century, the colonists found the laws which the English government imposed
upon them more and more objectionable. The idea of being an independent nation grew and
developed into the revolutionary war in which the colonists gained their independence.
4. Economic causes
1. The colonial policy of England in economic matters was the primary cause of resentment in
the American colonies. England’s policies did not encourage the American colonies to develop
an economy of their own. The colonies were also forbidden to start certain industries, for
example, iron works and textiles. They were forced to import these goods from England.
2. The English Parliament had forbidden them to use non-British ships in their trade. Certain
products, such as tobacco, cotton and sugar, could be exported only to England. Heavy duties
were imposed on the import of goods in the colonies from other places. Thus the growth of
industry and trade in the colonies was impeded.
3. The English also angered the colonists by issuing a proclamation to prevent them from
moving west into new lands. English aristocrats had bought lands in America and got rents from
the farmers. They wanted to keep the colonists as renters.
4. English Government was burdened with debt due to incessant wars. In 1765, the English
Parliament passed the Stamp act which imposed stamp taxes on all business transactions in
the American colonies. This act aroused violent resentment among all sections.
5. The colonists claimed that, since English Parliament had no representatives from the
colonies, it had no right to levy taxes on them. The
revenue from these taxes was used not in the interests of the colonies but of
English.
5. Philosophers
1. The American revolutionaries were inspired by the ideas of the French and English
philosophers of the 17th century. Locke, Harrington, Milton believed that men had certain
fundamental rights which no government had the right to infringe.
2. American thinkers, especially Thomas Jefferson, were also inspired by what French
philosophers were saying and writing at that time. Jefferson asserted the colonist’s right to
rebellion, and encouraged their increasing desire for independence.
6. No taxation without representation
1.​ 1. The leaders in the Massachusetts colony called together representatives from other
colonies to consider their common problems. In this Massachusetts assembly, they
agreed and declared that the English Parliament had no right to levy taxes on them. No
taxation without representation was the slogan they adopted.
2.​ 2. And they threatened to stop the import of British goods. The threat led English to
repeal the Stamp Act, but Parliament still insisted that it had the right to levy taxes. Then
Parliament imposed a tax on consumer goods coming into the colonies, such as paper,
glass, tea and paint.
7. 1773 Boston Tea Part: tax on tea ⇒ several colonies refused to unload tea coming in
English ships. In Boston, when the governor ordered a ship to be unloaded, a group of citizens,
dressed as American Indians, dumped crates of tea in water.
8. No affection for England in colonies as people settled were prosecuted on religious
grounds, And due to class differences of England.
10. Significance of the American Revolution
-​ 1st written constitution ⇒definitely encouraged tradition of constitutionalism.
-​ strengthened middle classes’s position in America + encouraged liberal ideas.
-​ Estb of Republic(not truly democratic, limited RtoVote like Negroes, American Indians,
and women).
-​ serious jolt to mercantilism and colonialism.
-​ 1st federal Govt. concept suited to multi racial, multi social, multi regional country6
-​ “Declaration of Independence” regarding the equality of all men and the inalienable rights
formed basis for future liberal democracies.
-​ inspired 19th century Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America
-​ Election laws in all states favoured men of property for many years. But progress towards
democracy had begun. In some states, state religion was abolished, along with religious
qualifications for holding public offices.
9. Comparison between Italian and German unifications
-​ Time: The unification movements of both countries took place at roughly the same time
in the mid 19th century and were motivated by liberalism and nationalism.
-​ Number of separate states: Italy and Germany both were divided into a number of
separate states which were ruled by despotic kings. But these states in both the
countries shared a common language and a common history. Austria was main obstacle
to both the countries.
-​ Napoleon: during his conquests of Italy and Germany taught them ideas of liberalism
and nationalism. In Italy, Napoleon created a united Kingdom of Italy. As for Germany,
Napoleon reduced the number of German states from over three hundred to thirty nine.
This led to nationalist sentiments in Italy and Germany which influenced the much of the
unification later.
-​ Congress of Vienna: European countries at congress of Vienna divided the Italian
peninsula into petty states and restored previous rulers. In Germany too, absolute
governments were restored in all the states by the Congress of Vienna. Such turning the
clock back greatly frustrated Italian and German liberals and patriots.
 -​ Diplomacy and war: In achieving Italian and German unifications, both Cavour and
Bismarck made great use of diplomacy and war.
10. Contrast between both
-​ Zollverein which was launched by Prussia in 1818 made Prussia economically strong but
also improved its relation with other German states. But in Italy, no customs union
comparable to the Zollverein aided the movement towards unification. Only Piedmont
herself, under the guidance of Prime Minister Cavour, implemented some economic
reforms.
-​ Italian unification supported by France and Great Britain, while German unification
adversed by France and Great Britain.
-​ Italian unification owed much to the leadership of Piedmont and Cavour. Yet, forces from
below were also important, especially the liberals and nationalists who raffled to Cavour
and Garibaldi.
-​ On the other hand, unification from above was clearly the pattern in Germany. It was
achieved mainly by Prussia, her army, her ruling Junker class, and the Junker leader
Bismarck.
Policy of containment
Of US to prevent the spread of communism abroad.
2. Steps by USA
-​ Marshall Plan provided financial help to nations so as to develop them economically and
to check spread of communism. So US invested heavily in Western Europe, Japan,
Turkey and Greece+
-​ NATO to counter USSR militarily+
-​ some argues that Nuclear bombing of Japan by US was a part of this strategy to deter
USSR.
-​ Foreign interventions in countries like Vietnam, Angola, Korea, China etc. was made to
prevent spread of communism in those countries. It meddled in internal affairs in India
and Pakistan and sided with Pakistan so as to have a friendly neighbour beside USSR.
-​ Rise of communism in China and USSR made it inevitable for USA to have strong ally in
the east. So it enthusiastically aided Japan’s development.
-​ USA in cooperation with other countries gave rise to Breton wood twins to influence
financial order in the world. They both led to dollar diplomacy and dollar as exchange
gold standard and reduced influence of USSR.
Cuban Missiles crisis:
Cuban crisis was a short confrontation between US and USSR in 1962 concerning American
ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile
deployment in Cuba.
Events leading upto it
-​ failed bay of pigs invasion and the fall of the Berlin war made the score for both US and
USSR equal
-​ In 1962, US spy planes discovered missile launching pads in Cuba and the US president
ordered immediate destruction and a naval blockade to prevent Russian missiles from
reaching. In defiance, Russia sent warship to Cuba and raised the possibility of
confrontation between the superpowers.
 -​ It ended, when Russia blinked first and called back the ships, and in exchange US
agreed to remove American missiles from Turkey. This was the climax of the Cold war,
and led to signing of the Nuclear Test ban treaty
-​ The US has agreed to remove its embargo on Cuba, which was one of the last
remaining remnants of the Cold War. Ironically, at a time of renewed Russian aggression
and the symptoms of a new cold war.
3. Consequences
-​ No side engaged in a full throttle hot war but the differences between US and USSR
became even stark.
-​ Cold war intensified setting the stage for future military and diplomatic confrontations
between US and USSR.
-​ Cuban communist regime was allowed to rule and it survived for long. However,
Cuba-US relations withered.
-​ Both US and USSR started expanding their ideological influence base by making military
alliances and signing treaties.

Marshall Plan, 1948

1. By the end of World War II, Europe was ravaged by war and thus susceptible to exploitation
by an internal and external communist threat. Fanned by the fear of Communist expansion,
congress passed the Economic Cooperation act for rebuilding of Western Europe.
2. From 1945 through 1947, the United States was already assisting European economic
recovery with direct financial aid. Military assistance to Greece and Turkey was being given. The
newly formed United Nations was providing humanitarian assistance. The Marshall Plan
significantly magnified their own efforts and reduced the suffering and time West Europe took to
recover from the war.
3. Marshall Plan was intended to rebuild the economies and spirits of western Europe. Marshall
was convinced the key to restoration of political stability lay in the revitalisation of national
economies. It was also aimed at blunting the advances of communism in that region. The
program whose official title was European Recovery Program.
4. Aims
1. Increasing production.
2. Expanding European foreign trade.
3. Facilitating European economic cooperation and integration.
4. Controlling inflation.
5. Results
1. Marshall Plan nations were assisted greatly in western Europe economic recovery. From
1948 through 1952 European economies grew at an unprecedented rate. The Marshall Plan
was very successful.
2. The western European countries involved experienced a rise in their GNP of 15 to 25 percent
during this period. The plan contributed greatly to the rapid renewal of the western European
chemical, engineering and steel industries.
3. Trade relations led to the formation of the North Atlantic alliance.
4. Economic prosperity led by coal and steel industries helped to shape what we know now as
the European Union.
Why Soviet union disintegrated
-​ Economic stagnation- consumer shortages, began to doubtsystem.
-​ Internal weaknesses of institutions(rampant corruption, unwilling to open, centralisation),
failed to meet aspirations of the people,
-​ party bureaucrats gained more privileges. People did not identify with system &
-​ Perestroika: economic reforms by Gorbachev in 1987 but were slow & not enough.
Glasnost: transparency in Govt but backfired as public learned of long standing political
cover ups
-​ Excessive centralisation led to local nationalism like Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania wanted to become independent.
-​ overly focused on military buildup, neglecting domestic troubles
8. Reforms initiated by Gorbachev
-​ Foreign affairs a priority⇒ initiatives for better relations with china + pushed Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan+ foreign investment in soviet enterprises.
-​ Political=other parties in elections+ democracy within the Communist party+Freedom to
media to criticise Govt
-​ Economic= Small scale private entrepreneurs+ Computerisation
-​ Society= RtoStrike for better wages and conditions of workers

Why communism survived in China & not in Russia

-​ historical uprising of peasants, the Soviet Union did not have a revolution supported by
the majority of the people.
2. Communism was deep rooted in China. This was because, puppet
governments supported by the Communist Party existed in villages during
Japanese rule. They taught peasants the meaning of government, and sparked
in them the feeling of belonging and of having a stake in government. While
no such deep rooted communism existed in Russia.
3. Chinese created a national identity everyone could relate to. In the Soviet Union on the other
hand, there were far too many ethnic minorities in the state. Rather than recognising that there
were many ethnicities, like China
did, the soviet union rejected the ethnicities which lead to its dislike among
certain people.
4. Once Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary his political
reforms Perestroika and Glasnost, both proved to be major failures within the
Soviet Union. China on the other hand flourished with the reforms of Deng
Xiaoping. Deng put economic reform before political reform. But Gorbachev,
by pursuing political reform before economic reform, inadvertently dissolved
the Soviet empire.
5. China put less of an influence on controlling the entire country, and
more of an influence on the economy. China central Government devolved
many powers to provinces, this ensured people remained happy with the
government. While, USSR was highly centralised state. It gave little powers
to various provinces. This gave rise to resentment among various provinces.
6. The demise of Communism in the Soviet Union was their failure to adapt to times.
Why did ASEAN succeed where SAARC did not
1. ASEAN’s largest state Indonesia little influence on small states. But SAARC mei wide power
differences, India’s dominance hampered success of SAARC+ widened by lack of common
political culture.
2. Asean decided to forget interstate disputes. Saarc insisted on resolution
3. Pakistan and India issue in SAARC negotiations, it doesnt formal or informal methods to
prevent violent conflicts like ASEAN.
4. ASEAN engages external powers formally through its dialogue mechanism, international
arbitration & mediation. India feeling uncomfortable US’s presence in SAARC negotiations &
South Asia’s mistrust for Int mediation
Socialism
-​ 19th ct Europe= industrialised regions⇒ brought men, women and children to factories+
long Work hours+ poor wages+ Unemployment + Unequal distribution of wealth created
economic classes
-​ Early Socialists criticised poverty & inequality of IRevo⇒ advocated reforms like
egalitarian distribution of wealth + principles for reorganisation of society along collectivist
lines, Saint-Simon and Owen sought to build socialism on the foundations of planned,
utopian communities.
-​ Later in 1948, Marx and Engels disregarded utopia socialism of early thinkers⇒scientific
socialism based on class struggle. called Marxism became more popular⇒England &
Germany mei formed associations to fight for better living and working conditions⇒ but
eventually turned to parliamentary democracy.
-​ 1864, First international united French, English trade unionists, and social democrats.
Paris commune in 1871, fuelled hopes that the working classes were ready for radical
measures, but its violence hindered progress of socialism.
-​ international body Second International: campaign against militarism and war+ basic
equality of all people+ right to freedom & national independence+ expressed that
capitalism was root cause of wars among European nations. Resolved for general strike to
prevent their countries from participating in wars. But when war finally broke out, the
workers allied their respective governments.

9. Why socialism failed: means for socialist goals were different(revolution, gradual
reforms,some supported their imperial govt)+ was against colonialism, but some supported
colonialism for development purpose+ idea of worker’s unity was not as powerful as nationalism
so when WW-I broke out, all socialist parties supported their national governments+ Internal
difference against fascism+ post WW-II, dictatorships in socialist countries & violence and
totalitarianism did harm to socialist ideology+ less adaptive than Capitalism(adopted welfare
measures)

Fascist regimes in Germany and Italy

1. Comparison
1. Both were intensely anti-communist and because of this drew
support from capitalist class.
2. Both believed in and practiced Totalitarian regime where state
controlled all aspect of life of people, so that personal freedom is limited.
Both emphasised on supremacy of state, no voice of dissent was tolerable.
3. Economically both believed in economic self sufficiency of
country.
4. The Leader is considered to be infallible as his every command had
to be followed.
5. Both pursued aggressive foreign policy in order to distract attention
from domestic problems. Both believed in inevitability of war to make a
nation great and powerful.
2. Differences
1. Racism was the most prominent difference between Nazism and
Fascism. Towards the Jews, Nazis followed the policy of cleansing, which
resulted in death of millions of Jews. Nazi believed in the supremacy of
Aryan race. Italian’s racial policy was not as ruthlessly as Nazis did.
2. Nazism spread much more deeply and widely in Germany than
Fascism in Italy. Nazis were more brutal in their oppression and violated the
human rights to a much greater extent.
3. The Nazi system was more efficient and successful with respect to
the goal of economic self sufficiency and Hitler was able to eliminate
unemployment. In contrast, unemployment increased in Fascist Italy and thus
failed to achieve economic self-sufficiency.
4. Organisation of Nazis was strong. Hitler kept the party strong but
Mussolini kept party organisation weak to maintain his influence.
5. Mussolini was more successful in his policy towards church. He
was able to reach an agreement with the pope in 1929.
6. Constitutional positions of Hitler and Mussolini were different. In
Italy, the monarchy had continued to exist and the king played an important
role in the end of Mussolini’s rule by ordering his dismissal in 1943. In
contrast, there was no authority above Hitler in Germany to dismiss him.
British vs French decolonisation
1. British approach
1. British had a declared policy of educating the colonised people in
self government. When popular struggles in colonies rose to prominence,
British gradually started a process of constitutional reform, giving ruled
people a sense of self-government although keeping the rein of power in their
own hand.
2. In India this process of reform had been going on since 1861 and
finally culminated in Govt. of India Act, 1935 and Independence of India Act,
1947. By the end of the decade of 1950s, all non-African colonies gained
independence without much bloodshed.
3. In some colonies there were a large minority of white people, which
didn’t want to let go its special status. So in these countries the process of
decolonisation took much more time like in Tanzania and Kenya.
4. British experience prepared London remarkably well for the
liquidation of empire after 1945. By a series of measures, Britain created the
Dominion system and institutionalised a procedure for gradually loosening
control over her possessions.
2. French approach
1. French had a policy of continuous cultural assimilation of colonies
by educating them in French culture. For which they were even ready to
adopt violent methods. They considered their colonies as the extension of
French territory and never wanted to give them up.
2. Unlike Britain, which took lead in the process of decolonisation,
France, in Brazzaville Declaration of 1944 made its intentions of not allowing
liquidation of their colonial empire clear.
3. They resisted every attempt in direction of colonial independence
which is clear from examples such as Indo-China. They were steadfast in
their refusal to consider even eventual separation at some future date a viable
political option.
4. A variety of reasons may be adduced to explain the French failure
to develop before 1945 any mechanism which might have served as a bridge
for the transfer of power to their colonial subjects after the War. The most
popular explanation has been to assert that the French blindly trusted to their
policy of assimilation whereby the colonies would eventually be one with
France.
Shock therapy
1. After USSR broke out, a number of independent states emerged.
The model of economic transition in these countries from a socialist
authoritarian system to a democratic capitalist system under the influence of
World Bank and IMF came to be known as Shock Therapy. It varied in speed
and intensity but had similar features and direction.
2. Few elements of shock therapy
1. Each country was required to shift totally to capitalist system with
complete privatisation of state assets and collective farms.
2. Countries were required to open their economies. They were to
follow a free trade regime and allow Foreign Direct Investment.
3. It also involved deregulating the economy and a free floating
currency.
4. Existing trade alliances of these countries with each other were
disallowed. Each state was now to trade only with west. Thus their economies
were to be integrated with west.
3. Consequences
1. Economies further nosedived. The old system of social welfare was
destroyed and subsidies withdrawn throwing many into poverty and
joblessness. It also resulted in emigration on large scale.
2. The industries of these countries collapsed. Government held that
Public sectors were greatly undervalued and sold to general public. Since,
public did not have money to buy, they eventually went into the hands of
mafia. It led to the rise of oligarchy.
3. The inflation was so high in Russia that people lost all their savings
and about 1500 banks and financial institutes became bankrupt.
4. The collective farm system disintegrated, generating a food crisis.
5. The construction of democratic institutions was not given attention
as was given on restructuring economies. It resulted in coming of autocratic
regimes in many of these countries.
4. Thus, hardly any positive benefits could be derived by these
countries from the Shock Therapy. It resulted in continuous decline of their
economies. These economies finally began to revive in 2000s when they
adopted an independent economic path without the interference of the
western countries.
Great leap forward
1. The Great Leap Forward campaign of China in 1960s was a push
by Mao Zedong to change China from a predominantly agrarian society to an
industrial society. It involved developments in both industry and agriculture,
in order to increase output and to adopt industry to Chinese conditions.
2. Its important features
1. Communes: Units larger than collective farms were introduced
containing up to 75000 people, divided into brigades and work teams with an
elected council. They ran their own collective farms and factories, carried out
most of the functions of local government within the commune and undertook
special local projects. All the works in the communes from childcare to
cooking, daily tasks were collectivised.
2. Small scale industries: Instead of aiming for large scale works of
the type seen in the USSR and the West, much smaller factories were set up
in the countryside to provide machinery for agriculture. The most famous
were 600,000 backyard furnaces which produced steel for the communes.
3. Successes of the campaign
1. Both agricultural and industrial production increased substantially,
and China was at least managing to feed its massive population.
2. The communes proved to be a successful innovation. They were an
efficient unit of local government and they enabled the central government in
Beijing to keep in touch with local opinion.
3. Given the country’s enormous population, this was the best way of
making sure that everybody had a job, and it enabled China to avoid the
growing unemployment problems.
4. Other benefits were the spread of education and welfare services,
and an improvement in the position of women in society.
4. Failures of the campaign
1. A series of bad harvests and the withdrawal of Russian aid
following the breach between the two. All this, coupled with the lack of
experience among the cadres, caused hardship. Some 20 million people may
have died prematurely as a result of hardships caused by the Great Leap.
2. The Great Leap Forward caused massive environmental damage in
China. The backyard steel production plan resulted in entire forests being
burned to fuel the smelters, which left the land open to erosion. Dense
cropping and deep ploughing stripped the farmland of nutrients and left the
agricultural soil vulnerable to erosion, as well.
5. The Great leap forward and Commune policy introduced by Mao
were not great successes and China was still economically stagnated. Thus,
Deng Xiaoping introduced market reforms which marks a shift from
communism, to a free-enterprise system.
6. Reforms by Deng
1. Many changes introduced during the cultural revolution were
reversed. The revolutionary committees setup to run local governments were
abolished and replaced by more democratically elected groups. There was
more religious freedom and greater freedom for intellectuals.
2. Adopted market socialism as an economic system in which prices
of goods would be determined by free price system. The nature of economy
changed from self-reliant to export oriented.
3. The land, although still officially owned by the state, was divided
up and allocated to individual peasants, who were allowed to keep most of the
profits. This was successful in raising agricultural production.
4. Huge investments were made by local provinces into the most
profitable businesses locally, encouraging light manufacturing which required
less capital, brought revenues and high foreign exchange earnings and
revenues on export.
5. Relation with technologically advance countries in the West and
Japan were improved and trade with them enhanced by purchasing machinery
and advanced technologies.
6. A series of special economic zones were set up to attract foreign
companies and capitals by providing cheap land and labour, quick and easy
clearances by cutting down red tapism.
India’s role in Apartheid struggle
1. India having gone through the long independence struggle herself,
stood in solidarity with the African people in their long and challenging
struggle against apartheid.
2. Pre independence
1. Gandhiji helped attract international attention to the issue of racism
in South Africa long before UN began considering the matter. Also Gandhi’s
ideas of non-violence, truth and civil disobedience were some common forms
of struggle against the apartheid regime. These forms inspired Mandela and
other leaders of the movement.
2. Gandhiji went in a deputation of Indians to Britain in 1909 to
oppose the granting of self government to South Africa under white rule.
3. Post independence
1. Nehru declared that ending colonialism in Africa is a priority.
2. India repeatedly raised the issue in UN and built up sentiment
against racial discrimination in South Africa. Successive PMs like Indira
Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi lobbied for UN sanctions against SA to force it to
stop apartheid.
3. India, in spite of being poor even went to the extent of giving up
5% of export trade in 1946 to demonstrate its repugnance of racism in South
Africa.
4. India gave her full support to the African States and the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in their fight for independence and
human rights.
5. Various leaders of South African congress were in direct touch with
Indian leaders and thus got the moral support from them.
4. South Africa’s reciprocity to India’s contribution can also be
gauged from the fact that the South African cricket team’s first international
tour after the end of isolation in 1991 was to India. This common brotherhood
among our people can be seen even today in our growing bilateral relations.
5. Other countries role
1. World was horrified by Sharpeville massacre. So, opposition grew
after this incident.
2. UN also placed an economic boycott on South Africa in 1962. But
this proved ineffective as many countries did not support it.
3. There was opposition to apartheid from rest of the commonwealth.
In 1986, commonwealth agreed on a strong package of sanctions against
white ruled South Africa.
4. USA started treating its black people equally and started criticising
the South Africa. Then USA joined the fray by stopping American loans to
South Africa, to cut airlines, ban imports of iron, coal, steel, etc from South
Africa.
5. Dutch, which once supported the apartheid, condemned it.
6. Other factors
1. South Africa was hit by recession in the late 1970s, and many white
people were worse off. Whites began to emigrate in large numbers and there
was shortage of labour.
2. White ruled Portugal colonies of Angola and Mozambique achieved
independence after long struggle. Now, South Africa was surrounded by
hostile black states.

World war was first industrial war

1. Features of the War
1. It involved the world’s leading industrial nations such as Britain,
USA, France, Russia, Germany etc., which harnessed the vast powers of
modern industry to inflict the greatest possible destruction on their enemies.
2. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons,
etc. on a massive scale.
3. Millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and
moved to on large ships and trains.
4. Industries were restructured to produce war related goods. Entire
societies were also reorganised for war. Men went to battle and women
stepped in to undertake jobs that earlier only men were expected to do.
5. The scale of death and destruction affecting 20 million people was
unthinkable before the industrial age.
2. Since these features were not found in any of the wars fought
earlier, the First World War can truly be called the first modern industrial
war.
Formal to informal colonial control
1. Formal colonial control implies direct political control, subjugation
and conquest. Under it, local institutions and political structures were
dismantled and replaced with new ones imposed by colonial powers.
2. Informal colonial control implies indirect political and economic
use and control of resources of former colonies through capitalism,
globalisation and cultural forces by the erstwhile powers. It can be said that
today the new institutions imposed due to dependency of poor nations mirror
colonialism.
3. Transition
1. Development assistance granted by the West to the former colonies
are loaded with conditionality which was not be very favourable to the
colonies.
2. Large corporations of other powerful countries, for example the
US, also often managed to secure rights to exploit natural resources of
developing countries at cheap prices.
3. Most former colonies have not benefitted from the fast growth the
Western economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s using the colonies
cheap raw material.
4. Thus G-77 was formed to demand a new international economic
order (NIEO). By the NIEO, they meant a system that would give them real
control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer
prices for raw materials, and better access for their manufactured goods in
developed countries markets.
American expansion in Asia:
mainly commercial & strategic:
-​ as Naval bases & refuelling stations for crossing Pacific
-​ Huge market, source of tea, porcelain, silk & network of ports⇒ USA inroads in China⇒
negotiated Treaty of Wangxia(1844, after Britain & China war)
-​ Maritime expansion⇒ Open door policy for China in 1899-1900⇒ greater involvement in
local and regional politics and trade during the early 20th century
-​ Americans felt superior coz of Christian religion→ sent missionaries
-​ protect settlers and to push Native Americans onto reservations.

Iranian revolution
1. The Islamic revolutionaries of 1979 did what all revolutionaries do
was to overthrow an oppressive government, seize power from the opponents,
and then impose a new intrusive authoritarian regime. But just as each
revolution, it displayed its own singularities.
2. Similarities with other revolutions
1. Iranian revolutions had number of similarities with French
revolution such as coming together of a coalition of opposition forces to
overthrow an entrenched regime viewed as illegitimate, oppressive or
compliant to foreign interests its scale and its impact, it was clearly distinct in
its execution.
2. Similarly, like Russian revolution (Putin) the cult of the leader was
important in Iranian revolution too as in the uniting figure of Ayatollah
Khomeini.
3. The weakness of state’s leadership such as the illness of Shah and
uncertainty of his generals also played a key role thus echoing the weakness
of examples such as Louis XVI in France and Tsar Nicholas II in Russia.
4. Similarly, the political changes were accompanied by grave socioeconomic changes in all the
cases including Iran, thus differentiating it from a
mere rebellion.
5. Like the French and Russian revolution the Iranian revolution
witnessed violence in the immediate aftermath resulting in the purge of
divergent forces and rise of a unified state based on an ideology.
3. Singularities
1. The party which led the revolt was a network of religious
functionaries and divergent forces that were at the forefront of the unrest. In
its goal, ultimately the Iranian revolution gave prominent place to religion
and galvanised into establishing a state inspired by the ideals of Islam.
2. In terms of execution it was perhaps the only revolution that did not
rely on military force or guerrilla warfare, but on politics. Despite its religious
and traditional guise, it was a modern revolution based on mass mobilisation
and general strikes, which paralysed the economy.
Monroe Doctrine1823:
foreign policy to contain expansion of Europe+ increase sphere of influence in America. Strongly
invoked by successors Theodore Roosevelt added: only USA had right to interfere in affairs of its
neighbouring countries. US’s expansionist policies seen in= Dominican Republic’s control+
stationing of American troops in Cuba in 1906+ 1903 supported revolt in Panama financially &
militarily resulting in recognising a government of their choice and full rights of the Panama
Canal.
Why policy of appeasement
-​ The other powers wanted to avoid war because they could not win such a war as they
were not economically and militarily strong. The people in Britain were against war, as
they saw the damage of world war I. The businessmen were also against a war as it
would hurt their economic interests.
-​ Chamberlain increased rearmament alongside the Policy of Appeasement. Some argue
that chamberlain was buying time for rearmament.
-​ Many groups felt that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances. Especially in Britain,
many leaders favoured a sympathetic attitude and called for revision of the harshest
clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
-​ LoN had proved to be ineffective and thus Chamberlain believed that a personal contact
among the leaders of different countries was important to make them respect
international law through negotiations. He favoured the path of diplomacy rather than of
war to resolve conflicts with Germany. 5. Germany was an export market to Britain and
thus the British felt that the economic cooperation would be good for both the countries.
-​ Fear of Communist Russia was greater than the fear of the Nazis. Many viewed the Nazi
Germany as a buffer against the Communist expansion westward. Thus they favoured or
allowed for the German rearmament.
Japanese aggression
1. There were three important acts of Japanese Aggression in this
period. It invaded Manchuria in 1931, attacked the North Eastern part of
China in 1933 and ordered full invasion of China in 1937 which led to
Second Sino-Japan war (1937-45) that merged into the World War II that
lasted till 1945.
2. Invasion of Manchuria (1931): Japan was under economic stress
due to the Great Depression. Its exports had declined dramatically and there
was decline in price of rice due to bumper harvest. Also Chiang Kai Shek’s
influence was increasing in Manchuria. This threatened the Japanese interests
in Manchuria. Japan had invested a lot of money in the industry and
infrastructure development projects in Manchuria since the Russo-Japanese
War of 1904-5. Thus the military attacked Manchuria ignoring the
reservations of the Japanese government.
3. Invasion of the North-east China (1933): Japanese advanced into
the North Eastern regions of China in 1933. This act had no justification and
was purely an act of aggression. Japan was able to occupy a large area by
1935 by taking benefit of the civil war between KMT and communist party.
4. Full scale invasion of China (1937): After signing the AntiComintern pact with Germany in
1936, Japan planned the full invasion of
China. Japan took a minor incident between Chinese and Japanese troops as
an alibi to begin the invasion.

League of nations (LoN):

designed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles and the other peace agreements that concluded
World War I. It was also
intended to facilitate open diplomacy and peaceful mediation to settle war
disputes.
2. Success
1. ILO: The International labour organisation was the most
successful. The goals of ILO include fixing maximum working days and
minimum wages, ensuring that member nations provided for unemployment
benefits and old age pensions.
2. Refugee organisation: It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to
their homes outside Russia. In 1933, it helped the Jews, who were fleeing to
escape Nazi persecution, to resettle in different countries where they would
be safe.
3. Health organisation: It did good work in finding causes of
different epidemics. It was especially successful in combating Typhus
epidemic in Russia which had the potential to spread to the rest of Europe.
4. Mandates commission: It had the responsibility of monitoring the
governance of territories given to member nations as Mandates.
5. International disputes: Here the League had partial success. It
forced Greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria, when the former invaded the
latter. But none of these disputes threatened the world peace.
3. Failures
1. League of Nations came to be viewed as an organisation of the
allied powers especially of France and Britain, setup for implementation of
unjust peace treaties, which failed to satisfy all nations.
2. The Conference of ambassadors was setup as a temporary body to
resolve disputes regarding. But, it continued to exist even after the formation
of the League. This hurt the legitimacy and the authority of the League of
Nations.
3. The League of Nations failed to check any violations of the
frontiers established after the WWI through the peace treaties. It also failed to
take firm stand on aggression displayed by Italy, Germany and Japan. For
example, it imposed only partial trade restriction on Italy after its Abyssinia
invasion.
4. The League of Nations was not a truly representative organization.
It had limited membership and USA did not join it. This resulted in lack of
funds for the League’s work.
5. It was also made to defend an imperfect treaty which suffered from
biases and was prone to be broken. The Peace treaties signed were against
principle of self determination. For instance, millions of Germans resided
outside Germany in Czechoslovakia and Poland after the peace treaties.
Similarly, many Turks were now residents of Greece.
6. It was only Germany, which was made to disarm under the Treaty
of Versailles. The League failed to convince other major powers to disarm.
Hitler used this as an excuse to quit the World Disarmament Conference.
Soon, he denounced the League of Nations and make Germany quit it as well.
4. All the imperfections of the league were responsible for occurrence
of 2nd major world war.
UN
an intergovernmental organisation formed after WW-II to promote international cooperation and
to maintain international order.
Successes: prevented further WWs+ brot some wars to quick end(Iran-Iraq war, Gulf war)+
negotiating 172 peaceful settlements for regional conflicts+ controlled situation in Serbia,
Yugoslavia and Balkan areas+ peace missions in Africa+ World assembly with 188 delegates +
disarming & nuclear free(Partial Test Ban Treaty & NPT signed under UN)+ Demise of
colonialism & imperialism and apartheid had UN sanctions behind them+ as vanguard for
HRights protection (Universal declaration of human rights, 1948)+ ltd but effective role on
economic matters+ Supported North-South dialogue+ Agencies(WHO, UNICEF, UNESCO-
transformation of International social sector, Ex: eliminating polio, small pox, ebola)+
international laws
Failures: UN opinion on Hungary & Czechoslovakia ignored by USSR in 1950s. + Israel’s
unilateral action for decades yet nothing substantial till date + No emphatic role in worst
crisis(Cuban missile, Vietnam crisis)+ totally exposed in US’s invasion of Iraq in name for the
search WMD + horizontal expansion & proliferation of nuclear weapons & arms.
Shortcomings: lacks permanent army(difficult to prevail upon powerful states who choose to
put self interest) + lack funds(for vvast scope of work, dependent on voluntary contributions from
member states)+ failed to reflect democratic aspiration of world+ debate on when should UN
become involved it hesitates so long as with Vietnam war+ agencies duplicate work(WHO
& FAO)

Treaty of versailles was dictated peace

as the Germans not allowed to be part of the negotiations. Cud only put forward their opinion &
criticism through writings. All their criticisms were ignored.
2. The clause of disarmament of Germany made it virtually impotent
even for protecting its law and order.
3. It is pretty much evident that all the imperial powers were
responsible for the World War I. But the war guilt clause was solely imposed
on Germany and its allies.
4. German’s African colonies were taken away and converted into
Mandates under the League of Nations.
5. The huge war reparations resulted in humiliation to the Germans.
The amount of 6600 million pounds was too high and was aimed at keeping
Germany weak economically in the foreseeable future.
6. Austria and Hungary were reduced to very small size in terms of
territory and population. Most of the industrial wealth of Austria went to
Czechoslovakia and Poland. They were soon engulfed by economic crisis and
they had to seek loans from League of Nations.
India’s support to Palestine given voice by our freedom struggle by Gandhi. Strong political
support to Palestinian cause at international and bilateral levels(voted ag its partition at UNGA
in 1947+ 1st Non-Arab State to recognise PLO as sole rep of palestinian)+ Material & technical
assistance(2 projects in Higher Education by GoI + Under IBSA forum’s sports complex+
hospital in Gaza+ in process of building a rehabilitation centre in Nablus)
Japanese attack on pearl harbour Coz: japan was running short of raw materials and had eyes on
British’s Malaya & Burma with oil & rubber⇒ So, intended to destroy American fleet in
Pacific(Hawaii) so that they cant prevent them from invasion. It was meant to buy time to incr
naval strength & deliver a severe blow to American morale, to discourage them from entering in
a war in western Pacific Ocean and Dutch East Indies. + Relations w America deteriorated
slowly as President Roosevelt placed embargo on oil supplies to Japan when Japan attacked
Indo-China(Am also supported China during China-Japan war)

Why superpowers needed small countries

provided vital resources(oil and minerals)+economic support (by small allies in military
expense); territory to launch weapons & Troops; to spy; ideological spread via loyalty of allies