Chapter-2

Culture
The term culture is used so often today in words and phrases such as “multiculturalism,”
“cultural diversity” and “culture wars” that culture begins to seem like a real thing that exists
as a taken-for-granted part of our world. Let us look at how culture has been defined by some
leading missiologists and cultural anthropologists.

2.1 Some definitions of culture

According to Brian Howell, “Culture is an idea that is created to describe a reality that people
experience: the behaviours, values, practices, technologies and assumptions that distinguish
one group from others.”

Neil Stephen:
- Culture is “the whole activity of man in his ability to control and utilize the
environment.”
Eg: “stone age culture” or “iron age culture”, “Harappan culture”, “Mohenjodaro culture”

- “those powers of man which go beyond the mere ability to survive and which are
concerned with the production of things or activities which are aesthetically pleasing.”
Eg., Greek culture, which is more cultured than Roman culture etc.

- Culture is “set of values”.

Eg. The Greeks valued dramatic and plastic arts etc. Romans culture was symbolised by
their value of constructions and roads

- Culture is a “Social phenomenon”.

- Culture may be characterised by “specific way of thinking”

- “Culture may consist of various separable parts or aspects.”

In summary, “Culture” can refer variously to the particular ways in which man learns to
control his environment, to develop intellectual and aesthetic values and expressions of
them, and to produce an ideology which expresses and upholds these values. Culture is a
social phenomenon, and can have various, separable parts. Culture means a way of
thinking, an approach to life in the world, which opens up possibilities for those who hold
to it, and at the same time may impose limits on their understanding and ability.”
A culture may impact the diet and food eating habits/timing of eating food where
stomach starts growling at a certain time, Clothes and idea of Modesty and vulgarity,
 Idea of sin/shame, idea of Beauty, Self worth, Idea of values, Idea of truth/ relative
(existentialism),Way of handling issues/resolving conflicts etc.

2.2 Types of culture

1. Technological culture: a culture which is formed when people from different spheres of
lives come together for a common purpose, like education, employement and form a new
culture. For example, Delhi University culture, Call centre culture
2. Sociological culture: the culture that is formed when people living within a same
geographical or regional location formulate customs, practices and traditions. For
example: Indian culture, Delhi culture, Orissa church culture
3. Ideological culture: This culture includes similar ideologies of people who may not
necessarily live in a same region, or even come together for a common purpose. They
might never even have met, but share the same culture based on their beliefs and
principles. For example: Christian culture, Hindu culture, Atheist culture

2.3 Levels of culture

Culture can be imagined as an onion which is peeled in layers. The understanding of the culture
goes deeper and deeper as we take more time and understand the deep desires and worldviews of
the people

Superficial level: When a person first arrives to a cross-culture, he/she may observe things in a
superficial level. This is what a person may notice within few days of his/her stay. It is a shallow
observation. For example, the clothes, the language, the diet, food habits, day to day practices
etc.

Intermediate level: When a person stays for a longer period of time, he/she starts getting
acquainted with the way of life of the local people. This would require a stay of some months or
more. For example, traditions, habits, customs, festivals etc.

Deep level: As we go deeper in understanding the new culture and stay for years, we start
understanding the worldview or the deep level culture of the people. For example, their beliefs,
deepest desires, needs, worldview etc.

2.3 Impact of Culture

Food:

Culture significantly influences food practices in several ways. Firstly, it affects the types of food
consumed. Even within a single country like India, there is a wide variety in food preferences—
some communities primarily eat rice, while others prefer chapatti. Similarly, some groups enjoy
spicy food, while others favor milder flavors. Secondly, culture shapes food-related habits. For
instance, in some cultures, people eat with their hands, whereas in others, using a spoon or fork
is more common. Cultural beliefs also influence how people interpret eating behaviors. In certain
communities, leaving food on the plate may be seen as a sign of dislike, while in others, finishing
all the food might be viewed as a sign of greed.

Clothes:
Clothing styles vary widely across cultures, and culture also plays a significant role in shaping
ideas about what is considered appropriate or decent to wear. Different communities have
different types of clothing based on factors such as climate, tradition, religion, and social norms.
However, it is not just the style of clothing that differs—cultural beliefs also influence
perceptions of decency. For example, in many developed and developing societies, wearing a top
is considered necessary for modesty, especially in public. Not wearing a top may be viewed as
inappropriate or indecent. In contrast, in some other cultures, not wearing a top may be seen as
normal and acceptable, and the idea of decency may be defined in completely different terms.
These differences show how cultural values shape people’s views on clothing and modesty.

Language:

Language is deeply influenced by culture, not only in terms of the language spoken but also in
the way people speak. Different regions and communities often have their own languages or
dialects, and even the same language can take different forms depending on the cultural context.
For example, Hindi is spoken across many parts of India, but its pronunciation, vocabulary, and
expressions can vary greatly from one region or community to another.

Culture also affects tone, intonation, and speaking style. In some cultures, people naturally speak
in a louder voice, which is not considered rude or aggressive—it is simply a normal way of
communicating. However, in other cultures, speaking loudly may be viewed as disrespectful or
impolite. These cultural differences in speech patterns show how communication is shaped not
just by the language itself, but also by the cultural meanings attached to how something is said.

Sense of Beauty:

The idea of beauty is not fixed; it changes across cultures and time periods. What one culture or
generation considers beautiful may be different from another. For example, in earlier times, a
healthy and robust body was seen as a sign of beauty, especially for women. Many older
generation actresses had fuller body types, and this was widely accepted and admired. However,
with the rise of social media and global influences, particularly from the West, a thinner body
type—often referred to as "size zero"—became the popular standard of beauty. Thinness was
promoted in fashion and media, and many people began to prefer that look.

In recent years, however, beauty standards have started to shift again. Curvier body types are
now gaining more acceptance and appreciation, especially in Western films and media. This
change shows that beauty standards are shaped by cultural values, media influence, and social
trends.

A clear example of cultural variation in beauty is seen in the Kayan tribe of Myanmar. In this
tribe, women wear brass rings around their necks from a young age, which gradually stretch their
necks over time. While outsiders may see this practice as disfiguring, within the Kayan culture, it
is considered a symbol of beauty and pride. This demonstrates that beauty is a cultural construct
—what is seen as beautiful depends on the values, traditions, and beliefs of a particular group.

Sense of worth:
The sense of self-worth or value that people feel about themselves is also influenced by culture.
In some cultures or communities, individuals may grow up with an underlying sense of
inferiority. This can be seen in their body language, such as avoiding eye contact, speaking
softly, or appearing hesitant in group settings. It may also be reflected in their use of language—
for example, frequently using apologetic phrases or expressions that downplay their opinions or
achievements. This sense of low self-worth may be shaped by historical, social, or economic
factors such as colonization, caste systems, discrimination, or poverty.

On the other hand, some cultures tend to foster a strong sense of pride and superiority. This can
be observed in the way people carry themselves, speak, or interact with others. Cultural customs
in such settings may emphasize strength, confidence, and leadership. People from these
backgrounds may speak assertively, show confidence in expressing their views, and may value
independence or dominance in social relations.

These differences show that the sense of self-worth is not only a personal matter but is also
shaped by cultural expectations, social structures, and collective experiences. How people view
themselves and how they express that view can vary widely depending on the cultural context in
which they are raised.

Sense of right/wrong:

Ideas of what is right or wrong are often shaped by the cultural and social context in which a
person is raised. Different societies place importance on different values, and this can influence
people’s behaviour, attitudes, and decision-making.

For example, in many Western cultures, punctuality is considered a sign of respect and
responsibility. Being late is often seen as unprofessional or disrespectful. Similarly, academic
honesty—such as avoiding plagiarism—is treated very seriously. Copying someone else's work
without proper credit is viewed as a major ethical violation.

In contrast, in many Asian cultures, while punctuality and strict academic rules may not be
emphasized to the same extent, other values such as sharing, hospitality, and group harmony are
given greater importance. For instance, sharing one’s belongings, food, or even personal space is
seen as a normal and valued part of community life. In some cases, practices that might be
considered plagiarism in the West may be interpreted differently in cultures where collective
knowledge or group work is more highly valued than individual ownership of ideas.

These examples show that moral values are not universal, but are shaped by the cultural norms of
each society. What is seen as right or wrong in one culture may not carry the same meaning in
another. Understanding this helps us to be more sensitive and respectful towards cultural
differences.

Ways of handling/ resolving issues

Different cultures have different ways of handling or resolving conflicts, and these methods are
shaped by historical, social, and cultural values. While some cultures may approach conflict
directly and openly, others may prefer more indirect or subtle methods.

For example, in early England, even minor disputes were sometimes settled through violent
means, such as a duel. A duel was a formal fight between two individuals, often using weapons,
to defend their honour. This reflects a culture where personal pride and honour were considered
so important that people were willing to risk their lives over disagreements.

In some parts of India, certain cultural groups tend to be more direct and confrontational when
dealing with problems. They may express their disagreements openly through arguments or even
physical fights. In these contexts, being outspoken or assertive is seen as a way to defend one’s
rights and to ensure justice.

On the other hand, many cultures prefer to resolve conflicts through more indirect and peaceful
means. In such cultures, people may avoid open confrontation and instead rely on subtle
communication, mediation, or compromise. They may use polite language, silence, or third-party
involvement to address the issue without causing embarrassment or public tension.

All these examples clearly demonstrate how deeply culture influences our everyday lives
—often in ways we do not even realize. From what we eat and wear, to how we speak, what we
consider beautiful, how we define right and wrong, and even how we resolve conflicts—these
are all shaped by the cultural environment in which we are raised. Because we grow up with
these norms, we tend to accept them as natural or "just the way things are."

As a result, we may assume that our way of thinking or behaving is universal, that everyone,
everywhere, must see things the same way. However, this is not the case. There is no single,
universal standard for what is polite, moral, beautiful, or appropriate. What is considered
respectful or acceptable in one culture might be seen as rude or strange in another.

This shows how powerful culture is in shaping our worldview. It acts like a lens through which
we interpret and respond to the world around us. Becoming aware of this influence is important,
especially in today’s globalized world, where we interact with people from many different
cultural backgrounds. Recognizing cultural differences helps us to be more open-minded,
respectful, and understanding of others, and it reminds us that our way is just one of many valid
ways of living.

Characteristics of culture

1. Culture is learned

Culture is something that is learned, not something we are born with. When a child is born, they
do not have any culture of their own. Instead, they begin to learn it from the environment around
them. They observe and imitate their parents, siblings, community elders, and peers. Culture is
passed down through teaching, interaction, and daily life—not through biology.
If a child is raised in a culture different from that of their biological parents, the child will adopt
the culture they are exposed to, rather than holding on to their parents’ original culture. In fact, if
a child grows up completely isolated from human society, they will not develop any human
cultural traits but may instead take on behaviours similar to animals.

Anthropologist Darrell Whiteman suggests that the idea of humans being created in the image of
God, as described in the Bible, can only be fully understood through the lens of culture. Without
culture, a person’s behaviour may resemble that of animals, which makes it difficult to imagine
them reflecting the image of God. Culture, therefore, is essential in shaping human identity and
behaviour in a way that reflects God's design.

2. Culture is shared

Culture is shared means that it is not something individual or private, but something that is
passed on and held in common by a group of people. Members of a culture share common
beliefs, values, customs, practices, language, and ways of thinking and behaving. These shared
elements help create a sense of belonging and identity among the people in the group.

For example, people from the same culture may celebrate the same festivals, eat similar kinds of
food, speak the same language, follow similar rules of politeness, and have similar ways of
showing respect or expressing emotions. This shared understanding allows people to
communicate and live together more smoothly because they generally know what is expected in
different situations.

3. Culture is selective

Culture is selective means that cultures do not adopt or preserve everything from the past or from
outside influences. Instead, they choose what is seen as appropriate, relevant, or valuable, and
they reject or modify what is considered harmful, outdated, or no longer meaningful. This
selectiveness allows cultures to adapt and evolve over time in response to changing values,
knowledge, and circumstances.

A good example of this is the practice of sati in India, where widows were expected—or
sometimes forced—to sacrifice themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre. Though this was
once accepted in certain parts of Indian society as a cultural or religious practice, over time it
came to be seen as deeply unjust and degrading to women. Reformers and social movements,
both within and outside the culture, began to challenge the practice, leading to its official ban
during the British colonial period and its decline in Indian society.

4. Culture is integrated

Culture is integrative means that all the different parts of a culture—such as beliefs, values,
customs, language, food, dress, social roles, and practices—are interconnected and influence one
another. These elements do not exist in isolation; rather, they work together to form a unified and
consistent system that gives meaning and structure to people’s lives.
For example, in a culture where respect for elders is a core value, this belief will influence
various aspects of life. The language may have special respectful forms for addressing elders.
Social customs may include bowing or touching the feet of elders. Family decisions might be
made with the elders' guidance, and stories or proverbs passed down through generations will
reflect the importance of age and wisdom. In this way, one central cultural value—respect for
elders—shapes the society’s language, behaviour, family structure, and moral teachings.

5. Culture is adaptive and adaptable

This means culture helps people adjust to their environment and meet their basic needs. Human
beings live in a wide range of environments—from deserts to rainforests—and their cultural
practices often develop in ways that help them survive and thrive in those conditions.

In cold climates, people developed clothing, housing, and food habits suitable for extreme
weather. For example, in Kashmir, they have kangri.

This means culture itself can change and evolve when people encounter new knowledge,
technology, or values. People can adopt new ideas or adjust old traditions to fit new realities.
This is especially visible in a globalized world, where cultures are constantly interacting.

6. Culture changes

Culture constantly changes. It is never static. Sometimes the change is internal, which means the
change comes from within the society. It can be through reform movements, change in moral
values, new inventions, new trends etc. Sometimes, the change can be external, which means the
change is the result of interaction with other cultures. For example, colonisation, globalisation,
migration etc.