This module introduces you the discussion on Spanish, American colonial rule and Japanese occupation
and their impact on the country’s democracy, examines the presidency on the Third Republic and
President Marcos’ dictatorial rule in the Philippines and focuses on the achievement of the
administration of the Fifth Republic. At the end of the module, you will be able to appreciate and value
the efforts done by Filipinos to achieve independence from colonial rulers and reflect in your daily life
the essence of EDSA revolution in connection to the present situation of Philippine politics and
governance.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
Lesson 1 – The Spanish to Japanese Colonial Period
Lesson 2 – The Third to Fifth Republic of the Philippines
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. analyze the evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance.
TRUE OR FALSE. The following are statements about the evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance.
On your answer sheet, write TRUE if the sentence is correct, write FALSE otherwise.
1. Biak-na-Bato Republic was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo on November 1, 1897.
2. It was the Americans who introduced democracy in the Philippines.
3. Manuel L. Quezon won as the President of the Philippine Commonwealth.
4. The two types of local government units created by the Spaniards were the alcadia and the
corregimiento.
5. Fidel Ramos served the longest time as President of the Philippines
6. Joseph Estrada gained support in the election for his promise to begin a pro-poor administration.
7. People Power Revolution II ended Marcos’ dictatorial rule.
8. Elections in the Philippines was introduced by the Spaniards.
9. The Katipunan was a secret society that led the revolution on August 26, 1896.
10. The First Philippine Republic also known as Malolos Republic was the first republic in Asia.
11. The central government of the Katipunan, headed by Andres Bonifacio was vested in a Supreme
Council.
12. There were three government established during the American colonial period.
13. Spain established a military government in the Philippines that was composed of a national
government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities.
14. The Magsaysay administration campaigned for the citizens’ support in patronizing Filipino products
and services, and implemented import and currency controls favorable for Filipino industries.
15. The world’s attention was on the Philippines after it successfully overthrown almost a decade of
authoritarian rule through a peaceful demonstration known as the EDSA People’s Power Revolution.
You learned in previous the basic concepts of states and nation, essential elements of the state, forms of
globalization and the relationship among nations and states in the context of globalization. Globalization
is a continuous action by which strong relationship in different parts of the world are increased. The
phenomenon by which people around the world are interconnected through digital innovation, promote
fast improvement of many technologies, global economic growth, led to an intense expansion in trade
and industry, intensified political power and cultural development.
Pre-Spanish Government
As stated by Buenaflor (2016), the Philippines was occupied by people from nearby islands and form
themselves into barangay. He mentions that the barangay was the local government unit headed by a
Rajah or Datu. Maginoos who act as the Council of Elders assisted the Datu in implementing rules pass
judgment and penalties to maintain peace and order.
The Spanish Government until the Japanese Military Administration
The Spanish Government
According to Agoncillo (2012), Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that
was composed of a national government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities,
towns and municipalities. He further mentions that the governor general, as the King's representative
and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines exercised certain legislative powers: he issued
proclamations to facilitate the implementation of laws.
On the setting of local government, Agoncillo (2012) states that the Spaniards created local government
units to facilitate the country’s administration. The two types of local government units were the alcadia
and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully
controlled by the Spaniards. According to Garcia (2015), the corregimiento, headed by the corregidor,
governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanish control). The alcalde mayores
represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their respective provinces. Each province was
divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadorcillos, whose main concerns were efficient
governance and tax collection. (Agoncillo 2012)
The Katipunan Government
Agoncillo (2012) narrates that the Katipunan was a secret society that led the revolution on August 26,
1896. It was organized by Andres Bonifacio with a structure that has a central government vested in a
Supreme Council. Referring to the other aspects of Katipunan structure, Garcia (2015) mentions that in
each province there was Provincial Council; in each town a Popular Council; and the Judicial Power was
exercised by a Judicial Council. The Katipunan was replaced by another government whose officials
headed by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President were elected in Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897.
(Agoncillo 2012)
Biak-na-Bato Republic
On November 1, 1897, a republic was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now San
Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan) through the Biak-na-Bato Constitution. (Garcia 2015) Biak-na-Bato Republic
declared that the aim of the revolution was the “separation of the Philippines from the Spanish
monarchy and their formation into an independent state”. The Biak-na-Bato Republic lasted up to
December 15, 1897 with conclusion of the “Pact of Biak-na-Bato”-a peace agreement between the
Spanish Government and the revolutionary forces. (Agoncillo 2012) Emilio Aguinaldo’s Dictatorial
Government The “Pact of Biak-na-Bato” failed and Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and
resumed the fighting against the Spaniards. With military victories under his leadership, according to
Agoncillo (2012), Aguinaldo decided that it was time to establish a Filipino government. He formed the
Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. The most important achievements of
Dictatorial Government were the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June
12, 1898 and the reorganizations of local governments.
First Philippine Republic
A Congress was convened in January 1899 in Barasoain Church and through the Malolos Constitution,
inaugurated the First Philippine Republic- the first Asian democracy to be established during the
Philippine Revolution that ended the more than 333 years of Spanish colonial rule in the Islands.
(Agoncillo 2012)
The American Colonial Period
Three kinds of government were created during the American Occupational Period: (1) military
government; (2) civil government; and (3) commonwealth government.
further explains the following:
American Military Government the American military rule in the Philippines began on April 4,1898.
under this setting, the President of the United States had the power to establish a military government in
the Philippines, as Commander- in-Chief of all Armed Forces of the United States. His authority was
delegated to the military governor who exercised all powers of the government as long as the war lasted.
First was Wesley Merritt, the second was General Elwell Otis and the third and last was Major General
Arthur MacArthur.
Civil Government
Pursuant to the so-called Spooner Amendment (on the Army appropriation act passed in the US
Congress on March 3, 1901) which ended the military regime in the Philippines, the Civil Government
was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901. The position of the Civil Governor was created on October 29,
1901 and exercised Legislative powers. He remained as President of Philippine Commission, the sole law-
making body of the government from 1901 to 1907.
From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the Legislative branch with
the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house. After the passage of the Spooner Law in 1916, these
two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature. The Philippines was represented in the United States
by two Resident Commissioners who were elected the Philippine Legislature.
The Commonwealth Government
The next chapter on the political development of the country was the establishment of the
Commonwealth government of the Philippines that in pursuant to an act of United States Congress on
March 24, 1934, commonly known was the Tydings Mc Duffie Law, the law provided for a transition
period of ten years during which the Philippine Commonwealth would operate and at the expiration of
the said period on July 4, 1946, the independence of the Philippines would be proclaimed and
established. The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15,
1935, following the first national election held on September 12, 1935 under the 1935 Constitution.
Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeńa, won as President and Vice President respectively.
The Japanese Military Administration
It was established in Manila on January 3,1942, one day after its occupation by the Japanese forces.
Under a proclamation issued by the Japanese High Command, the sovereignty of the United States over
the Philippines was declared terminated. A civil government known as the Philippine Executive
Commission composed of Filipinos was organized by the Japanese with Jorge B. Vargas as chairman of
the said commission. The Commission exercised both the executive and legislative powers, clarifies that
the laws enacted were, however, subject to the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese
Forces. The Judiciary continued in the same form as it was under the Commonwealth although it
functioned without the independence which it had traditionally enjoyed. In this government, Jose P.
Laurel became the President of the second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943.
You learned in Lesson 1 the evolution of Philippine government and governance from Pre-Spanish to
Japanese Colonial rule. In this lesson, your journey about the history of government and politics in the
Philippines will continue. The Philippines has more experience with democratic institutions compared
with its Asian neighbors. They further stated that Filipinos had witnessed both the promise of democracy
and the challenges of making democratic structures work for the benefit of all members of society.
The Third Republic
The Roxas Administration (May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948)
President Manuel Roxas, became the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. In an
effort to solve the massive socio economic problems of the period, President Roxas reorganized the
government, and proposed a wide-sweeping legislative program. His administration was marred by graft
and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-
wing Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led
to widespread peasant disaffection.
The Quirino Administration (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)
President Elpidio Quirino’s goal as chief executive, as stated in his first State of the Nation Address,
revolved around strengthening the people’s confidence in the government and the restoration of peace.
In order to achieve these, the Chief Executive travelled around the country to inspect first-hand the
condition of the nation. President Quirino’s six years’ administration were marked by notable post-war
reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social
problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved; Quirino’s administration was
tainted by widespread graft and corruption.
The Magsaysay Administration (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)
To help the rural masses was the focal point of the populist administration of President Ramon
Magsaysay. In his first Executive Order, he established the Presidential Complaint and Action
Commission, which investigated various citizen complaints and recommended remedial actions through
different government agencies. The Commission served to boost the nation’s confidence with its
government; it was seen as a fulfilment of President Magsaysay’s promise, to become a President for the
people. The principles of the Magsaysay administration were codified in the Magsaysay Credo, and
became the theme of leadership and public service.
The Garcia Administration (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)
Carlos P. Garcia’s administration promoted the “Filipino First” policy, whose focal point was to regain
economic independence; a national effort by Filipinos to “obtain major and dominant participation in
their economy.”] The administration campaigned for the citizens’ support in patronizing Filipino products
and services, and implemented import and currency controls favorable for Filipino industries. In
connection with the government’s goal of self-sufficiency was the “Austerity Program,” which President
Garcia described in his first State of the Nation Address as “more work, more thrift, more productive
investment, and more efficiency” that aimed to mobilize national savings. The Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act, through Republic Act No. 301, aimed to prevent corruption, and promote honesty and
public trust.
The Macapagal Administration (December 30, 1961- December 30, 1965)
President Diosdado Macapagal, during his inaugural address on December 30, 1961, emphasized the
responsibilities and goals to be attained in the “new era” that was the Macapagal administration. He
reiterated his resolve to eradicate corruption, and assured the public that honesty would prevail in his
presidency. President Macapagal, too, aimed at self-sufficiency and the promotion of every citizen’s
welfare, through the partnership of the government and private sector, and to alleviate poverty by
providing solutions for unemployment. In the field of foreign relations, the Philippines became a
founding member of Maphilindo, through the Manila Accord of 1963. The regional organization of Malay
states strove for “Asian solutions by Asian nations for Asian problems,” and aimed to solve national and
regional problems through regional diplomacy.
The Marcos Administration - Fourth Republic (December 30,1965 – February 25, 1986)
The last president of the Third Republic of the Philippines was President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Prior to
the events of Martial Law, the first term of the Marcos administration, as emphasized in his inaugural
address on December 30, 1965, focused on “the revival of the greatness of the nation.” President
Marcos, was the first president to be re-elected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by violence
and allegations that Marcos used the treasury to fund his campaign. However, significant protests, such
as the First Quarter Storm, the communist and Moro insurgencies, and civil unrest, heightened. This
made Marcos in 1972 declare martial law and suspend the constitution. A new constitution calling for a
semi-presidential government was approved in 1973, but Marcos still ruled by decree until 1978, when
the Interim Batasang Pambansa was elected. However, opposition groups, whose leaders mostly had
already left in exile, boycotted the election, and Marcos still allowed martial law to continue. Marcos did
end martial law in 1981, but opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which
Marcos easily won. Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was slain upon his return to the country in
1983. By this time, the government was marred by alleged rampant corruption and allegations of human
rights violations. The opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election and won several seats,
but not enough to topple Marcos' KBL. To counter growing opposition, Marcos called a snap election in
1986, the opposition nominated Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate. Marcos was declared the
winner, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was arranged. The
People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president. Aquino ruled by
decree in 1987 when a new constitution restoring the presidential system was approved. In the ensuing
legislative election, the pro-Aquino parties won most of the seats in Congress.
Fifth Republic (1986–Present Time)
The Philippine Presidents from 1986 to present: President Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino-the 11th president
of the Philippines and the first woman to become president of the country. The political landscape of the
country at that time did not look any better. To resolve this, Aquino commissioned a referendum that
would be the framework for the new government. Released in February 1987, the new charter easily
won the approval of the public. Cory Aquino can be praised for a notable political reform made during
her tenure that aimed to decentralize political power in the government - the 1991 Local Government
Code.
Fidel V. Ramos took office in 1992 and immediately worked on the country’s recovery and initiated the
Social Reform Agenda or SRA that was oriented towards alleviating poverty. He also led the
implementation of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) law which resulted into improved public infrastructure
and deregulated several industries that liberalized the economy. Under his term, the country also had
improvements in its relations to secessionist Moro Islamic Liberation Front or MILF. He was the first
Asian recipient of UNESCO Peace Award this effort. He also came to be known as the ‘Centennial’
President for his successful supervision of the 100th anniversary of the country’s independence from the
Spanish rule celebrated in June 12, 1998.
Joseph Ejercito Estrada became the 13th president in 1998 after Ramos finished his term. Estrada was
the previous mayor in the municipality of San Juan, Metro Manila and vice president of Ramos. He
gained support in the election for his promise to begin a pro-poor administration that his predecessors
failed to promote in their respective platforms and won with a wide margin. This support spiraled down
as his administration was accused with corruption. Critics branded him of failing to live up to his
promises due to the resurfacing of cronyism in the government.
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo became the president after Estrada was ousted thru People Power 2 uprising.
In the 2004 Philippine National Elections, Arroyo run and won the presidential race - she was seated into
office for the second time. Because of this, she became the second longest sitting president in the
country. As of July 20, 2020, according to the webpage of 5th Philippine Republic- Philippine History
Arroyo pushed for a “Stronger Republic” geared toward vigorous economic reforms under her
administration. However, her administration was bombarded with several controversies and
impeachment attempts in the last five years. Discontentment lead to frequent protesters expressing
their disappointment and had their rallies at the streets.
Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, a.k.a Noynoy and PNoy, was proclaimed as the 15th president of
the republic on June 30, 2010. The same website added that Aquino's 6-year term is remembered for
both positive and negative events: he has been criticized for his government's slow response to help the
victims of Super Typhoon Yolanda, the Mamasapano massacre and other crisis. In spite of these negative
impressions, Aquino left the presidency with a stable democracy and a higher credit rating. Fighting
corruption was a major objective in his administration to realize his election campaign slogan “Daang
Matuwid” or “Straight Path”.
Republic-Philippine History, Rodrigo "Digong" Roa Duterte (a.k.a. Rody) takes oath as the 16th president
of the Philippines at Malacanang Palace in Manila at 12 noon, June 30, 2016. Duterte is a lawyer and
politician; he is the former mayor and former 1st district congressman of Davao City in Mindanao -an
island in the southern Philippines where Muslim insurgents are based. He is the first president to come
from Mindanao. Duterte is clamoring for a change in the constitution from a presidential to a federal
form of government. Duterte won the presidential race as an outspoken, strong-willed crime fighter. He
is however criticized for his alleged support of vigilante groups involved in extra-judicial killings to fight
crime.
1. True. The Biak-na-Bato Republic was indeed established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo on November
1, 1897. This republic had its own constitution and aimed for the separation of the Philippines
from Spanish rule.
2. True. While pre-colonial forms of governance existed, the Americans introduced a democratic
system influenced by U.S. institutions and principles.
3. True. Manuel L. Quezon won as the President of the Philippine Commonwealth. He and Sergio
Osmeña became president and vice-president, respectively.
4. True. The Spaniards created local government units, including the alcadia and the corregimiento.
The alcadia was led by the alcalde mayor, governing subjugated provinces, while the
corregimiento, headed by a corregidor, governed areas not entirely under Spanish control.
5. False. Ferdinand Marcos served the longest time as President of the Philippines, from 1965 to
1986.
6. True. Joseph Estrada's promise to begin a pro-poor administration gained him support in the
election.
7. False. People Power Revolution I (EDSA Revolution I) ended Marcos’ dictatorial rule. People
Power Revolution II resulted in the resignation of Joseph Estrada.
8. False. Elections in the Philippines were not introduced by the Spaniards. The Americans
introduced elections in the Philippines.
9. True. The Katipunan was a secret society that led the revolution on August 26, 1896. It was
organized by Andres Bonifacio.
10. True. The First Philippine Republic, also known as the Malolos Republic, was the first republic in
Asia. It was established on January 23, 1899, under the Malolos Constitution.
11. True. The central government of the Katipunan, headed by Andres Bonifacio, was vested in a
Supreme Council.
12. False. There were two governments established during the American colonial period: the Insular
Government and the Commonwealth Government.
13. True. Spain established a military government in the Philippines that was composed of a national
government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns, and
municipalities.
14. False. It was the Quirino administration that campaigned for the citizens’ support in patronizing
Filipino products and services and implemented import and currency controls favorable for
Filipino industries.
15. True. The world’s attention was on the Philippines after it successfully overthrew almost a
decade of authoritarian rule through a peaceful demonstration known as the EDSA People’s
Power Revolution
