UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND

EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941

6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of

Ethiopia and the Horn
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were
 autonomous
 semi-autonomous peoples and states existed in Ethiopia and
the Horn
 6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central,
Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and Gurage were

autonomous and semiautonomous political entities during this
period.
 Economically, they depended largely on agriculture.
 Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to
some extent in the long distance trade
 the Gurage land was an important market centre and political
entity. Important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel
were located in the Gurage land.
 The Gurage had their own political organization and their
leaders held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who combined
political and military authority.
 Cont.
 In the 2nd half of the 19th c, Qabena emerged as a strong political
entity & centre of Muslim revivalist movement to the northeast of
the Gibe River. These Muslims had connection with the Mahdist
Sudan & it led the spread of Islam in the region.
B. The Gibe States: towards the beginning of the 19th c, several
monarchical states (motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at
the expense of the Gadaa system.
 Many factors accounted for the transformation of the Gadaa
system.
 the war leaders (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the
power of the Gadaa government.
 The abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation
on long distance trade and utilized the opportunity to establish
hereditary leadership.
 Conti…
As a result the following five monarchical states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya:
 was the earliest of the Gibe states.
 It was founded through the incorporation of Enarya
 Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya
 The Kingdom reached the height of its power during Ibsa’s reign,
when he incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc.
 Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883).
ii. Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye
clan; began state formation &succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-
1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854).
iii. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded
by his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and
converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
 Conti..
iv. Jimma: Towards the late 18th c, Makahore emerged as an
influential female figure among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma.
 The local Abba Dula sought to take political power from her.
Among the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a
hereditary ruler against the Gadaa rule.
 He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the
domain. The process of state formation was completed by
Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed Jimma Kingdom and
left a consolidated state to his successors.
 The kingdom’s economy depend on agriculture, trade, iron mining
and smelting
v. Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed & the
process of state formation completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji
(r.1835-38). He made himself king.
 Cont.
• He succeeded by Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) after a short interlude by
Abba Basso.
 Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been
converted to Islam.
 C. The Leqa States
 several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo
of Wallagga. It include Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay
River, Leqa Naqamt, Leqa Qelam
 Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro
I. Leqa-Naqamte: founded by Bakare Godana in 1840
 reached its height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa
 He establish strong monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture.
 Conti.
 Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre Egzi'abiher) was known for
promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee planting and game
reserves/hunting.
 It’s rulers instituted a new administrative structure and judicial
hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abba
qoro (qoro system).
 It was kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration in its
reliance on land.
II. Leqa-Qellam:
 It was founded by Tullu
 became powerful under his son, Jote
 It centered at Gidami and controlling the areas around Sayyo-
Dambi Dollo.
 Conti..
D. Ilu:
 Chali Shono (Abba Bor) set up the well consolidated state of Ilu-
Abba Bor in the early 19th c.
 Each Oromo monarchical state had officials
 like Abba Gurmu (next person to the king),
 Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister),
 Abba Dango (immigration chief),
 Lammi (ambassador/roya lmessenger),
 Abba Qoro (district governor),
 Abba Ganda (village chief),
 Abba Busi (tax head),
 Abba Jiga (murder judge)
 Abba-Qawe (body-guard).
 Conti…
 Contrary to under monarchical systems farmers were forced to
pay crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano
and later guboo on each crop.
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms
 Emerged in the lower course of the Abbay in the 19th c.
 Factors for their emergence were:-
 Islamic influence from the Sudan
 Cross border trade
I. Assosa or Aqoldi
 Located south of Abay River
 became pre-eminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan
 Conti…
II. Bela/BeniShangul
 Located south of Abay River
 became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale
III. Khomosha
 Emerged in south of Abay
 reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud
IV. The sheikdom Guba
 Located north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
 These sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese
origin who considered themselves as ‘Watawit’.
 The term Watawit refers to Arabized Berta people who had entered
&settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in
the late 19th and early 20th c.
 Conti..
 Their economy were based on agriculture, gold mining and
frontier trade
 The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the
Egyptians and Mahdists who attempted to control the sheikdoms
at different times.
 6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes
 In the 19th c. trade attained its particular prominence b/c of the
revival of external trade in the Red Sea region
 Trade maintaining strong relations across peoples of different
areas and backgrounds
 During this period, two main trade lines linked various territories
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 These route were originated from Bonga,
1. Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa (in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa
Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifag
and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar.
 From Gondar one line passed through Chilga to Matamma
Qallabat (Gallabat) then to Sudan
 The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered
Massawa.
 Conti…
 At Basso this trade route move to Ancharro and Dawwe in Wollo
and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe’ita in Djibouti.
2. Bonga, Hirmata to Agabja Andode-Toli to Soddo in southwest
Shewa; Rogge near Yerer, Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern
Shewa and ran eastward to Harar.
 From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera,
 The main sources of exported items were the south western regions
 The major medium of exchange were salt bars (amole), iron bars,
wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi),
Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc.
 For internal trade, amole was the major important commodity and
source of wealth.
 It was mined in the Afar plains
 Then, it was transported to Adwa, Gondar, south and southwestern.
 Conti…
The other route took salt from eastern Tigray to south Wollo and
Shewa
 The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut in and
distributed to the highland
 It was supervised by the governor of Enderta with the title of
Balgada, who collected the tributes as tax judge, and competed
with the Bahre-Negash (the governor of the maritime province to
the north).
 MTT was a coin introduced from Austria to the Horn of African
region at the end of the 18th c
 At each market center, local peoples were active traders.
 However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant that
travelled from interior to the coast.
 (Jabarti):- northern Muslim merchants
 Conti..

 Afqala :- Southwest Muslim Oromo merchants

 Jallaba:- Sudan merchants
 The Argoba active merchants in the trade between Harar and
the northern Somali coast
 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
 State building remained an agenda of several powerful individuals
and groups that arose in the 19th c.
 The difference was the level of their strength & ambition and their
relations with foreign powers.
 States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia had relative
strength b/c
they were built up over time
They had foreign contacts and their strategic location
This process went through two distinct phases.
A. unifying different regions and peoples in north and north central
parts of Ethiopia
B. territorial expansion into the southern parts of the country
 A. The Process of Territorial Unification
 The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial
power
 the tradition of a once unified Ethiopian state was begun by Kasa
Hailu when he was a Shifta
 He ended the Zemene Mesafint
 He started his career by assisting his half-brother, Dejjazmach
Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present-day
eastern Sudan) in 1837.
 In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called
Dabarki (again in present Sudan) but he was defeated. B/c of
 the Egyptians’ superior military organization, discipline, and
better arms.
However, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of a
modern army
 Conti…
 Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major concern
to the Warra-Sheh (Yejju) ruling house
 As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage
arrangement.
 Hence, Kasa married Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he
was appointed the governor of Quara. However, Kasa felt that he
was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen &
hence, he resumed his shiftnet
 Kasa fought with d/t regional rulers at d/t time
 He defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on Nov.
27, 1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign)
on April 12, 1853;
 Conti…
 Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 Feb., 1855
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853
 Then he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at
Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of
Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.
 Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south.
 first to Wollo and then to Shewa.
 He wanted to create a strong central government by appointing
individuals (both hereditary and non-hereditary) who would be
totally accountable to him
 However, he faced resistance.
 Rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen,
Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray.
 Conti…
 Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crisis
following the imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other
Europeans. As a result, the British government sent an
expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the emperor.
In a battle that took place at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros
committed suicide on April 13, 1868.
 Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the
throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta,
Kasa Mircha of Tigray
Menilek of Shewa
 Conti…
A. Wagshum Gobeze
 He took state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-
Giorgis II (1868-71)
 the quest for state power put them in enmity i.e b/n Gobeze &Kasa
Merchia
 Finally, Gobeze was defeated by Kasa at Assam (near Adwa) in
July 1871
B. Kasa Mircha
 He became Emperor Yohannes IV in January (1872-1889)
 He introduce a decentralized system of administration
 Permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy
E.g. He recognize Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche
agreement and Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot
Gojjam and Kafa in 1881
 Conti..
The Council of Boru Meda (1878)
 presided by the Emperor
 Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC
 This was followed by a campaign to convert Muslims and adherents
of other religions into Orthodox Christianity.
 E.g. Mohammed Ali converted & named Ras Michael
Amede Liben converted & named Dajjach Hayle Mariam
 Others accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained
Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night".
 Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the
Sudan
 while others revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha)
Jafar that led to harsh measures by the Emperor
 Conti…
 Externally, he faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the
Mahdists
 He lost his life fighting the Mahdists at Metemma in 1889.
 Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his
successor, but he was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial
throne.
 As a result, the throne was assumed by Negus Menilek of Shewa
who became Emperor Menilek II (1889-1913)
 Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray by Menelik II
 B. Territorial Expansion
Menilek of Shewa.
He was the most successful in state building. because Menilek had
 access to modern firearms.
 The control of resource rich areas
 the determination of his generals
 It had three phases
I. Menelik as king of Shewa (1865-89)
Before the 1870s, he incorporated
 the Tulema
 eastern Mecha Oromo
 Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis
Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others worked
towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state.
 In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted
 Conti…
because of
 their religious affinity
 geographical proximity
 for fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo.
 However, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena,
which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, strongly resisted
Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888.
 Menilek's territorial expansion to western and southwestern regions
was concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions.
 Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam defeated Moti (King) Abishe Garba of
Horro at a place called Kokor. Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-
Haymanot since 1881) controlled the region until 1882, when he
was defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana
 Conti…
 After the Battle of Embabo,
 Leqa-Naqamte
 Leqa-Qellem &
 Jimma Abba Jifar submitted peacefully, who promised them to
recognize and maintain their autonomy.
 Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-Horda),
Ligdi Bakare (LeqaNaqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire), Mardasa
Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan (Nonno Rogge) formed a
coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by the Nadew brothers,
Dasta, Dilinesaw and Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba.
 Similarly, west of the Dhidhessa River, an alliance of Wachu
Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole Kabba and others fought
Menilek's local allies like Moroda and Amante Bakare at Sambo
Darro. Later, however, they were defeated.
 Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901.
 Conti…
 Abba Bosso of Gomma defeated by Ras Demisew Nesibu in early
1900.
 Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor after
fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila.
 Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi Oromo led by
notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo
and Roba Butta.
 Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's force at Dodota and
Qalata.
 However Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi
Oromo at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886.
 Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against the Itu in 1886 and
incorporated Chercher.
 Conti…
 Dejjach Mekonnen’s army defeated the forces of Emir Abdullahi
(r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern Oromo
at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887.
 then Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael appointment as
governor of the province.
II. Menelik After king of king (1889-96)
 The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also
contributed to Menilek's territorial expansion to parts of southern
Ethiopia.
 Menilek's army occupied
 Dawuro Konta in1889
 Kambata in 1890
 From the early 1890s to 1894, he's army controlled Bale, Sidama,
Gamo Gofa and Wolayta.
 Conti…
 In the campaign to Wolayta Emperor Menilek and many notables
such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe
Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-
Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma participated.
 Wolayta's Kawo (King) Tona defeated in 1894.
 This was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and
Konso into the imperial state
III. After the battle of Adwa
 Kafa, incorporated after Tato Gaki Sherocho, defeated by
Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis.
 Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in
1897/98.
 This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99.
 Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella
 Conti…
 Menelik signing a boundary agreements with the neighbouring
colonial powers after the victory of Adwa that continued until 1908.
 After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a
unitary state continued by abolishing regional autonomies
 Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was
defeated)
 Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole
was defeated in 1930)
 Gojjam in 1932
 Jimma in 1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-
Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).
 6.3. Modernization Attempts
 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt
western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
A. The Reform of Tewodros
 After the battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the
country “on an equal footing with European powers.”
 He introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and
Yeshi Aleqa.
 Established salaried national army
 tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre
Tabor)
35 cannons were produced
 the biggest one was known as “Sebastopol.“
 He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.
 Conti…
 He focused on the centralization of power and securing financial
base.
 introduced a policy of “general pacification”
 He tried to separate church and the monarchy.
 He tried to reduce the amount of land held by the church
 Reduced the number of priests and deacons
 he began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road
network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela.
 attempted to put an end to the slave trade
 land reform and banning of polygamy
 The use of Amharic writing
 A traditional library was established at Maqdala,
 he tried to solve the doctrinal controversy within the EOC.
 Conti…
 However, his reforms were not fully materialized owing to internal
oppositions and external challenges.
B. The Reform of Yohannis IV
 he was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul
 He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian
construction worker
 he sent some individuals abroad for modern education.
 introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox
 His reign also witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis
C. The Reform of Menelik II
 the establishment of a postal service and telecommunications/ the
telephone-telegraph system,
 the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa,
 Conti…
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia)
 the introduction of silver coin
 Established a ministerial system/ministers in 1907
 he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice),
 Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court)
 Bejirond MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance)
 Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War)
 Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce
and Foreign Relations)
 Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen)
 The opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel) &
 A modern school (Menilek II School in 1908)
 The foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906
 Conti…
 Russian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.
D. The Reform of Lij Iyasu (1913-1916)
 the banning of the Quragna system
 He tried to amend Leba Shay
 He introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle.
 He introduced a policy of auditing of government accounts
 he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration
structure
 the introduction of a flourmill that functioned mechanically
and private industrial enterprises like
 sawmill,
 a grinding-mill,
 a tannery,
 a soap-factory, etc.
 Conti…
D. The Reform of Emperor Haile-Selassie I
 During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-
1930), there were several modernization attempts in broader scope.
Even if there had different views towards western culture.
 The Emperor made various reforms
 the centralization of the government
 promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931 (despite its
drawbacks),
 establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of
Belgian military mission
 the opening of Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the
help of a Swedish military mission in 1934
 6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure
 To control agricultural land and resourceful areas made a great
competition between different rulers in the 19th &20th C.
 Some powerful groups control the land
 This altered people's relation to land, making some privileged and
others unprivileged.
 Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the warriors
and their families
 The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation
 those states that peacefully and forceful submitted pay different
tribute to the state.
 The former relatively enjoyed self-administration but were
subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax).
 Conti…
 The latter were placed under the naftegna-gabbar/gabbar-naftegna
system whereby local peoples were made to pay tribute to the
former.
 Literally, naftegna means a person with a gun.
 In this context, naftegna refers to soldiers of different social
backgrounds who were stationed in the southern territories under
the imperial banner
 This led to the creation of classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar
and tenants.
 The landholders were largely government agents
 while the local population was reduced in time into gabbar and
later tenants.
 The beginning of the qalad system (land measurement) in the 1890s
changed agricultural practices & land tenure system
 Conti…
 Land measurement affected
 access to agricultural resources
 changes to customary rules of access to land.
 certain social classes gained access to land & others became tenant
 Later, land was categorized into
 lam (cultivated),
lam-taf (partly cultivated)
taf (uncultivated) to facilitate taxation
6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade
 It had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Slaves used for domestic purpose
for agricultural works,
 in the army
 as sources of revenue
 Conti…
 some were sold to Egypt, the Middle East and the Ottoman Empire
through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports.
 For instance, in 1837 slave raiders captured Bilile (later named
Mahbuba) from Guma and sold her to a German prince, Herman
Pickler Muskau at Cairo & made her his mistress.
 Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu.
Later he was freed & translated the Bible into Afan Oromo
 Aster Gano from Limmu. In 1886, she was emancipated and
assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.
 During the 19th c, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn
 Slaves were acquired through
Kidnapping, raiding
war captivity, debt bondage
purchase from open markets
 Conti…
 Major sources of slaves were the southern & south-western part
 Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop
the slave trade although not slavery itself.
 In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out
in a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves.
 It followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition of
Slavery in 1932.
 Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of Hakim
Warqineh Eshete.
 After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942
abolishing any forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery
itself
 The impact of slavery was obviously social and economic
deterioration of the source areas, families and suffering of the
slaves themselves.
 6.4.3. Manufacturing
 there were age-old indigenous ways of producing/making tools in
the region.
 They used simple procedures and techniques and produced limited
quantity of items. Like furniture, dresses and food including local
drinks, by using traditional techniques involving manual labor.
 Contact with the industrialized world from the mid 19th c. was led
to the introduction of manufacturing technologies.
 Although evidences do not trace the exact period of the beginning
of modern industry in Ethiopia
 The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in
the post-Adwa period was led to the introduction of modern
manufacturing
 Among modern manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill
(1896) & Massawa Salt Processing(1904) were set up
 Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa,
Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa
6.4.4. Urbanization
 The period from the early 19th c. to 194l marked the evolution of
towns
 There were many factors:-
 the expansion of both local and long distance trade
 the beginning of railway
 The former politico-religious centers in several parts of the region
evolved into towns
 Military garrison eventually grew into towns. like Gobba, Ticho,
Gore, Arjo, etc
 During the Italian rule (1936-41), several towns grew in size &
other new towns were established.
 6.5. External Relations
6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
 from the early 1800s, regional rulers made independent foreign
contacts and signed treaties.
 Travellers served as agents.
 They came to the region by the motives
Adventure
scientific research.
Some of them, however, came with covert mission of
colonialism.
 They were also sometimes involved in fostering friendship and
trade relation on behalf of their governments
E.g. Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras Wolde Selassie of
Tigray on 28 August 1805.
 In 1809 he concluded an agreement with the Ras.
 Conti…
 Christian Kugler also arrived in the 1830s.
 Eduard Ruppell (a scholar) arrived in 1846;
 Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited
Shewa.
 W. Harris (in 1841) & French Rochet d’Hericourt (in 1843) made
an agreement with Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa
 John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s (He signed treaty with
Ras Ali in 1849)
 the Italian Geographic Society in 1869
 Some regional lords had contacts with religious centers in the
Middle East, particularly with Jerusalem
E.g. Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of
England to request support against the Egyptians threat at Deir Al-
Sultan in Jerusalem
 Conti…
 External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed more
elaborate to obtaining western technology and military support
 Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations with
Europeans. He’s concern were:-
 the restoration of the lost territories
 the delimitation of boundaries
 the defense of the sovereignty of the state
Hewett /Adwa Treaty
signed b/n Yohannis IV & the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on
behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa.
The objective of the Treaty
 The safely evacuation of Egyptian troops through Ethiopia who
were trapped by the Mahdists troops along the Ethio-Sudanese
border.
 Conti…
 Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia
 Ethiopia use freely Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms.
 However, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy
in Feb.1885
 The Mahdists' determination to avenge Yohannes
 In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats,
Emperor Menilek II was more successful
 The Wuchale Treaty
 It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli
 signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, b/n Emperor Menilek II of
Ethiopia & Antonelli on behalf of Italy.
 It has twenty articles & was written both in Amharic and Italian
languages
 an additional convention was added which introduced the phrase
“effective occupation” when Ras Mokonnon visited Italy
 Conti…
 The Italian version of Article XVII, announced that all foreign
powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy.
 European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia.
 In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea
as its colony.
 Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through a combination of
tricky treaties
persuasion
subversive methods, however, all were failed.
 Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893
 Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat
Aragawi & Dajjach Hagos Tafari collaborating with Emperor
Menilek.
 Conti…
 Finally this led to the Battle of Adwa, where the Ethiopians won a
decisive victory
 After the victory of Adwa, Menilek made boundary agreements
with the then neighboring colonial powers
 French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897
 With British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897
 with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902
 with the Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900
 with British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907
 Italian-Somaliland in 1908.
 These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian boundary.
 International politics of the twentieth century also shaped
Ethiopia’s foreign relations.
 Conti…
 E.g. Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers
 He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid
Mohammed Abdille Hassan
 Ethiopia’s admission to the League of Nations in 1923.
 6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign
Aggressors and Patriotism
 The Battle of Dabarki (1848):
 fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces
 The Battle of Maqdela (1868):
 Fought b/n Tewodros II & Britain
 In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance
through Consul Cameron.
 Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any
response.
 Then, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron & other Europeans.
 Queen Victoria sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did
not satisfy Tewodros.
 Finally, British parliament decided to take military action.
 British troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa
 Conti…
 This force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa
of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes).
 On April 10, 1868, Tewodros’ soldiers including his general
Gebriye were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge.
 On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela.
 This was followed by the burning of his fortress & looting of
manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts including his crown by
the British troops.
 The Battles of Gundet and Gura
 Fought B/n Yohannis IV of Ethiopia and Egypt
 The Egyptians had a great ambition to control the source of Nile
 in 1875, Egypt invade Ethiopia in three directions
 Werner Munzinger (a Swiss man) was the over all architect of the
Invasions
 Conti…
A. Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front & occupied Harar
Emirate b/n 1875 & 1885.
B. Werner Munzinger led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with
cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura.
 But, Munzinger & his troops were all killed by the Afars at the
Battle of Odduma.
C. Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed
troops through Massawa.
 However, Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula defeated the
Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 Nov. 1875)
 Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their army to
invade Ethiopia.
 However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of
Gura (7–9 March, 1876)
 Conti…
 The Battle of Dogali
 Fought b/n Ras Alula Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general
& Italy.
 Italy had interest in the Horn of Africa after an Italian private
shipping company (Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the
local chiefs in 1869.
 In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to the Italian
government.
 By use of Asseb & massawa (after 1885) Italy began to penetrate
into northern Ethiopia.
 Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in
the then Mereb Milash region.
 However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by
Ras Alula Engida
 Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with
Menilek in Oct. 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes.
 Conti…
 The Battle of Metemma
 Fought B/n Yohannis IV of Ethiopia and The Mahdist Sudan
 Before this battle, Ras Alula defeated Uthman Digna at Kufit in
Sep. 1885.
 The Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s
troops at Sar- Wuha in Dembia in1887
 After Sar-Wuha the Mahdists advance up to Gondar
 They destroyed churches and monasteries, the killing of the clergy
and the laity
 At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-
Haimanot conspired against the emperor
 As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called a
triangular tension, namely
the Italians in the north
 Conti…
The Mahdists in the west and northwest
his two vassals in the center.
 the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga) by
Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.
 Finally, Emperor Yohannes made a national call
 Hence, on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma
where he died fighting the Mahdists.
 Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and
acrimonies among rulers would result in a huge cost to the country
and its peoples.
 Among others, Maqdela & Metemma are very good testimonies
 Conti…
 The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
 Fought between Ethiopia and Italian in 1896
 When the Italians crossed the Mereb River, arrived at Adigrat, and
proceeded to Emba-Alage.
 Following Emperor Menilek's proclamation for general
mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country
gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo).
 People marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and
ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression.
 The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians
at Emba-Alage
 In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the
Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle.
 Conti…
 At Mekelle, the Italians were brought under seige denying them of
access to a water.
It was called the “siege of Mekelle”
designed by Empress Taytu.
 After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free
and joined their compatriots at Adwa
 A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Menilek, Empress Taiytu &
war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras
Mangasha & Negus T/Haymanot & others encountered the Italians.
 On March 9, 1896, the Ethiopians defeated Italy at Adwa
 Consequences of the battle of Adwa
 It doomed Italian colonial ambition over Ethiopia.
 about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded & 3,000
were captured.
 Conti…
 On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have
been killed.
 Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of
Addis Ababa, signed on Oct. 26, 1896.
 A number of powers recognized the independence of Ethiopia
 Many countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa.
 The victory assured independence and national pride.
 It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and
the black race in general.
 It initiated entire Africans fighting against colonialism.
E.g. The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his
followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with the success of
Ethiopians. He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers”
and Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements.
 6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the
Patriotic Resistance
Background
 After the battle of Adwa, the Italians suspended their expansionist
colonial policy in Northeast Africa
 they were just waiting for the right time to fulfil their ambitions in
any possible way
 The Fascists were determined to restore the power and glory of
ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful scar at Adwa.
 To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed
two policies
A. ‘Subversion’
 It aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via sowing
dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo.
 It run by Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930)
 Conti…
B. ‘Rapprochement’
 This policy led by the Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by
Guiliano Cora
 It was pseudo reconciliation tactic
E.g. In1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace & Friendship was signed
 the Italians had also consulates in provincial towns such as Dessie,
Adwa, Debre Markos and Gondar.
 They propagating dissatisfaction and gathering vital military
and political intelligence.
 Italy get indirect diplomatic support from Britain and France
 After necessary preparations the Italian only searching for a pretext
to invaded Ethiopia
 Italy used the Walwal incident (5 December 1934)
 lack of demarcation on the ground & effective administrative Italy
control in the frontier regions.
 They refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian
soldiers who were stationed nearby
 Conti…
 Ethiopians lost three times as high as the Italians
 Italy demanded that Ethiopia should apologize & pay reparation
for Italy
 the League of Nation failed to give just solution
B. The 1935 Invasion and After
 Finally, Italy invaded Ethiopia in two direction
I. The northern (from Eritrea)
 The war was started in the northern Front on October 3, 1935
 It had three direction & controlled Adigrat, Adwa & Mekelle.
 In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter offensive force marched
north through three fronts.
1. Western:- led by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie
2. Central:- led by Ras Seyum Mengesha & Ras Kasa Hailu. But
defeated at Temben
 Conti…
3. Eastern:- led by Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister).
 He was lost his life at Amba Radom
 Ras Kasa Hailu was the overall commander of northern front
 At Maychew on 31 March 1936, the Ethiopian army (especially
members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the
Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians but they were
defeated
II. The South Front
 Were commanded by
Ras Desta Damtew (in the south)
Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast)
 The Ethiopians were defeated at Qorahe (Nov. 1935) & Genale
Dorya (12-14 Jan. 1936)
 The Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined
the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of Ras Desta’s troops
 Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured
and executed in early 1937
 Conti…
 The Italians lost many soldiers in the South than the North
 On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country
 Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis
Ababa was beset by
 burning of buildings
 looting and random shooting
 They targeted on the the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace
 Then the Italian forces controlled Addis Ababa on 5 May 1936
 Factors for the defeat of Ethiopia by Italy
 Italian military superiority
 Modern army of Italy vs poorly organized Ethiopia
 Lack of preparation & coordination on Ethiopian side
 Italian used poison gas & airplane etc.
 Conti…
Fascist Rule
 They merged Ethiopia with:-
Eritrea &
Somali land as one united colony
 In 1936, Italian declared the establishment of Italian East
Africa(IEA/ AOI)
 IEA/AOI has 6 administrative division. This includes
 Eritrea & Tigray at Asmera
 Amhar & Northern Shewa at Gondar
 Shewa from Addis Ababa
 Oromia & Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern
provinces) at Jimma
 Harar & Dire Dawa from Harar
 Ogaden & Somali from Moqadisho
 Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire
Italian East Africa.
 Conti…
 The 1st IEA/AOI governor (viceroy) was
 Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till
February 1937), and finally Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of
Aosta)
 Generally, Italian rule characterized by
 a top-heavy bureaucracy
 corruption
 They weakened & destroyed non-Italian foreign firms
 They were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry
 The Italian administrative control was largely confined to urban
areas due to the strong patriotic resistance.
 Conti…
 Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the
following brief points:
 Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as
Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara,
Mogadishu and others.
 Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
 Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European
habits-including eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian
words);
 The consolidation of cash economy;
 Road construction and development of motor transport;
 The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious
tensions etc.
 C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement
 Italian occupation & rule faced nation-wide patriotic resistance
 It has two stages
 The 1st lasted up to1937
 It was the continuation of the war itself
 among the notable commanders of this phase were
Ras Desta Damtew,
Dejjach Beyene Merid
Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.
 The patriots attempt to liberate A. Ababa was planned to attack the
Italian in d/t directions at the same time
 This plan was organized by:-
 The two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen & Aberra)
 Dejjach Balcha Safo
 Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay
 Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu
 However, it was failed b/c of lack effective communication &
transportation
 Conti…
 Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit behind the
patriots was executed and became a martyr of the resistance
 The 2nd phase from 1937-1941
 On 19February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha
Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani
 wounding him seriously and killing some others
 This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts;
 who chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants,
and disembowelled thousands in Addis Ababa.
 about 30,000 Ethiopians were killed in three days’ campaign.
 It were targeted on educated
 members of the BlackLion Organization &
 The EOC E.g. on 21 May 1937, in the monastery of Debre
Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed.
 Conti…
 This phase characterised by guerrilla warfare
 Some of the well-known women, who led their own army in the
guerrilla wars were:-
 Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan,
 Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha
and the wife of Dejazmach Abera Kasa),
 Although the patriotic resistance lacked coordination
 There was no unified command structure
 In most provinces of the country, similar acts of resistance were
observed
 Eritreans too were joining the resistance in big numbers.
 Some of the well-known patriots were:-
 Dejjazmach Umar Samatar,
 Conti…
 Colonel Abdisa Aga
 Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke
 Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha
 Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay
 Woizero Shewareged Gedle
 Zeray Dires
 Colonel Jagama Kello
 Woizero Sinidu Gebru
 RasAmoraw Wubneh
 Lij Haile Mariam Mamo
 Ras Abebe Aregay
 Dejjazmach Habte Mariam
 Colonel Belay Haile-ab
 Conti…
 Major Matias Gemeda
 Captain Yosef Nesibu
 Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat,
 Dejjach Geresu Duki
 Bekele Woya etc.
 The problem of the Patriots was
 It was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the
Banda
 Personal conflict among the patriots
 They had no strong unifying political organization etc.
 Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World
War II
 when Italy declared war on France & Britain on 10 June 1940, the
British government decided to drive out Italians from East Africa.
 Conti…
 On July 12, 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally.
 The British launched a three-pronged attack on the Italians.
 In the north, General William Platt attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
 In January 1941, the two British generals Colonel Sandford and
Major Wingate led the joint troops called the Gedeon force with
Emperor H/ Selassie from Sudan
 General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya.
 Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941,
exactly five years after Italian entry to the capital.
 Conti…

Thank You