44 PRINCIPLES

'ablative', 'illative', 'optative', they have to be translated in accordance with the

various relevant contextual factors (nature of readership, importance of item in SL,
the SL and TL text, likely recurrences in TL etc.) ranging from detailed explana-
tions, example and translations down to a culturally-neutral third term.
Note also that SL expressions signalling metalingual words, e.g. 'strictly CHAPTER 5
speaking', 'in the true (or full) sense of the word', 'literally', 'so called', 'so to
speak', 'by definition', 'sometimes known as', 'as another generation put it', 'can Translation Methods
also mean', have to be treated cautiously, as the word following them in the SL
would not usually have precisely the same sense if translated one-to-one in the TL.
Thus, to get both senses of 'For the last four years, I literally coined money', into
French and German: Ces quatre demises annees, j'aifrappe des pieces d'argent etj'ai
fait des affaires d'or; In den letzten vierjahren habe ich Miinzen geprdgt und auch viel
INTRODUCTION
Geldgescheffelt. (Ponderous translations.)
I have adopted and adapted the Biihler-Jakobson functions of language
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or
operationally as the most convenient way of looking at a text for translation. It is freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. Up to the
also useful to divide texts by topic into three broad categories: (a) literary; (b) beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favoured some kind of 'free'
institutional; and (c) scientific - the latter including all fields of science and translation: the spirit, not the letter; the sense not the words; the message rather
technology but tending to merge with institutional texts in the area of the social than the form; the matter not the manner. This was the often revolutionary slogan
sciences. Literary texts are distinguished from the rest in being more important in of writers who wanted the truth to be read and understood - Tyndale and Dolet
their mental and imaginative connotations than their factual denotations.
were burned at the stake, Wvcliff s works were banned. Then at the turn of the
nineteenth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the
linguistic barriers were insuperable and that language was entirely the product of
culture, the view that translation was impossible gained some currency, and with it
that, if attempted at all, it must be as literal as possible. This view culminated in the
statements of the extreme 'literalists' Walter Benjamin and Vladimir Nabokov.
The argument was theoretical: the purpose of the translation, the nature of
the readership, the type of text, was not discussed. Too often, writer, translator
and reader were implicitly identified with each other. Now the context has
changed, but the basic problem remains.
I put it in the form of a flattened V diagram:
SL emphasis TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation Adaptation
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

THE METHODS

Word-for-word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately
below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated

45
46 PRINCIPLES TRANSLATION METHODS 47

singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are trans- so-called 'intralingual translation', often prolix and pretentious, and not trans-
lated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand lation at all.
the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-
translation process. Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort
Literal translation nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents exist in the original. (Authorities as diverse as Seleskovitch and Stuart Gilbert tend
but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation to this form of lively, 'natural' translation.)
process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
Communicative translation
Faithful translation Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the
A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It 'transfers' comprehensible to the readership.
cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical 'abnormality'
(deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful
to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer. COMMENTS IN THESE METHODS

Commenting on these methods, I should first say that only semantic and communi-
Semantic translation
cative translation fulfil the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy,
Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take and second, economy. (A semantic translation is more likely to be economical than
more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the a communicative translation, unless, for the latter, the text is poorly written.) In
SL text, compromising on 'meaning' where appropriate so that no assonance, general, a semantic translation is written at the author's linguistic level, a com-
word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less municative at the readership's. Semantic translation is used for 'expressive' texts,
important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by communicative for 'informative' and 'vocative' texts.
cultural equivalents - une nonne repassant un corporal may become 'a nun ironing a Semantic and communicative translation treat the following items similarly:
corporal cloth' - and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The stock and dead metaphors, normal collocations, technical terms, slang, colloquial-
distinction between 'faithful' and 'semantic' translation is that the first is uncom- isms, standard notices, phaticisms, ordinary language. The expressive components
promising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative of'expressive' texts (unusual syntactic structures, collocations, metaphors, words
exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator's intuitive empathy with the peculiarly used, neologisms) are rendered closely, if not literally, but where they
original. appear in informative and vocative texts, they are normalised or toned down
(except in striking advertisements1). Cultural components tend to be transferred
intact in expressive texts; transferred and explained with culturally neutral terms in
Adaptation
informative texts; replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts. Badly and/or
This is the 'freest' form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and inaccurately written passages must remain so in translation if they are 'expressive',
poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture con- although the translator should comment on any mistakes of factual or moral truth,
verted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a if appropriate. Badly and/or inaccurately written passages should be 'corrected' in
play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or communicative translation. I refer to 'expressive' as 'sacred' texts; 'informative'
poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have 'rescued' and 'vocative', following Jean Delisle, as 'anonymous', since the status of their
period plays. authors is not important. (There are grey or fuzzy areas in this distinction, as in
every aspect of translation. 1
So much for the detail, but semantic and communicative translation must
Free translation also be seen as wholes. Semantic translation is personal and individual, follows the
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of
the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact. Communi-
48 PRINCIPLES TRANSLATION METHODS 49

cative translation is social, concentrates on the message and the main force of the any putative readership. Certainly, the more 'universal' the text (consider 'To be or
text, tends to under-translate, to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in not to be'), the more a broad equivalent effect is possible, since the ideals of the
a natural and resourceful style. A semantic translation is normally inferior to its original go beyond any cultural frontiers. The metalingual sound-effects which the
original, as there is both cognitive and pragmatic loss ("Baudelaire's translation of translator is trying to reproduce are in fact unlikely to affect the TL reader, with his
Poe is said to be an exception); a communicative translation is often better than its different sound-system, similarly, but there may be compensation. In any event,
original. At a pinch, a semantic translation has to interpret, a communicative the reaction is individual rather than cultural or universal.
translation to explain. However, the more cultural (the more local, the more remote in time and
Theoretically, communicative translation allows the translator no more free- space) a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable unless the reader is
dom than semantic translation. In fact, it does, since the translator is serving a imaginative, sensitive and steeped in the SL culture. There is no need to discuss
putative large and not well denned readership, whilst in semantic translation, he is again the propriety of'converting' Keats' 'Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness'
following a single well defined authority, i.e. the author of the SL text. or Shakespeare's 'Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?' into languages of
countries where the autumns and summers are unpleasant. Cultural concessions
(e.g., a shift to a generic term) are possible only where the cultural word is
EQUIVALENT EFFECT marginal, not important for local colour, and has no relevant connotative or
symbolic meaning. Thus, in a Bazin text, it is inadequate to translate: // est le plus
It has sometimes been said that the overriding purpose of any translation should be pelican des peres as 'He is the most devoted of fathers' or 'He is a symbol of paternal
to achieve 'equivalent effect', i.e. to produce the same effect (or one as close as love, a pelican.' A compromise version, retaining the cultural element (pelican),
possible) on the readership of the translation as was obtained on the readership of might be 'He is as devoted as a pelican to his young.' Authoritative statements,
the original. (This is also called the 'equivalent response' principle. Nida calls it being addressed to a readership rather than individual readers, if written in 'public'
'dynamic equivalence'.) As I see it, 'equivalent effect' is the desirable result, rather language should produce equivalent effect: Pericles, Jefferson, Lincoln, Churchill,
than the aim of any translation, bearing in mind that it is an unlikely result in two De Gaulle - the names suggest a universal appeal that asks for a loud and modern
cases: (a) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation is to in- echo in translation.
form (or vice versa); (b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL and Communicative translation, being set at the reader's level of language and
the TL text. knowledge, is more likely to create equivalent effect than is semantic translation at
However, in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent the writer's level; but a text written some hundred years ago gives the reader of the
effect is not only desirable, it is essential; it is the criterion by which the effective- translation an advantage over the SL reader; the inevitably simplified, under-
ness, and therefore the value, of the translation of notices, instructions, publicity, translated translation in modern language may well have a greater impact than the
propaganda, persuasive or eristic writing, and perhaps popular fiction, is to be original. Hence unser (our) Shakespeare, as educated Germans used to know his
assessed. The reader's response - to keep off the grass, to buy the soap, to join the work earlier in the century.
Party, to assemble the device - could even be quantified as a percentage rate of the Equivalent effect is an important intuitive principle which could be tested
success of the translation. but, as is often the case, the research would not be worth the effort; however, it is
In informative texts, equivalent effect is desirable only in respect of their (in usefully applied in reasonable discussion, particularly within the 'skill' (as opposed
theory) insignificant emotional impact; it is not possible if SL and TL culture are to the 'truth', the 'art' and the 'taste') area of language. In translating 'I haven't the
remote from each other, since normally the cultural items have to be explained by foggiest idea', (aucune idee), would: Kerne blasse Ahnung or Nicht die geringste
culturally neutral or generic terms, the topic content simplified, SL difficulties Ahnung or Ich habe keinen blassen Schimmer davon have the closest equivalent
clarified. Hopefully, the TL reader reads the text with the same degree of interest effect? (A translation is pre-eminently a matter for discussion rather than fiat. Too
as the SL reader, although the impact is different. However, the vocative often it is still being imposed as a teacher's 'fair copy' or model. In fact, the simplest
(persuasive) thread in most informative texts has to be rendered with an eye to the sentence - The gorgeous girl walked gingerly through the closet' - would, in or in
readership, i.e., with an equivalent effect purpose. spite of any context, be translated variously by a dozen experts in a dozen different
In semantic translation, the first problem is that for serious imaginative languages.)
literature, there are individual readers rather than a readership. Secondly, whilst I have dealt at length with the 'equivalent effect' principle because it is an
the reader is not entirely neglected, the translator is essentially trying to render the important translation concept which has a degree of application to any tvpe of text,
effect the SL text has on himself'(to feel with, to empathise with the author), not on but not the same degree of importance.
50 PRINCIPLES TRANSLATION METHODS 5/

METHODS AND TEXT-CATEGORIES notice: (a) it is hardly possible to say which is the original: (b) how closelv thev
translate each other; (c) the more emotive their language, the more they varv from
Considering the application of the two translation methods (semantic and com- each other; (d) the variants appear justified. Thus:
municative) to the three text-categories, I suggest that commonly vocative and
informative texts are translated too literally, and expressive texts not literally Young, fresh and fashionable. Jung, fnsch undmodisch. Jeune. frais <?t elegant.
enough. Translationese is the bane of tourist material and many public notices
(toute circulation est interdite de 22 h a 6 h\ jeglicher Verkekr ist verboten von 22 bis 6 Indeed, this is Vanessa. In der Tat. so konnen Sie Vanessa beschreiben. Teh sont let
qualifiedtifs de Vanessa.
Uhr\ 'all sexual intercourse is forbidden between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.'). In the UK
the standard of foreign language (FL) publicity and notices is now high but there This model links up with the latest trends in furniture design. Dieses Model schliesst hei
are not enough of them. In 'informative' texts, translationese, bad writing and lack den letsten Trends im Mobeldesign an. Ce modele est le dernier cri dans le domaine des
of confidence in the appropriate linguistic register often go hand in hand; the meubles design. The programme exists out of different items. Das Programm besteht aus
tendency with familiar-looking but unfamiliar collocations (station hydrominerale; verschiedenen Mobeln. Son programme se compose de differents meubles. . . . which you
'hydromineral station' - read 'spa') is simply to reproduce them. On the other can combine as you want . . . die Sie nach eigenem Bediirfnis zusammenstellen konnen
. . . a assembler selon vos besoins . . . (The three versions reflect the more colloquial
hand, the inaccuracy of translated literature has much longer roots: the attempt to
style of the English (two phrasal verbs) and the more formal German, as well as
see translation as an exercise in style, to get the 'flavour' or the 'spirit' of the English lexical influence ('design', 'trend').)
original; the refusal to translate by any TL word that looks the least bit like the SL
word, or even by the SL word's core meaning (I am talking mainly of adjectives), so Where communicative translation of advertisements works so admirably,
that the translation becomes a sequence of synonyms (grammatical shifts, and producing equivalent pragmatic effect, there seems no need to have recourse to
one-word to two- or three-word translations are usually avoided), which distorts its 'co-writing', where two writers are given a number of basic facts about one product
essence. and instructed to write the most persuasive possible advert in their respective
In expressive texts, the unit of translation is likely to be small, since words languages.
rather than sentences contain the finest nuances of meaning; further, there are I should mention that I have been describing methods of translation as
likely to be fewer stock language units (colloquialisms, stock metaphors and products rather than processes, i.e., as they appear in the finished translation.
collocations, etc.) than in other texts. However, any type and length of cliche must
be translated by its TL counterpart, however badly it reflects on the writer.
Note that I group informative and vocative texts together as suitable for TRANSLATING
communicative translation. However, further distinctions can be made.
Unless informative texts are badly/inaccurately written, they are translated As for the process of translation, it is often dangerous to translate more than a
more closely than vocative texts. In principle (only!), as they are concerned with sentence or two before reading the first two or three paragraphs, unless a quick
extra-linguistic facts, they consist of third person sentences, non-emotive style, glance through convinces you that the text is going to present few problems. In
past tenses. Narrative, a sequence of events, is likely to be neater and closer to fact, the more difficult - linguistically, culturally, 'referentially' (i.e., in subject
translate than description, which requires the mental perception of adjectives and matter) - the text is, the more preliminary work I advise you to do before you start
images. translating a sentence, simply on the ground that one misjudged hunch about a
The translation of vocative texts immediately involves translation in the key-word in a text - say, humoral in le bilan humoral (a fluid balance check-up) or
problem of the second person, the social factor which varies in its grammatical and Laetitia in I'actrice, une nouvelle Laetitia (a Roman actress or an asteroid) - may
lexical reflection from one language to another. Further, vocative texts exemplify force you to try to put a wrong construction on a whole paragraph, wasting a lot of
the two poles of communicative translation. On the one hand translation bv time before (if ever) you pull up and realise you are being foolish. This is another
standard terms and phrases is used mainly for notices: 'transit lounge', Transithalle, way of looking at the word versus sentence conflict that is always coming up.
salle de transit. On the other hand, there is, in principle, the 'recreative' translation Translate by sentences wherever you can (and always as literally or as closely as you
that might be considered appropriate for publicity and propaganda, since the can) whenever you can see the wood for the trees or get the general sense, and then
situation is more important than the language. In fact, provided there is no cultural make sure you have accounted for (which is not the same as translated) each word in
»ap. such skilfully written persuasive language is often seen to translate almost the SL text. There are plenty of words, like modal particles, jargon-words or
literallv. grammatically-bound words,which for good reasons you may decide not to trans-
Scanning the numerous multilingual advertising leaflets available todav, I late. But translate virtually by words first if thev are 'technical', whether thev are
52 PRINCIPLES TRANSLATION METHODS 53
'linguistic' (marigot), or cultural (sesterce), or referential (sessile) and appear rela- lator, who was outstandingly more accurate than his imitators. I quote tiny
tively context-free. Later, you have to contextualise them, and be prepared to scraps of Ritchie's weaknesses: La Notre-Dame avanca - The Notre-Dame
back-track if you have opted for the wrong technical meaning. worked her way in'; La pluie brouilla les objets - The rain obscured everything';
Research is now proceeding on how people translate, but there may be many Cette vie se surpassera par le martyre, et le martyre ne tardera plus - That life was to
factors (mood, deadline, need for a change of method) which will not be taken into transcend itself through martyrdom and now martyrdom was not to be long in
account. Throughout the pre-translation process, you keep a clear image of what is coming".
actually happening, if only as a premiss that has to be continuously amended. This
applies to poetry as to technical translation. Thus: Le soleil, sur le sable, 6 lutteuse These last two concepts are mine, and only practice can show whether they
will be useful as terms of reference in translation.
endormie En I'or de tes cheveux chauffe un bain langoureux (Mallarme, Tristesse d'ete)
may suggest the sun bathing the golden hair of a sleeping girl lying on the sand
struggling (against what?) in languorous heat, and this image has to be kept
constantly in parallel with the oblique and elliptical version of it rendered by the
language.

OTHER METHODS

As a postscript to this chapter, I add further definitions of translation methods.

(1) Service translation, i.e. translation from one's language of habitual use into
another language. The term is not widely used, but as the practice is necessary
in most countries, a term is required.
(2) Plain prose translation. The prose translation of poems and poetic drama
initiated by E. V. Rieu for Penguin Books. Usually stanzas become para-
graphs, prose punctuation is introduced, original metaphors and SL culture
retained, whilst no sound-effects are reproduced. The reader can appreciate
the sense of the work without experiencing equivalent effect. Plain prose
translations are often published in parallel with their originals, to which, after a
'careful word-for-word comparison', they provide ready and full access.
(3) Information translation. This conveys all the information in a non-literary text,
sometimes rearranged in a more logical form, sometimes partially summarised,
and not in the form of a paraphrase.
(4) Cognitive translation. This reproduces the information in a SL text converting
the SL grammar to its normal TL transpositions, normally reducing any
figurative to literal language. I do not know to what extent this is mainly a
theoretical or a useful concept, but as a pre-translation procedure it is appro-
priate in a difficult, complicated stretch of text. A pragmatic component is
added to produce a semantic or a communicative translation.
'51 Academic translation. This type of translation, practised in some British uni-
versities, reduces an original SL text to an 'elegant' idiomatic educated TL
version which follows a (non-existent) literary register. It irons out the expres-
siveness of a writer with modish colloquialisms. The archetype of this tradition,
which is still alive at Oxbridge ('the important thing is to get the flavour of the
original'^, was R. L. Graeme Ritchie, evidently a brilliant teacher and trans-