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 HISTORY OF KERALA

WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF NOTES ON

VISSCHER’S LETTERS FROM MALABAR
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 HISTORY OF KERALA

WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF NOTES ON

VISSCHER’S LETTERS FROM MALABAR

K. P. PADMANABHA MENON

EDITED BY
T. K. KRISHNA MENON

IN FOUR VOLUMES
VOLUME FOUR

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First Published : 1937.
First AES Reprint: New Delhi, 1982.
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 DEDICATION

TO

Mrs. K. P. PADMANABHA MENON.

■
FOREWORD
BY THE EDITOR.

It was on the 24th of October 1924 that the print¬

ing of the first volume of this great work was startecL
It has demanded my unremitting toil all these twelve
years; and it is with no small gratification that I con¬
template the completion of this arduous undertaking.
My connection with this work commenced long
before this period. While I was studying in Madras,
I had to frequent libraries there to furnish extracts and
to verify references for this. After I settled down here
to practise at the bar, I have had to read several parts
of this with the author, and to get, at his instance, a Note
or two revised by my revered master, the late Mr.
D. M. Cruickshank, and a few others by Mr. Glyn Bar-
low, when they were Principals of the local Maharaja’s
College. To our dismay, both of them expressed their
inability to proceed further than what they did, as the
subject was not familiar to them and the task not easy.
As desired by the author, in his last will and testa¬
ment, I have tried, according to my lights, to revise the
manuscripts as carefully as was possible for me to do
it. The absence of a decent reference library in the
vicinity had been to me a very serious impediment.
But I have done what I could, by going to the extent
of incurring personal expenditure on the purchase of
books for the purpose.
Another difficulty had been the reading of the
proofs, not once, but, as a rule, twice, and sometimes
even three times. Only those who have experienced
the trouble, and the perennial capacity of the compo¬
sitors to create fresh errors can realise the mental and
the physical exhaustion caused by such work; But for
vi HISTORY OF KERALA

the uniform kindness of my friends, Mr. C.P. Narayana

Menon, the quondam Superintendent of the Govern¬
ment Press and Mr. N. M. Parameswara Ayyar, the
present incumbent, and pf his assistants, Mr.S. Sundara
Ayyar and Mr. N. Kochunni Menon, Examiners, and
Mr. P. Raman Menon, a Composing Foreman, I would
have had to give up the task in despair. I am indebted
to them to a degree which cannot be adequately
expressed in words. If the scrutiny of savants will yet
detect mistakes, I shall leave these to their correction
and their indulgence.
Mrs. Padmanabha Menon, the wife of the author,
once told me of a talk she had with her husband. An
year before his death, she chanced to ask him as to why
he was not seeing this his life-work through the press.
He then let her know the prohibitive rates quoted by
many printing firms in India and in England and of
certain other obstacles in his way, and it seems he closed
his reply with the remark that, so long as I was alive, he
had no fear about that matter. His direction in the will
and these works have cheered me not a little in my
labour of love; and his wife, till her death, lightened
my task in every practical way.
By the Grace of God, it is my privilege to
have brought the publication of this work to its comple¬
tion, a work that is sure to mark a new chapter in the
study of the History of Kerala. If delay there was, it
was none of my making.
I write this from a seat in my garden facing the new
Cochin Harbour. There is a mild breeze about and
the music of murmuring wavelets; and in the sky, over
the prevailing background of a light violet colour, one
can note the varying tints of a sun that is setting.
They give a glow to the lights and shadows athwart the
land-locked lagoon and the feathery palms* As the
evening shadows gather, birds are hastily flying to their
nests. A stillness fills the bowl of the sky. A solitary
Brahmini Kite is loitering in the firmament, either to
 FOREWORD

take in air or to spot its prey, or, who knows, perhaps,

to enjoy the prospect. “All is peace in the home; she
sits by me, in the silence of blissful comradeship, who
has shared with me the toil of life, and the joy of it/*
and who, above all, by her love and care and cheering
words, has made it possible for me to do my life’s
work*
In the remote past, Kerala played a glorious part
in the spread of culture and commerce. That these
volumes will indicate. May her mission in the times
to come be grander and even more glorious is the prayer
of this writer who can claim, without any breach of
modesty, to have dedicated these literary labours to his
country in a spirit of loving service. For,—that is my
creed—after all, love and service form the flower and
fruit of all true religions.
KumSralayam, ’j
Ernakulam; V T. K. KRISHNA MENON.
16th February 1937. J
 .

• -M ••• ' ; •

;V

. .

• •
.
 CONTENTS
PAGES.

Foreword—by the Editor.

List of Illustrations.
Utter XXIII. <
Malabar temples. Religious service. Revenue
attached to the temples. Mode of consecration.
Utter XXIV. 5—9
Superstitions of the Natives. How they
consecrate their houses. Their charms against
the evil eye. Auguries on building their houses.
The respect for the Kalu tree, and the state of
departed souls. Exorcisms. Lucky and unlucky
Omens.
Letter XXV. 9—13
Discrepancy between the Chronologies of Holy
Scripture, and those of the Gentile Nations.
An account of the feast days of the Malabars.
Letter XXVI. 14—18
Account of the Pepper, Turmeric, Cardamom
and Areca of Malabar.
Letter XXXII. 18—23

Description of the Cocoa Palm, the Malabar

Cinnamon, and Coffee Shrub. Sanctity of
Cows and Snakes in the eyes of the Malabars.
Great Snakes. Quantity of Crocodiles. Dan¬
gerous Kites. Fire Flies.
.
 NOTES
PAGES
On Utter XXIII. i—141
(1) Malabar Temples, 1 to 37. (2) Pa¬
godas, 37 to 40. (3) An arch, 40 to 41. (4)
Marble arches, 41. (5) Stone elevation, 41.
(6) Image of various materials, 41 to 44.
(7) Pounetoor Namboori, 4,5. (8) More
arms ard heads, 45 to 48. (9) Copper cow,
48. (10) Approach to threshold, 48 to 49.
(11) Consecration, 49. (12) Daily services,
49 to 63. (13) Offerings of the faithful.
Kinds cf temples. Temple officers. Avaro-
dham. Thachudaya Kaimal. Saraketams,—
63 to 104. (14) Images with bags, 105—6.
(15) Eeeding Brahmins, 106—7. (16)
Marroe (madham), 107 to no. (17) Chari¬
table establishments, no—1. (18) Bending
knees, in. (19) Compulsion to contribute,
hi. (20) Temples of some castes, 1 ri—2.
(21) Valdurti. Monton,—112. (a2) Vows to
Deities, j 13—3. (23) Beika Paru, 113 to
115. (34) Consecration, 115 to 122, (25)
Pollution and Purification, 123 to 141. Foot¬
note on Temple Architecture, 137 to 141.

On Letter XXIV. 142—257

(1) House consecration, 142. (2) The
evil eye, 142 to 147. (3) House building,
147 to 183. (4) Sacred Tree, 184 to 194.
(5) Legend, 194. (6) Transmigration, 194
to 197. (7) Conduct in past life, 197 to
201. (8) Visit of souls, 301 to 203. (9)
Feast of souls, 203—4. (IO) Witchcraft,
204 to 246. (n) Days of luck and ill-luck,
247 to 257.

On Utter XXV 258—394

(1) Chronology, 258 to 260. (2) Kali
Yugam, 260 to 265. (3) Year begins in
Thulam. Day of 60 hours,—265. (4) Coilam
 ••
xn CONTENTS
PAGE

Era, 265 to 275. (5) Pudu Vaipum, 275,

(6) Paroese Raman cycle, 275—6. (7) Di¬
vision of year, 276 to 281. (8) Annua]
Festivals, 281—86. (9) Pathamoedaivam*
286. (10) Badwu, 286. (11) Onam, 286
to 306. (12) Magam, 306 to 323. (13)
Magam or Onam, 323—4. (14) Tirawedira,
324 to 33o. (is) Bharani, 330 to 343.
(16) Paldurti, 343—4. (17) Tookkam, 344
to 350. (18) Oelsagam (Utsavam), 350 to
377. Supplemental Note. Games and
Amusements,—377 to 394.

On Letter XXVI. 395—422

(1) Malabar, Motherof Pepper, 395 to 403.
(2) Pepper, its cultivation, value and proper¬
ties, 403 to 407. (3) Contract for sales*
407—8. (4) Zamorin’s grant of light, 408—9.
(5) Turmeric, 409. (6) Cardamom, 410 to
412. (7) The Areca, 412 to 416. (8) Betel,
417 to 422.

On Letter XXVII. 423—550

(1) Cocoa Palm, 423 to 437* (2) Pine¬
apple, 437* (3) Jack fruit, 437 to 444. (4)
Mango, 444—5. (g) Cashew-nut, 445 to
447. (6) Cinnamon, 447 to 449.
(7) Ginger, 449 to 450. (8) . Coffee,
450—1. (9) Animal life, 451 to 453
(10) Holy Animals, 453 to 455. (u) Cow's
tail, 4ss—6. (12; Purifications, 456—7.
(13) Snakes, 457 to 474. (14) Serpents
esteemed sacred, 474 to 498. (15) Croco¬
diles, 498 to 500. (16) Kite, 500. (17)
Fire flies, 500, (18) Supplementary Note on
Malayalam Language and Literature, 501 to
550.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY/
A.
Acharya, P. K. Mr.—Dictionary of Hindu Architecture.
Appadurai,Dr. A.—Economic Conditions of South India, 2 Vols.
(Madras University Publication. Pp. 811 to 852 con¬
tain a list of authorities useful for research students).
Appan Thampuran, H. H.—SamkhakkaH (Chathu Panikkar
Memorial Lectures. All-Kerala Sahityc, Parishat
Journal Vol. II).
B
Brhat Samhita.
C.
Chattavariola of Elangunnapuzha temple.
Chilapp athikar am.
Cochin Law Reports.
D.
Dattatreya-Tantram.
Devaswam Committee Report, 1921 (Travancore Gov¬
ernment Press).
Drury, Col.—Useful Plants of India.
E«
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Esoteric Hinduism (Theosophy Publishing House,
Adyar).
G.
Gait, Mr.—The All-India Census Report, 1911.
Gangoli, Prof.—Indian Architecture.
Gopala Charlu, Mr.—Mantra Sastra (Adyar T. P. H.)
Gopala Ayyar, Mr.—Chronology of Ancient India.
Goplnatha Rao—■'Elements of Hindu Iconography.
Grandhavari of Kutalmanikkam Temple re: Avarodbam,
Grandhavari of Trichur Temple.
J.
Jagadisa Ayyar, Mr.—South Indian Customs.
Jayasval, K. P. Mr.—Aryamanjusrimulakalpa.
Jenmi-Kutiyan Report of Travancore.
K.
Karuppan.K. P. Pandit—Lalitopaharam.

♦The authorities listed here are those not collected in

Vols. I and II.
XIV BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kerala Varma, H. H.—Kuthu and kutiyattum (Chathu Panikkar

Memorial Lecture. Lekshmi Bbai Press, Trichur).
Kunjan Pillai, Dr.—Census Report of Travancore,
M.
Madras Museum Bulletin on Temple Architecture,
Manimekbala.
Mantratantraprakaram.
Manushyalayamahachandrika.
Monier Williams —Buddhism.
Do —-Lectures on Indian Epic Poetry.
Mrnal Kanti Gosh, Babu—Life beyond Death,
Mrnal Kumar Bose, Babu—Canons of Orissa
Architecture.
Mukherji, A. C. Babu—Hindu Fasts and Feasts.
N.
N. V. Ayyar, Mr.—Origin of South Indian Temples,
O.
Oliver Lodge, Sir—Past Years.
P.
Pratt, Archdeacon—Science and Religion.
Progress of Cochin (a Blue book), edited by
Mr. T. K. Krishna Menon (Cochin Government Press),
Puranas-Agni, Bharata, Padma, Malsya, Ramayana, Vishnu
and Skanda.

R.
Ramananda Sarasvati—Hindu Ideals.
Rama Varma Research Institute Bulletins,
S.
S. Menon, K.Dr.—Rasavaiseshika. (Travancore Government Press)
T.
Tantrapray aschitham.
Tantrasaram.
Tan trasamuchchay am.

Temple-Entry Committee Report of Travancore (Government

Press.)
Tenneat’s History of Ceylon*
V.
Varahamihira.
Vivekananda Swami—Works.
W.
Wilson on Makenzie Mss.
 The Transliteration Table followed in the
printing of this work.

The Press has accented letters only for 12 point capitals and
lower case letters; and, even among these, the sets are not
complete.
In spite of great care, a few mistakes have crept in to mar
the uniformity attempted to be maintained in spelling the names of
places and of persons. For this, the Editor craves the pardon of
the reader.
This Press owns no letters of the Nagara alphabet, and so
Malayalam characters have to be used.
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.

'
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

To face page.

1. PERUMANAM TEMPLE i
2. SRIVELI ROUND A TEMPLE 52
3. A TYPICAL ARISTOCRATIC NAYAR HOUSE 148
4. A TYPICAL NUMEUTHIRI ILI AM (HOUSE) 158
ae « to Ha. >n n:iHT"; c k ja^vt a .%

'
 Visscher’s
LETTERS FROM MALABAR.
LETTER XXIII.
Malabar temples—Religious service—Revenues attached to the temples—
Mode of consecration,

I shall now give you a description of the temples1 in Malabar

and their form of structure.
They are termed pagodas2, c r houses of the gods, who are
supposed to inhabit them and to receive in them the devotions of
the pious. They are mostly built of stone; the grandest glitter
with copper roofs. All the architectural talents of the heathen
have been devoted to the erection of these edifices: their dwellings
on the other hand are wreched; generally mere low mean huts; but
the temples far surpass in grandeur any of the royal palaces. I
have seen a highly ornamented pagoda in Cranganqr, in which
the gateway of the exterior gallery is surmounted with an arch of
such skilful workmanship that even in Europe it would be admir¬
ed as a work of art.3. We sometimes find arches and facings of
marble, a material not found in Malabar.4 A wall furnished with
a good front gateway encloses a quadrangle; within this enclosure
in an empty uncovered space? free to every one, even the Christi¬
ans and the unclean castes. This reminds me of the court of the
gentiles, in Solomon’s temple. The pagoda itself stands in the
centre of this enclosure; the exterior of the building consists of a
covered gallery open on the inside, though from without it appears
to be all one. This gallery, which traverses all four sides of the
edifice may be likened to the second court of the temple, frequent¬
ed by the priests and Israelites. Within this again stands the
house itself, surmounted by a pointed roof, and in the centre of
this sanctuary thtre is a square stone elevation like an altar, its
four corners furnished with four columns* on which stands the
1. Note i, pp. i to 37.
2. Note 2, pp. 37 to 40.
3. Note 3, pp. 40 to 41.
4. Note 4, p. 41.
2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR
idol.1 This image is made of various materials-. I have seen
silver specimens: they are sometimes gilt, but copper is the most
common material. I have a few of these in my possession, which
were taken at the pillage of the rich pagoda of Pounetour
Nambocri3 they give one a good idea of the hideousness of the
gods before whom these people prostrate themselves. Some ate
likenesses of men with elephant’s trunks, others have four, six, or
more arms, and others two or more heads'. 7he temples are all
dedicated to special deities, as was the case with those of the
Greeks and Romans, and the patron idol in each pagoda presides
over the others; his form surpassing theirs both in size and splen¬
dour. I have seen a copper cow5 at the pagoda at Cranganur,
almost as large as life. As the gods are supposed to delight in
illuminations, several lamps both iron and copper, fastened into
the walls of the second court on both sides, are lighted up on
feast days.
There are cavities along the walls of the inside gallery,
something like baking ovens, in which rajahs, princes, or private
individuals may deposit their treasures for security. The keys of
these treasure chambers are always kept by the proprietors, who
may obtain access to them when they please with the assistance
of the Brahmins who have the care of the temple. No Christian,
Jew, or Moor, may penetrate into this sanctuary, though the
gates are suffered to stand open, and we may approach as far as
the threshold,6 but not near enough to obtain a sight of the
interior ; this I have found by experience ; for if we attempted to
intrude too far, we should be pushed back, as the temple would
be polluted, and must then undergo fresh consecration and
various ceremonies in order to render it fit again for the offices of
religion. This would be the case even if we were merely to
enter the tanks or wells in which the Brahmins, bound by ti eir
law, bathe daily they would be contaminated and require fresh
consecration7 to purify them. For their folly is such that they
imagine that purity consists not in the cleanliness of the soul but
of that of the body. Not alone men of other religions are pro¬
hibited from enteiing their temples, but the san e rule is extended
even to the low and despised castes among themselves, a practice
which runs counter to the notio ns of all other nation?, For as
the mere touch of these miserable creatures would defile Brahmin
1. Note 5, page 41.
2. Note 6, ib.
Note 7, p. 45.
4. Note 8, ib.
5. Note 9, p. 48.
6. Note 10, ib.
7. Note 11, p. 40.
 LETTER XXIII 3
or a member of the higher castes, so would their presence the
temple of the gods, of whose favour and notice they are unworthy.
The daily services1 of the temple consist of prayers and devotions
offered three times a day, morning, noon and night. The
devotees perambulate the outer court (thrice, making their Sombaic
or reverence (a gesture performed by bending forward and striking
the forehead with clasped hands), each time they come opposite
the door of the pagoda. The Brahmins observe a similar routine
in the innermost gallery of the sanctuary, muttering prayers all
the time. Then the first priest steps up to the altar and sprink¬
le s holy water and flowers on the image, which act forms the
daily sacrifice, for no blood must be shed in cr near the temple.
Estates are invariably attached to the pagodas from which they
derive considerable revenues and their wealth is increased by the
offerings and alms of the faithful.2 I saw at Porcad two stone
images, man and woman, which have stood for ages by the side
of the river, so near, that in the rainy season they are flooded.
Bags hang from their necks3 to receive the offerings of passengers
on the river, who throw into them a portion of their fruits, rice,
nely, etc., as an almsgiving to the adjacent pagoada. Rich pago¬
das are burdened with a number of Brahmins, perhaps 200 or 300
who must be fed: for so these Malabar priests cunningly contrive
to be supported gratis.1 Besides this, at many of the rajah’s
couits are places called marroe, 3 where food is dispensedto any
Brahmin who demands it. There is one good thing about these
pagodas, that they furnish provision for many wayfarers of their
own religion, who resort to them, rice is never refused. They
serve in this respect like hospitals or charitable establishments,6
where a man, however poor and destitute he may be, can always
find shelter.

1 had almost forgotten to state, that when in the daily ser¬

vice the priests come to the performance of the Sombaie, or rever¬
ence, the first priest holds up the image while the others bend
their knees to it.7

On certain national feasts a solemn procession takes place.

The idol, finely ornamented and placed in a palaaqin or set up
on an elephant and covered with a canopy, is paraded about

1. Note 12, pp. 49 to 63.

2. Note 13, pp. 63 to 104.
3. Note 14, p, io$—106.
4. Note 15, pp. 106—107.
5. Note 16, pp. 107—no.
6. Note 1 7, pp . 1 io— ? 1 j .
Nolc 10, j), 1 r
4 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

accompanied with music, and every body must perform the Sombaie
before it. Thus still exists the procession of the tabernacle of
Moloch, which, among the Egyptians, Syrians and other gentiles,
used to cause the children of Israel to sin, 'J he low castes who
may not enter the temple, are permitted to attend at a distance on
some of these occasions, and to deposit their donations of fanams
before the temple for though not admitted, they are compelled to
contribute to its support, as if it were a privilege so to do.1
They possess temples of their own constructed of dried palm
leaves, and if they could afford to build them of stone they must
yet cover them with palm leaves: they have no Brahmins for their
priests, but members of their own caste minister the offices of
religion.2
9

Near some pagodas, as those of Valdurti and Mowton,

outside the enclosure stands a stone, at which the Nayars, who
are permitted to partake of the flesh of all animals except cows,
offer sacrifices of blood: here also they offer up vows to their
deities4 to obtain the boon of fertility for their estates, promising
in return to sacrifice so many cocks. When the day for the sacri¬
fice arrives thousands assemble, and the Nayars officiate at the
solemnity in place cf the Brahmins, who may not touch the
bodies of dead animals. The chief called Belka Paru3 first ad¬
vances, cuts off the head of a cock which he throws on the ground
letting the blood run on the stone, and then he takes the body
home to his house, and devours it with his family. The others in
succession follow his example, each sacrificing and eating his own
cock. In the consecration of a new pagoda 6 the building is
first sprinkled with water and the leaves of the Ixora, and then
smeared with cowdung; this done ten or twrelve cows, as sacred
beasts, are tied up inside the building and fed with grass, then
with waters taken from four sources, the Ganges, the sea, the river
near which the pagoda stands, and the opposite side of the same
river, they sanctify the idol, the presiding genius of the temple;
they next take a number of dishes (they must not be fewer than
49—but generally there are as many as ioi of them) made of gold,
silver, copper or stone, filled with raw rice and covered with party
coloured cloths, over which are strewed flowers and figures re-
presenting the 27 stars under the intluence of which the days of
the month are placed. These figures arc made of gold or silver»

I. Note 19, p. hi.

2. Note 20, pp. in—2.
3- Note 21, p. 112.
4- Note 22, pp, 112—3.
5- Note 23, pp. 113—-115.
6. Note 24, pp. 115—122.
 LETTER. XXIV 5
on each of which the name of the star is inscribed. These dishes
remain in the pagoda for a period of 21 or 41 days according to
pleasure, during which time the Brahmins assemble to the same
number that there are dishes, offer up prayers to the tii-une god
head, Brama, Vishnu and Siva, when this is over, a fire lighted in
the quadrangle must be brought before the altar, on which the
image is then set up, and fastened with mortar mixed up of
various adhesive substances, pearl-dust, sugar, houey, cake, etc.,
and the Brahmins must be regaled for eleven or twelve days.
If the temple were to be polluted1 by the presence of a
Christian or a member of the low castes, 21 dishes of water with
flowers must be introduced to purify it, the idol must be washed
again with the four waters, a feast lasting for three days must be
given to the Namboories, and the temple swept thrice a day and
smeared with cow dung.

LETTER XXIV.
Superstitions of the Natives—How they consecrate their houses—Their
charms against the evil eye—Auguris on building their houses—The respect
for the Kalu tree, and the state of departed souls—Exorcisms—Lucky and
unlucky Omens.

In this letter I propose to satisfy your curiosity respecting the

superstitious practices and opinions which prevail among the
benighted heathen, in the midst of whom I am at present so*
journing.
A member of the higher castes will never inhabit his newly
built house, until it has been solemnly purified and consecrated 2
by the priests; because it is supposed to have been defiled by the
builders, who belong to an unclean caste. Among the grandees
the ceremony of consecration takes place in the following manner.
An idol is carried thrice round the house, to the sound of trumpets
and deposited before the eastern door. The priests then enter
the house, and having laid some cowdung mixed with ashes on a
pisang* leaf they mutter some prayers over it, after which a
Namboori sprinkles the house, first with water from a copper basin
in which are placed the small red flowers of the Ixora shrub called
by the Portuguese Foule Parana and ther. with the cowdung,- the
idol is then brought inside the house, and the Namboories proceed
to eat some cakes. These ceremonies duly performed, a great
feast is held outside the house, the food consisting of rice» butter

1, Notes 25 and 26, pp. 122 to 141.

2. Note 1, p. 142.
* The pisang is the Areca catechu, or Betel-nut palm (Trans)
Sec Brandes’ Diet, of Science.
6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

pisa; g, milk and curry; the guests, who have been first thoroughly
smeared with oil (like the ancient heathens, who used to anoint
their guests as a mark of honor), sitting cross-legged around the
building. While on the subject of their houses, I must mention
their superstition about the east door; when they go out for the
first time in the morning it must always be through this entrance
which is considered lucky, because Irom it they first behold the
morning sun, before which they bend with reverence.
'they are in the habit of setting up a Molik or figure in their
fields, young plantations, and houses, and particularly in their
roads; not for the purpose of scaring the birds, as is done in
Europe, but to act as a charm against the evil eye.1 This Molik
may be the image either of an id A* a man, or an ape, or some¬
times it is merely some kin J of painted vessel. If the eye of a
person possessed of a malign aspect fall on this object, it is rob¬
bed of all power of working mischief either to plants or to anything
else. This superstition prevails not only among the heathen; for
there are some Christians who are for ever talking of the Toeca
Olhos. I was told by the Dutch Official at Paponetii, that there
was a Mocqua chief living there, whose countenance was supposed
by the natives* to be endowed with this pernicious influence*, so
that he was entreated never to enter fields when the plants were
in bloom, lest he should injure them; which request he observed,
rl hey imagine that this evil eye works no harm to the lands and
plants of the possessor, but rather increases the it fertility.
In commencing the building of a house- the first prop must
be put up on the east Tde: the carpenters open three or four
cocoanuts, spilling the juice as little as possible, and put some
tips of betel leaves into them, and, from the way these float in
the liquid, they foretel whether the house will be lucky or unlucky,
whether it will stand for a long or short period, and whether
another will ever be erected on its side. I have been told that
the heathens say that the destruction of fort Paponetti by our
arms was foretold by the builders from these auguries. They
receive for the performance of this rite one or two Cochin fanams,
three measures of rice: and a garment worth three fanams.
There is an odd shaped tree called a Kalu, the stem of which
seems to be formed by several twisted branches growing into each
other. It is generally very large, and its spreading branches
shoot out roots, many of which fix themselves in the ground, thus
furnishing fresh nourishment to enable the branches to extend

1. Note 2, pp. 142—147.

2. Note 3, pp. 147—183.
 LETTER XXIV 7

further. This tree is esteemed sacred, 1 and is hung about with

lamps which are lighted up in the evening. They have a legendz,
that the chief of the minor gods, Cheraman by name, was des¬
patched by the supreme deit> to introduce certain improvements
on the earth. Fatigued by his long journey through a dreary
wilderness without food or drink, he stretched himself beneath
the shadow of the banian tree to seekrepase and refreshment, and
bis object was so marvellously effected that he arose with his
strength as completely renovated as if he had partaken of a
hearty meal. In memory of this event, this tree is dedicated
to the pagodas in the neighbourhood of which one is always to
be found, they are also planted there for the refreshment of
departed souls, for the majority and the most intelligent of these
heathens believe 3 that in the beginning, the deity created a
certain number of souls, which inhabit sometimes human and
sometimes brute todies; but that on quitting human bodies the
souls repose for a century under the refreshing shade of the
banian, after which they transmigrate into other bodies either
of men or of beasts according to their conduct during their
past life4. It is considered a piece of great go^d fortune to
transmigrate into the body of a white cow whilst to pass
into that of a buffalo is just the reverse as that animal
undergoes great iiltreatment at the hands qf the Malabars,
being the object of their utmost contempt aid aversion.
The people believe that during the intermediate period of
hundred years, the souls of the departed visit their descendants.5
They therefore prepare, either within or without their houses
little apartments or huts, which are fresh smeared every morning,
and furnished with a small bench, about a foot in length and a
breadth from the ground, on which toddy is placed; which, in the
evening, as the departed spirits have not touched it, they them¬
selves drink, and it is considered a hallowed beverage. They
always put aside a little rice at their meals, or strew some grains on
the ground for these ghosts: and if they have more in-the dish
than they can eat, they throw' out the remainder to the crows, and
this also is put to the account of the spirits. They perform a
ceremony l:ke this on the feast of the souls,0 in the month of July.
Tljey carry their ideas of witchcraft7 to an unequalled pitch;
to this influence the most dire diseases are imputed in many

1. Note 4, pp. 184—194.

2. Note 5, p. 194.
3. Note 6, pp. 194—197.
4. Note 7, pp. 197—201.
5. Note 8, pp. 201—203.
6. Note 9, pp. 203—204.
7. Note 10, pp. 204—246.
8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

places, and it is supposed to have power both to cause and cure

them, so that apothecaries and doctors would find it difficult to
obtain a livelihood here: they are less foolish in the neighbour¬
hood of Cochin. It is said (by the majority, that is) that there
exist 36,000 demons, of whom a few are good; and the worst
among them are ljatte Pannikem, Tiangadi and Cooli Mootootoe,
Pantiikerri. They ascribe to these spirits the power of occupying
the bodies of men whose souls have departed: they have no power
over Christians, even those who are so merely in name not in
heart. Every individual has his own special demon whom he
serves, and who in return assists him in the exeution of his pro¬
jects. They suppose that if a man has no other way of venting
his wrath on his adversary he can send his own demon to do it
for him. To effect this purpose he must make an image of the
demon, and perform certain ceremonies before it, upon which it
sets forth, and assails the victim wdth all kinds of diseases,
madness, convulsions, etc. In order to discover whether
these disorders procee 1 from natural causes or from malign in¬
fluence, the friends of the patient repair to a Cantiiane or sooth¬
sayer, who determines the question by the result obtained
from counting up some cowries, and can also indicate
the person from whom the evil spirit was sent; the latter
immediately confesses his guilt, or if he refuses, is brought
before the rajah and compelled to do so, while the sufferer on his
part must promise to make restitution of any thing to which the
other party had a lawful claim. The exorcism proceeds as follows.
A man of the washerman caste is introduced wfho has a drum
shaped like an hour glass; he describes a magic circle on the
ground within which he makes various characters, in red and
white, and then flowers in pieces of betel leaves, rice, turmeric,
Iscora flowers, arccanuts, tobacco, palm leaves, and date shells,
etc.. A woman taken from the household of the party who has
employed the aid of the demon, is made to sit down facing the
circle, clothed in a white garment, her hair floating loose, h.r
arms folded, and carrying on her bosom a cashewnut leaf. The
washerman now beats his drum, singing at the same time a magic
song: cn which the unclean spirit quits the patient and enters the
body of the woman, who immediately s.ts up a tremendous
howling, and begins to jump about like a mad woman; then the
demon speaking through her voice announces the rewards he
expects and the rights to be performed in return for the alacrity
with which he has executed the mission of his employer. These
being promised, the spirit leaves the woman, who falls down as if
dead and lies in this pasture for an hour; at the expiration of
which the washerman takes away all that he put in the circle and
 LETTER XXV 9

eats it with his household: he receives four fanams in payment for

his services; a like sum is also paid to the Canmane.
The official at Papouelti told me that he had witnessed very
strange effects from those exorcisms at which he had hansel f
sometimes been called in to keep order. On one occasion, a
woman was brought in to him, very ill, to all appearance dead-
Her friends complained, that an evil spirit had been sent to her
by a Nair woman, whom they produced, and that the patient had
lain seven days without food, like a corpse. The accused was
asked whether the tale were true; she replied in the affirmative
adducing as the motive, that a little piece of gold, worth about
two rise dollars, which she had inherited and wore as an
ornament on her neck, had been stolen from her. The officer
commanded her to recall the spirit; this she performed with the
usual rites and the sufferer who lay inanimate, opened her eyes
in his presence, asked for cheese and betel, and in short was
restored to perfect health and walked home.
These people are also addicted to ths observance of lucky
and unlucky days. Monday and Thursday come under the latter
category and Sunday under the former. The last day of the
month is unlucky. It is a bad omen to meet a cat or a snake, on
first going out in the morning, and they will turn back to escape
passing it: this they will do also if a crc-v flies past on the left
hand; on the right hand it is considered lucky It is a good
sign to sneeze with the face turned towards the house from which
they have come out, but with the face turned in the direction in
which they are going it is unlucky. Leo is the most propitious
sign of the zodiac, and it is a piece of good fortune to be born
and business is best executed under its influence. Thus you see
dear friend, how superstition rules this land1.

LETTER XXV.
Discrepancy between the Chronologies of Holy Scripture and those of
the Gentile Nations. An account of the feast days of the Malabars.
The science cf chronology has ever proved one of the most
difficult subjects which have engaged the attention of the learned,
tho have not a little increased its perplexity by attempting to
reconcile the system of Holy Scripture with those of the gentiles;
this seems to me a hopeless endeavour, for all the traditions of
eastern nations, are extravagantly fabulous and inconsistent with
each other. This is very conspicuous among the nations of the
East Indies, where the chronological systems of China, Pegu, and

i. Note ii, pp* 247—257.

 10 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

Malabar, are totally distinct. How therefore can we rely upon

them ? The system of Holy Scriptures on the other hand, is both
genuine and simple, narrating a regular succession of events, and
seasons. St. Augustine remarks with justice in his work De Civi•
fate Dei: “We need not doubt that those things related by profane
writers which are contrary to the statements of Holy Scripture are
false, for reason teaches us that what God through his Holy
Spirit speaking to us in the Holy Scriptures relates, is more
worthy of credit than the words cf men, because he can foretell
ong before the things which are to happen^T
If we apply this passage to the chronological theory in vogue
among the Malabars we shall see confirmation of its truth. They
affir m that many thousand centuries have elapsed from the
creation of the world to the present time, and they make use in
their reckoning of time, of certain periods which they call Diva
Varussam supposed to be divinely appointed; each of these periods
or cycles consists of 365 years, 3 months, 2 days, and 30
hours, and several of these Diva Varussam make up a gieat cycle
or age consisting of some thousands of years.
The first age from the creation of the world is called Crida
Ugam, and this lasted for the space of 4,800: Diva Varussam
amounting to a period of 1,753,210 years, 6 months, 24 days and
16 hours.
The second age Treda-Ugam, contained 3,600 D. V., or
L3i4,908 years, 10 months, 8 days, 14 hours.
The third age Duavara Ugam% contained 2,400 D. V., or
872,600 years, \ months, 12 da)s, 9 hours.
The fourth age Cali Ugam, will consist of 12,200 D. V., or
438,032 years, 8 montfs, 6 days and 56 hours; of this age only
4,827 years have elapsed up to the present time2.
While on this subject we must observe, that the year begins
in October (which they call Talla Massam) and that each day is
divided into 60 hours3.
The above-mentioned system cf chronology is only preserved
and adhered to in their temples; in their daily intercourse they
make use of certain epochs and eras wnich are mentioned in their
legal documents and letters.
Inthe low-lands of Malabar, especially in the kingdom of
Cochin, there are two cf these eras. The first is the year Cotlam
or Coulam, which takes its name from the northern Coilam, the
1. Note 1, pp. 258 — 260
2. Note 2, pp. 26c—265
3. Note 3. P. 265.
 LETTER XXV ,,

place whence, alter his partition of the kingdom, Cheramperumal

started, either for the Ganges, or, according to the Moors, for
Mecca. The current year, 1723, they date the year of Coilam
899.1

The second era the year Pooda Vaifum\ which they call the
new style, was first established when the island of Vypeen was
recovered from the sea and inhabited by men. This was 383
years ago.2

In the high lands of Malabar, and in other heathen nations,

there is another system of cycles of 60 years. This was ordained
by the prophet Paroese Raman. Each of the 60 years has a
peculiar name, so that it may be always known how many years of
the cycle have run. When the number is complete they begin
again from the beginning.3

They divide the year into 12 months; the first day of each
month corresponds with the thirteenth or fourteenth of ours.4
Magaram or January has 30 days.
Cumbam February ,,30 9 7
Meenam March „ 30 % 1
Madum April m 31 t 9
Eddavum May „ 31 99
Methunutn June „ 32 9 9
Carccadagam July ,,31 M
Chingam August , 31 99
Cunnee September ,,31 f 9
Toolam October ,, 29 f »
Vrechecum November ,, 30 • 9

Dhanoo December „ 29 • 9

There are certain annual festivities universally observed.

1st. On the first day of the month Madum, they celebrate
the feast Biloe or the New year; 5 not that the year commences
then, but at the season of the departure of the Emperor Cheram¬
perumal in September, from which era they date. In the morn¬
ing of this day, they put some gold into a copper basin, and
scatter Ixora flowers about; besides distributing money or ’food
and illuminating, after which they bathe. Tnis feast is solemnised
in honour of Vishnu.
1. Note 4, pp. 265—275.
2. Note 5, p. 275.
3. Note 6, p. 275.
4. Note 7, pp. 276—281.
5. Note 8, pp. 281—286,
12 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

2nd* They hold another feast called Pattamoedasjam 1 on

the ioth of the same month, when they say that the sun has
attained its meridian, and the days and nights are of equal length,
they are accustomed on this day to offer vows in the pagodas,
to illuminate with lamps, they carry the idols about in procession,
and fire cannons or guns, which latter is a religious ceremony
used on high occasions. These solemnities, which last for forty
days and terminate in the Pattamoedasjam, are dedicated to the
sun.
3rd.On the new moon of the month of July, they keep the
feast Bctauw 2 with fasting and prayers on account of the arrival
of the souls of their departed ancestors, who they believe visit
their houses on that day. They prepare and set food outside for
them, which food becomes the property of the crows: and the
dwellers by the sea-shore bathe for the purification of the said
souls.
4th. In August comes the feast Onam>3 or the birth-day of
Sida, the wife of Sri Rama or Vishnu. This is observed by some
people for four days, by others for seven. They raise a hillock in
front of their dwellings, smeared with cow-dung and strewed with
flowers, on which they set up the im^ge of Vishnu, clothed in a
new garment, and provided with an open cocoanut for food.
Those castes who are allowed to partake of fish must abstain from
it on this day, and the upper people distribute garments to their
servants.
5th. Sixteen days after Onam comes the feast of Magam in
honour of Paramesiri, or Par wadi, the wife of Parameswari
or Vishnu in another form. For, as you must know
they teach, that Vishnu underwent thirteen transmigrations. 4
The ceremonies observed on this occasion resemble those of the
preceding feast.
6tli. This same feast of Magam, 6 or Onamis held also in
September or even in October, in memory of the goddess Patrakalli
also called Pagodi. The ceremonies coincide with those of
the feast of Onam, except that cakes are to be baked with sugar
and laid before the Goddess.
7th. The feast 7irawedira% 6 is celebrated in December.
This is an occasion of mourning and lamentation among the women
1. Note 9, p. 286.
2. Note 10, p. 286.
3. Note it, pp. 286—306.
4. Note 12., pp. 306—323.
5. Note 13, pp. 323—324*
6- Note 14, pp, 324—330.
 LETTER XXV 13
who now complain to the gods that they have not been equally
endowed intellectually with man. They must not sleep all the
night, nor partake of cooked rice.
8th. In January they observe the feast Par my, 1 tns birth¬
day of Pagodi Sri Couroumbs, when they kill several cocks and
offer them before the Pagodas. The Brahmins are excluded the
temples for three days on this occasion,
9th. This feast to Paraiy is also held in February, and at
Paldurti 2 in Cochin in March,when a party of Nairs bound by an
oath, cause themselves to be suspended by an iron passed through
the skin of their backs to a swing (wip) and remain thus hanging
for some time and fencing with sword and shield: 3 a frightful
spectacle! On this occasion they exhibit various images, march¬
ing them about in procession as the Papists do on Shrove Tues¬
day, and thus it is a great time for merry making. It is the only
festival to which all castes, even the lowest, are admitted, and it
lasts two days.
It is dedicated to the sister of Pagodi or the goddess Sri
Couroumba, called Assagia. 4
10th. In this month also is celebrated the feast of Oel
Pouram 5 or consecration, in memory of the visit of the sea god to
the Pagoda Arad polda, a stone yet remains standing by a little
stream at the corner of the Pagoda in memory of this event.
Nearly 25,000 pilgrims repair here on this day.
nth. In March is held the feast Oelsagatn, when the idols
are carried about in a palanquin or on an elephant, accompanied
by armed men who make all kinds of rejoicing with trumpets,
games,and dances. The last day of Oelsagam 6 is the feast Proe
Ona on which occasion they bathe. This feast is celebrated in
memory of Siva and Vishnu.
12th. Eight days after, the feast Asfami takes place, on
this day (which is also an annual fair) the souls in torment have
recourse to Seeva, and the festival is celebrated with great
solemnity in the temple of Curour.
I hope I have not wearied you with this subject, for though
not a pleasant one, it is needful in order to form an accurate
idea of the part of the world in which I now reside.
1. Note 15, pp. 330—343
2. Note 16, pp. 343—344.
3. Note 17, pp. 344—347«
4. Note 18, p. 347*
5. Note i9» PP. 347—35®.
6„ Note 20, pp. 350—394.
 LETTER XXVI.

Account of the Pepper* Turmeric* Cardamom, and Areca of Malabar.

You who live amid the bustle of trade, and daily load you.
magazines with costly wares collected from all quarters of the
world, will doubtless be interested in reading about the commerce
of Malabar, and the commodities it affords, which it shall be the
purpose of this letter to describe.

Pepper, the cheapest but by no means the least useful of

spices, is the chief production of Malabar and is collected in such
abundar.ee and good quality that this country may justly be'Styled
the Mother of PepperIt grows well in the low lands, but with far
more luxuriance in the elevated tracts and along the hills and moun¬
tains. It is not planted in open fields, but in the close neigh¬
bourhood of trees, around which the branches climb, as the plant
requires support. The leaves are large, and the pepper-corns
spring from them, clustering in rows close to the stems. Their
colour is green. These plants, which climb to a great height, last
generally for eighteen or twenty years, when other grafts or shoots
are substituted for them. When the pepper is dried, it acquires a
black colour, occasioned doubtless by its natural heat ; as is the
case with cloves, which when first plucked are white, but when they
have been laid out to dry,black spots appear and spread by degrees,
till the whole clove assumes a dark hue. Th e unripe pepper¬
corns which get sometimes mixed with the ripe ones, dry away
into powder, cr shrivel up, owing to the heat of the latter. For
this reason the East India Company never take new pepper by
weight, but let it lie bye for some months in warehouses till the
unripe corns have had time to decay : and the bad are then win¬
nowed from the good in presence of the merchants.

Many persons erroneously suppose that the white and black

pepper are different plants. This is not the case. I have been
told here that there are two methods of manufacturing the former
from the latter, either by corroding the upper coating of the corn
with lime, or by laying it aside for ten or twelve years, when the
outer coat will dry off, and the upper-corn appear white 2 .

The pepper cf M.labai ij that most prized: yet it is not

equally good in all parts of the country. The pepper produced in
South Malabar and Quilon is smaller than that of the North. No
difference however is discernible in the fruit when exported, as it

1. Note 1, pp. 395—403.

2. Note 2, pp—403—407.
 LETTER XXVI IS
is all mixed together. It is the principal article of trade of the
East India Company in Malabar; it is calculated that they pur¬
chase on the average 2,000,000 lbs. annually collecting it in the
factories of Cochin, and Chetwa in the North and of Porcad,
Kulli-Quilon, Quilon and Pesa in the South. The sovereigns of
these places and those likewise of Tekkenkoor and Berkenkoor,
who send their pepper to Porcad, have made an agreement with
the East India Company not to supply this article to any other
nation ]. We cannot help saying that such a stipulation is hard
both upon the subjects and the settlers; for it gives the East India
Company the monopoly of Malabar products and the settlers
have no choice of a market, but must perforce sell to the Com¬
pany when they might obtain a much higher price from other
countries. It is true they often find means of exporting their
pepper by stealth, but as there are officers posted all round the
sea coast, these smuggled goods are often seized and confiscated
to the Company. The native princes sometimes participate in
these smuggling transactions, though they never dare to confess
it, being bound by contract to assist the Company. And indeed
in their contracts with that body, they have looked well after
their own interests, for they have secured the privilege of export¬
ing on their own account too or more candies, which they sell to
the merchants at a good price. The contracts are renewed every
year, when the East India Company send two members from the
Council to make an agreement about the price with the merchants
in the presence of the Rajahs of Porcad, Kulli-Quilon and
Quilon. When the price is settled, presents are offered to
those princes. In Cochin and Chetwa, however, this does not take
place, the price in those countries being always fixed. The
pepper costs generally n & or 12 ducats per kandy of 500 lbs. but
this sum does not all to go to the merchants, and they are obliged
to pay a duty of half a ducat in some places, and more in the
Soitth, to the Rajah of the country.
The East India Company have never succeeded in persuading
the Rajahs of Travancore and Colastri, and still less the Zamorin,
to enter into a similar compact, because they are aware that it
must be prejudicial to their interests. For being free to sell their
pepper to anyone, they have the advantage of being able to
demand a much higher price for it; and they also prevent its being
properly sifted and cleansed, so that it is very inferior in quality
This pepper is chiefly bought by the English, and sent not only
to Europe, but through private traders to Persia, Surat, Mocha,
Coromandel, and Bengal, thereby causing detriment to the Com¬
pany's traffic in those parts.

1. Note 3. pp. 407—408.

16 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

The French are engaged in this trade at Calicut, and the

Danes at Eddawa, a place near Quilon; but having little money
and less credit, it is but little they can accomplish. The near
merchants of Ostend also are beginning to take part in it; but as
they pay too high a price for their pepper (as well as for their
linen goods), it is probable they make but little profit by it. The
Zamorin has granted to the four chief princes of Malabar the
exclusive right of exporting this article \
The second plant that flourishes here and is exported to
Europe, is the turmeric, called by the natives Burri-Burri, or
native saffron 2- This root is found in South Malabar, but too
poor for exportation by the Company: they purchase the better
sort, which grows in the north, in the territories of the Zamorin
and Colastri. The turmeric plant closely resembles ginger, both
in its root and leaf, an i is planted every year. When ripe, the
root is cut up, steeped in water, and then spread on mats or cloths
to dry in the sun. It is used in Europe, as a dye, and in India in
the preparation of a dish they call curry, which has a yellow
colour. Its price is io ducats per kandy, and the East India
Company collect at Calicut and Cannanore generally 200 kandies
in a season.
The third production of Malabar which is exported to Europe
is the cardamom 3; I am not aware that the true cardamom grows
in any other part of the world. Two different species of this
plant are found here one in Cochin or South Malabar, and the
other, generally known by the name of Cannanore cardamom, in
the Kingdom of Colastri. The first is the poorest of the two, and
is not exported by the East India Company, but by the inhabi¬
tants, the English and others, who send it to Surat, Persia, Mocha,
Coromandel, and Bengal, where the Mussalmans use it in their
food, and particularly in a dish of rice called brinsje. This carda¬
mom fetches, on the average, two or three shillings per lb. The
Cannanore species is rounder in shape, and more pleasant to the
taste. Its price rices annually, as it is much in request with the
English, and at present amounts to 100 ducats per kandy. The
Company’s demand is fluctuating, but che average quantity sold
amounts to 20,000 or 30,000 lbs.
The cardamom grows on long stalks which spring out of the
earth, the pods hanging on them in long bunches, rather far apart.
When the weather is dry, the cardamom is white, but if rain falls
1. Note 4, pp. 408—409.
2. Note 5, p. 409.
3. Note 6, pp. 410—412.
 LETTER XXVI *7
while it is ripening the bark or rind becomes brown; it then easily
bursts and the little kernels fall out and are picked up by the
natives and sold, though at a much lower price, generally for a
shilling and a half per lb. When the cardamom is gathered, the
stalks are burnt in the field, the ashes being serviceable for
manure. This cardamom is not sown, but the land produces
it spontaneously, the roots spreading along and under the soil, like
those of the reed. When the cultivators wish to make the roots
sprout up, they take heavy rollers with which they press them into
the soul. They generally suffer the ground to-lie fallow for a
year, and in the second year roll and manure it to make it produce
fruit. I have enquired of the natives whether the seeds might not
be sown, and new cardamom fields be made in this way; but they
replied in the negative, saying that the seeds would indeed germi¬
nate, but the stem would not grow bigger and thicker than a
needle, and would whither away of itself. From this it appears
that this plant is indigenous to certain districts, and can¬
not be grown in any other. Supposing indeed the case were
otherwise, it may be that the natives would not allow It; for it
yields the much more profit than pepper does, especially at
Cananore.
In conclusion, I will mention the areca the trade in which
is carried on throughout nearly the whole of the East Indies.
You know of course enough of the appearance of this tree from
books of travels, to be aware that its fruit springs out of its side,
after hawing been for some time enclosed within a sort of rind,
when the tree appears to be distended; till the fruit, having be¬
come hardy enough to brave the open air, bursts from its covering*
You are also aware that throughout the East Indies this fruit is
chewed, together with a leaf called Betel2 (a plant which grows
like the pepper tree, and has similar leaves), a little lime being
also mixed with it. It cleanses the mouth by its acridity, and
makes the saliva blood-red, but when it is much indulged in, it
corrodes the enamel of the teeth, so that they become black, with
those who chew it in great quantities. The Areca serves the
bindoos for dyeing, for which purpose quantities of it are dried
and exported to Coromandel and Surat. The East India Com¬
pany have made great efforts to appropriate to themselves the
areca trade on this coast, but have not succeeded. But they have
monopolized the trade in Ceylon, in spite of the dissatisfaction
of the king of Kandy, and I am told, again 100,000 rix dollars
yearly by it. In this country the natives traffic with it. and its

1. Note 7, pp. 412—416.

2. Note 8, pp. 417—422.
i8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR
price varies, the kandy being worth sometimes 3J, sometimes 4
rix dollars. There are also different sorts of areca, the common
sort, the scented sort, the white, and the red, among which con¬
sumers may purchase according to their taste.
May Heaven prosper commerce, the sinews of our State.

LETTER XXVII.
Description of the Cocoa Palm, the Malabar Cinnamon, and Coffee
shrub—Sanctity of Cows and Snakes in the eyes of the Malabars—Great
Snakes—Quantity of Crocodiles—Dangerous Kites—Fire Flies.

When I reflect on the happy country life you lead, far remote
from the turmoil in which most mortals are involved, your senses
daily regaled with the sight of flowers and the scent of blossoming
forests, pleasant tracts of clover field lying before you with dew
drops like diamonds hanging on every blade and leaf, my heart is
filled with sadness at the contrast afforded by the dreary meadows
inhabited by noxious monsters, that surround me. But as there
are novelties to be met with among the animals and vegetables
here, which are unknown in the Netherlands, I hope you wiil not
find it irksome if I give you some account of the most remarkable
that occur to me.

The cocoa palm1, which is the most useful of all trees to man,
adorns the shores of Malabar with its lofty crown. It would be
tedious to repeat all that has been said ofjts excellencies, for there
is no part of it which is not serviceable for some purpose or other.
It appears to thrive best under the influence of the cool sea breeze
and near the salt waters of the ssa; for, in more inland situations
it is found to languish. It seems also as though it delighted in
human society, being much fresher and more fruitful in the
neighbourhood of houses than in retired places.

The Creator, whose wisdom is apparent in all His works,

would seem to have bestowed especial thought on this tree. The
long slender trunk, laden at the top with fruit, he has provided
with a multitude of fibres which take root on all sides in the soil,
thereby enabling the tree to withstand the blasts of the wind.
The bark is enveloped in a kind of tissue, which some of the
natives make into cloaks. The fruit yields water for the thirsty,
food for the hungry, oil for culinary purposes and fuel for the
lamp. If you wish to extract wine from it, you must make an
incision in the top of the tree, and hang vessels round it; and from

*' Note i. PP. 423-^437.

 LETTER XXVII 19

the would there gradual 1y drops a liquid which would otherwise

circulated into the fruit. But now mark the wonderful
change which this liquid undergoes. At first, it is sweet and
rather nasty and as mild as our whey; but it soon becomes strong
enough to cause intoxication. Vinegar, and sugar of a brown and
clayey sort, may also be made from it. This liquid is a profitable
article of commerce to the Company. At Batavia they distil from
it a beverage as strong as brandy, which is mixed with brown
sugar and called arrack, this is sent to all parts of India, and
brings in a good revenue. The upper end of the trunk of the cocoa
palm is soft, and when the bark is opened a sort of piih of a white
hue is found inside, called Palmyt, soft and delicious to the taste,
and not unlike the cauliflower: but, what is chiefly remarkable to
a naturalist, in this part is found the germ of the fruit and its
shoots, neatly enclosed in a tube or sheath.

I shall give you no description of the pineapple1, jack fruit2 ,

mango3, cashew nut4, and other Malabar fruits. All books of
travels abound in plates and descriptions of them. But it is right
to remark that the cinnamon5 is found here: not the fine»
pleasant, species which grows in Ceylon, but a wild species,
having a rough, thick bark, like that of the China-China, and a
strong disagreeable flavour. The root of this tree is fit for
yielding oil, and the oil which is procured from the rind is at first
red, but gradually decomposes and settles down into a kind of
camphor. The natives ure this cinnamon in cookery, and as it is
very cheap, costing less than a stiver per pound, there is no
demand here for the better kind. The English contrive to sell
this Malabar cinnamon in an underhand way in other places.

The coffee shrub is planted in gardens for pleasure, and yields

plenty of fruit which attains a proper degree of ripeness 6. But it
has not the refined taste of the Mocha coffee. An entire new
plantation of coffee shrubs has been laid out at Ceylon, with what
success, time will shew. If it thrive, great advantage no doubt
will accrue to the East India Company, who will not thus be com¬
pelled to purchase such quantities from Mocha, where the price is
very high and continually rising on account of the concourse of
European traders from all parts, while for the same reason the

1. Note 2, p. 437.
2. Note 3, pp. 437—444.
3. Note 4, pp. 444—445*
Note 5. PP* 446—447.
5. Note 6, pp. 447—449,
6. Note 8, pp. 450— 451*
20 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

value of the European and Indian wares brought there, is greatly

diminished.

This country of Malabar, though mountainous in the interior,

contains but little mineral wealth, except iron, which is not
expensive here, and is exported to Mocha after being beaten out
in small bars. The natives make their firelocks of this metal,
and their swords likewise, though they prefer cutlasses of Euro*
pean workmanship. The loadstone is very cheap here. You can
get it for i shilling per lb. But whether it is found here, or, as
some have told me, is brought from the Maldives, I cannot posi¬
tively say.

And now to pass on to the subject of animal life. 1 You have

heard perhaps that animals are esteemed holy among the
Malabars,2 a coincidence with, or possibly an imitation of, the
superstition of the ancient Egyptians, among whom the slaughter
of a cow was reckoned a heinous crime. A rajah, when he
mounts the throne, must take an oath to protect cows, brahmins
and women. They cannot comprehend how we, Europeans, can
bo so cruel as to kill an animal which yields milk and butter for
man’s sustenance. Therefore the places where cows are
slaughtered are looked upon as unholy, and whenever they can
prevent the act they do so. Among themselves any one who
kills a cow is held guilty of murder, and though the murder of a
man may be expiated by the payment of a sum of money, mercy
is not easily extended to the crime of cow-killing. It is true that
cows are daily brought into the town of Cochin which have been
stolen by Christians belonging to the Company’s jurisdiction, and
we are obliged to wink at this practice, or punish the robbery, if
discovered, by only a slight fire, or otherwise we should have to
go without meat altogether.

It is not a little remarkable and must be ascribed to the

wise decrees of Providence that although beef is prohibited to all
natives and to Christians living under native rule, yet the num¬
ber of cows does not greatly increase.

When a native is dying he takes hold of the tail of a cow

which is brought alive to his bed-side: and some image that
ty doing this they are conducted to heaven.3 Thus the cow’s
tail serves much the same purpose to them, as wax tapeis
to the members cf the Romish church, and in place

r. Note 9, pp. 451—453.

2. Note io, pp. 453—455.
3. Note u, pp. 455—456.
 LETTER XXVII 21
of holy water, they take cow dung, and spread it on their
benches, floors and stairs, believing that the evil spirit cannot
make his way over it to do them harm. They use this substance
also in their purifications.1
If a cow happens to die, the hide is stripped off by a certain
caste or race, who are held in much the same low estimation with
them, as flayers are among us. As the natives do not wear shoes,
these skins are sold to the Company, a bundle or 20 pieces for 16
stivers; and they are sent to Ceylon where they are used for pack¬
ing cinnamon.
There are great quantities of snakes here.2 Not only da they
infest woods and fields, but they get into towns and houses also.
We lose our fear of them in a great measure, from habit, but there
is no doubt that they are very poisonous, and will kill a person
who accidently treads upon them. Otherwise, they rather try to
escape from us. The natives esteem them as almost divine and
hold their lives sacred.3 The cobra capella is the most reverenced.
Its head is flat, broad and arched, and on its back is a figure
resembling a pair of spectacles. The natives perform their Som-
baieny or obeisance, to these snakes, and keep a bit of their gardens
partitioned off in honour of them, and for the chance of their
arrival. They burn a lamp, and place a dish of rice in these
enclosures once a year. To such an extent do they carry the
superstition, that whenever they find a dead cobra capella, they
consider themselves bound to burn its body with a smill piece of
sandalwood, a grain of gold, psarl dust, corals, etc., using the
same ceremonies as at the burning of a person of one of the high
caste3. The European soldiers and sailors sometimes turn this
custom to their own account: first they kill a snake and then sell
it for a fanam or two to the superstitious Caaarese, who buy it for
the sake of giving it a good funeral. The cobra capdlas are also
used by the serpent charmers in their arts—they are taught. to
dance, being enclosed in separate baskets with which the charmers
go about from house to house. In these danc s they do not spring
up on their tail, as travellers are wont to tell us, but merely twist
themselves and raise the upper pait of the body, which is no doubt
their natural attitude when they sit upright, so that there is no¬
thing marvellous in it. Moreover their poison has been carefully
extracted, by making them bite some hard material, in con¬
sequence of which the vessels in the mouth containing the venom
are broken. When a snake moves in this manner, one man blows

1. Note 12, pp. 456—437.

2. Note 13, PP* 4S7—474*
3. Note 14, pp. 474—498.
22 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

on an instrument whilst another holds the cover of the basket

over the snake, which keeps striking at it with its mouth as though
t would bite if it could. The charmers are sometimes cheated by
these snakes, if they are incautious in their management, so that
it has become a proverb among the Malabars, that “the Carnakken
(men who ride on elephants) and snake-charmers seldom die their
natural death”. When the dance is over they close the cover of
the flat basket over the snake’s head, and It creeps in of its own
accord. In the mountains and remete jungles of this country
there is a species of snake of the shape and thickness of the stem
of a tree, which can swallow men and beasts entire. I have been
told an amusing story about one of these snakes. It is said that
at Barcelore, a chcgo had climbed up a cocoar.ut tree to draw
toddy or palm wine, and as he was coming down, both his legs
were seized by a snake which had stretched itself up alongside the
tree with its mouth wide open, and was sucking him in gradually
as he descended. Now, the Indian, according to the custom of
Lis country, had stuck his Teifermes (an instrument not unlike a
pruning knife) into his girdle, with the curve turned outwards: and
when he was more than half swallowed the knife began to rip up
the body of the snake so as to make an opening, by which ihi
lucky man most unexpectedly was able to escape.
Though the snakes in this country are so noxious to the natives,
yet the natives’ veneration for them is still maintained. No one
dares to injure them or drive them away by violence, and so
audacious do they become, that they will sometimes creep between
people’s legs when they are eating, and attack their bowls of rice,
in which case retieat is necessary until the monsters have satiated
themselv es and taken their departure.

The crocodiles or caymans also abound here1, and are vene¬

rated by the Malabars. They are not so large or dangerous
as those of Java. Most of the tanks and ponds of Malabar con¬
tain these animals, and they are found likewise in marshy places.
They abound in the rainy season, when the plains are filled with
water. I have myself seen six or seven of them in the short space
between the town and the Company’s gardens, about half an
hour's distance. They are not very mischievous on dry land, but
in the water they are more dreaded, as they occasionally drag a
person dowrn.

The tiger and elephant are so well known that I need not
describe them here. I should mention however that in the fine

i• Note is, pp. 498—500.

 LETTER XXVII 2$

season a certain species of kite1 2 is found here which I have never

met with elsewhere. It is of an ugly red colour, furnished with
sharp claws with which it snatches pieces of meat from a window,
or fish and other eatables from men’s hands or basins as they go
up the streets, and then flies away with its booty. Though so
much given to thieving, kites do great good within the town,
acting as scavengers for the natives, who are by no means so neat
in their habits as the people of Holland and Friesland. During
the war of 1716 and 1717, they followed the army, finding abund¬
ant food to satisfy their hunger,

A little insect called the fire-fly2 is found in India; it is very

small in size, and emits a bright sparkling light, which can be
seen glittering at a distance in the evening. A species of bird
resembling our sparrow, which builds very peculiar nests in the
shape of a sheath, is endowed by nature with the power of attract¬
ing these insects, as if for the purpose of obtaining their light in
its nest. The substance which emits the light is situated in the
extremity of the insect’s body which in day-light, or after death, is
as white as wax, if the insect’s mouth is pressed, so as to hinder its
respiration, the light is dimmed, but it shines out again brighter
than before as soon as the pressure is removed.

1. Note 16, p, 500.

2, Note *7, p. 5C0.
f!| **' -,<f 4
f /
PERUMANAM temple
 NOTES ON

Visscher’s
LETTERS FROM MALABAR.

LETTER XXIII.
i* Malabar Temples* The subject of religion
is so closely associated with that of temples, which
are bouses where religious worship is performed that it
will not be out of place to say something here about
the religion of the Malabar people.
Just as Malabar is a museum of races, where you
can see side by side the highest and the lowest types
of humanity, ranging from the Namputiris to the Katirs,
you have also the most undiluted form of the highest,
the most abstract form of religion of Southern India,
V^dan^ism, standing cheek by jowl with the most
entirely primitive from of Animism. At one end there
is the NaippUjiri who has latterly been influenced by
VEdanjism, that wonderful religious idea of the exist¬
ence of one spirit or Atman, the only reality, outside
which the world and all besides is mere illusion, and
which doctrine is wrapped up in the three words Ekam
Eva adviflyam, there is but one being without a second.
At the other end we have the most primitive form of
animism, spirit worship, fetish worship, tree and plant
worship and animal worship practised by the abori¬
ginal hill tribes inhabiting the high mountains of the
Western Ghats* Cowed down and oppressed by the
magnitude of their mountainous surroundings, the
, primitive tribes that inhabit these virgin forests see in
everything that arrests, their attention an evil spirit
2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

which, unless propitiated, will be in their eyes, a source

of eternal annoyance. Between the Aryan or Dravidian
idea of an abstract unity without a second and the
aboriginal idea of numberless spirits that inhabit these
limitless space, there are various grades of belief, one a
shade different from the other. The Nayars, who form
the most important community inhabiting Malabar, are
observers of forms of worship which partake of the
characteristics of all or most of the above. In fact,
their ideas of religion are more Dravidian than Aryan,
modified, indeed, and improved by close contact with
Aryan forms of worship.
Taken as a whole, the religion of the Malayans
may be said to come under the term ‘Hindu’; but that
term should then be understood to “include in its
denotation the faith of the y5gi, entranced in medita¬
tion on the Brahman, no less than that of the purely
ceremonial Hindu and of those classes of the population
generally known as the Hill-tribes'’*
The Naippujiries’ religion is certainly of the
Vedas. His is by far the purest form of Vedic Brah¬
manism to be met with in Southern India, or,, for the
matter of that, in India itself. Yet the fact remains
that his religion has been influenced to a large extent by
the demonolatory and ancestor worship of the early
Dravidians whom he conquered and subdued. Such is
the adaptability of Brahmanism, we may almost say of
Hinduism, that the Aryan settlers from the north found
it not difficult to bring about a community of religion
by assimilating to themselves many of the forms of wor¬
ship observed by the Dravidian inhabitants of the
country, keeping themselves in the meanwhile dis¬
creetly aiocf from many of its most gross forms. Thus
it will be no strange sight to see an orthodox NaippH$iri
worshipping his ancestors, also trees and plants such
as the Pee pul or Asvattka (Ficus religiosa) the Bilva
(Aegle marmelos), the Tulasi (Ocymum Sanctum), the
Atoka (.Jouesia Atoka), and animals and birds such as
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 3

the cow, and the Brahman! Kite, and stones such as

the Salugramam and the linganu Serpent worship too
takes a peculiar and important place in their cult. It
will also be seen that the Hindu Pantheon has absorbed
to itself and assigned a place to the various demons
and deities venerated by the lower classes, so much so
that it would be difficult at present to differentiate
between the principals and their accessories. While
the refined forms of worship of the Aryan gods have
been prejudicially affected by association with the
worship of the grosser deities of primitive peoples, it
must be remarked that the religion of the latter has
been considerably improved by its coming in touch
with the more refined form of Aryan worship.
The religion of the common people is not however
that of the Vedas. It is not a degraded form of Brah¬
manism either; but it is rather an elevated form of
earlier Dravidian religion ; a very different thing-
As already observed, the demons and the rude divini¬
ties that once occupied and absorbed the care and
attention of their early worshippers have now been
relegated to the lower end, while the refined gods of
the Aryan or Dravidian Pantheon have been accorded
the places hitherto occupied by them* The refining
policy set on foot from the earlier days of Aryan con¬
quest worked itself by degrees, with the assistance and
co-operation of the Brahmans themselves till at last
even the theistic idea of ancient Brahmanism itself has
begun to find a place in the complex belief of the lower
orders of the Malaysli community. The process has
been one of slow and silent evolution, and it is going
on still. The animists and demon worshippers of the
hills are being silently but steadily absorbed into the
fold of modern Hinduism, and we see these aboriginal
tribes as also the higher orders such as the TlavSs
eagerly advancing to take their place as devout
worshippers of the Aryan Trinity.
The Hindu worships the Supreme Being under
three forms, Brahma, Vi§hnu, and Siva respectively
4 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23*

the creative, the preservative, and the destructive

forces. Rsma, Krjhija, and other divinities are but
later developments of Pauranic Hinduism. Even with
regard to the Trinity or TnmGftr, Professor Wilson
observes: “neither is there (in the Vgdas itself, speak¬
ing of the gods of the Vgdas) the slightest hint of
another important feature of later Hinduism, the Tri-
murti, or Tri-une combination of Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva, as typified by the mystical one, although, accord¬
ing to high authority on the religions of antiquity the
Trimurti was the first element in the faith of the
Hindus and the second was the fotipuin*'1 . The
Mslayslis make no difference among the followers of
Vishnu, Siva, Bhagavati, or Rsma. They do not
know one from the other except in name. Sectarian
differences are altogether unknown in Malabar, at any
rate* in the combative spirit in which they exist else*
where in India. .As pointed out by one Travancore
Census Reporter: “The later developments of Hindu¬
ism have not acquired here those sharp distinctions
which seem to have crystalised elsewhere into mutually
exclusive sects, the adherents of each worshipping a
particular deity to the exclusion of others. If any
preferential adoration is shown by any person, it is
generally because the deity that receives it is the
presiding Murti in the village temple or is his Ishta
Devata or Eula Daivam (family deity). Such special
worship is not exclusive as against other deities”2 .
“Nowhere in Malabar will one see the differences
obtaining amongst the Sri Vaishnavas of Conjeevaram
who are divided into the Tenkalay and Vadakalay
sects, each hating the other with the most acrid bit¬
terness. The Malayalis, Namputiris included, have
never been known to differentiate’ between Siva and
Vi§hnu as a point of religious dogma. They worship
both alike as different manifestations of the same god¬
head. They accord no precedence to any single head
I# WHson’s fag Veda, Vol. I, pp XXVI—XXVII.
2. Page 87.
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 5

of the Trinity. In their view, all the three are of

equal position, their functions being sometimes inter¬
changeable. Their faith may be well expressed in the
words of the great Sanskrit poet KdidSsa, the
Shakespeare of India, as rendered ino English by
Griffith:—
“In those three Persons the one God was shown—
Each first in place each last—not one above;
Of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva each may be
First, second, third, among the blessed Three.”
A umarasambhavam.
They take the philosophic view that “conscious¬
ness, perception and objectivity, the three aspects or
categories of Being, or the seven aspects into which
they may be divided, are not separate isolated natures
and their graduals unfolding does not constitute three
different and distinct processes; all three are but
phases, aspects or facets of the One Being in the evo¬
lution and involution of which consists the life of the
universe.”
Brahma. Though first in the order of Trinity,
Brahma has few temples dedicated to his worship, not
only in Malabar but in all India. The temple of Brahma
Pu§hkar, situated in the midst of the hills on the
margin of a beautiful lake, seven miles from Ajmere, is
perhaps, the most important shrine where he is wor¬
shipped. He has, however, a place assigned to him,
quite a minor one, in some temples. In Travancore,
some of the oldest temples, such as those at Tir ovallam
and Valia Chalai near Trivandrum, are dedicated to
him as well as to Vishnu and Siva. At Mitfananda-
* _ • 9

puram, within the Trivandrum Fort, there are, within

a few yards of each other, separate shrines to Brahma,
Vi§hAu, and Siva. So also at Chgfiftamangalam in the
Cochin State.
Vishnu.The worship of Vi§hnu, as such, as also
in the several forms of his various incarnations, is uni¬
versal. He is perhaps the most popular of the Hindu
5 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

deities. While the grim Siva is awe-inspiring, the

mild and beneficent Vishnu as Rsma and Kj*§h$a are
rather inviting and loveable. His various incarnations
are recorded in the Puranas and I$ih2sas of which the
Bhsgavaja, the Rsmayana and the MahabhSrSJa consti¬
tute the chief portion of the popular religious literature
of the Malaysli Hindus. There are many important
Vi$hriu shrines in Malabar. The more important ones
in Travancore are:— those of Sri Padmansbha at Tri¬
vandrum, of Adi K5$ava Perumai at Tiruvettur, of
Janardana at Varklay and of Kj-shria at Neyyatftfun-
karay and Ambalappulay; among those in Cochin and
British Malabar are the shrines of Kr§h$a at Trip¬
ps unitturay, Chittur and Guruvayur.

Siva. He is considered the most powerful of the

Triad. He is MahadSva or MaheSwara, the great God,
Sambhu, the Auspicious, I§wara or Vi$w5$wara, the
Supreme Lord; Digambara, “he who is clothed with
space;” A jrdhanaris wara (God whose half is woman),
symbolical of “duality and unity of the generative act
and production of the universe from the union of the
two eternal elements Prakriti, and Purusha, Maya
and Brahmam.” He is the destroyer as well as the
regenerator of the universe, “perpetually re-integra¬
ting after disintegration.” “He is the great typical
ascetic and self-mortifier (yogi, Tapasvi), who has
attained the highest perfection in meditation and
austerity. It is in this character
that he teaches men by his own example the power to
be acquired by mortification of the body, suppression
of the passions, and abstract contemplation, as leading
to the loftiest spiritual knowledge and ultimately effect¬
ing union with himself in Kailasa”
The lingum or phallus, with its usual accompani¬
ment, is now the universal and sole emblem of Siva
worship- There are in Malabar many temples dedi¬
cated to the worship of Siva. The more important ones
are: In Travancore, the shrine of StSniu Murti at
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 7

Suchlndram near Nagerkoil, Perintirukovalappan at

Vaikam and Mahsdeva at Etftfumanur. In Cochin,
ChidambarSSwara at Tiruvanjikulam and Vatakunna*
than at Trichur, Kiratamurtti at Erriakulam.
Other deities besides the Trimoo rti are also
worshipped, but only as tutelary deities. The chief
among them are Vighneswara, Subramaniya and Sasta,
all of whom are of the Saivite branch. Vighngswara,
the God of wisdom and remover of all obstacles, is
generally known in Malabar by the name Gaijapati and
his image finds a place in every temple. His worship
is very popular. He is the son of Siva and Pafvaji
and is said to have been conceived and born according
to one version, while his parents were sporting in the
forests as elephants- Hence his form partakes of the
appearance of a human body with an elephant’s head.
As remover of obstacles, his blessings are invoked for
success in the performance of all religious acts ; and
in fact, before beginning any undertaking. He is
looked upon as an embodiment of sagacity, shrewdness,
patience and self-reliance; all those qualities that lead
to success in life* Hence his extreme popularity.
Subfama^ya is a brother of Gagapati, and his
worship too is very popular in the Malayalam and
Tamil districts of Southern India. He is represented
as a most benevolent deity protecting the helpless and
avenging the wicked. He is the god of war and leader
of the celestial hosts. Some of his well known temples
are:—In Travancore, those at Haripsd, UdayanSpuram
and Munnam. In Cochin:—those at Elangunnappuja,
Vyffila and JHkkumSramkotam*
The chief places of Subramar^ya’s worship are,
however, situated, outside Malabar, at Palani, in the
Madura district, and at JiruchancJar in the Tinnevelly
district. The Malayans, like other Hindus of the
Eastern and Western Coast, make vows to the former
shrine and fulfil them by carrying what is called a
KSvati. It generally consists of a stick, decorated with
 8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L, 23.

ornamental wood-work tapestry and peacock feathers

horizontally placed with a canopy over it and pots
attached to both ends. The votary carries this arrange¬
ment on his right shoulder, the pots at the ends contain¬
ing milk or honey or rose-water or some other thing
which he had vowed to present to the diety at Pajani.
The pilgrim dresses in reddish orange clothes, shoulders
the kavati and goes accompanied by bells, tomtoms, etc.
However opulent the votary may be, he has to go as a
beggar in all humbleness and humiliation to deposit
his tribute before the God at Pajani.

Sssta or Ayyappan is another son of Siva, this

time not conceived in the womb of his spouse Pafvaji
but in the womb of Vishriu in the disguise of a female.
His worship is exceedingly popular all over South
India. The Kgrajojpatti states that, in order to stand
guard and protect his country of Kgraja, ParaSu Rsrma
built a chain of temples along the Ghauts, dedicated to
Sssfa, and another along the sea coast to purga.
However this may be, there is the fact that the most
important Sasja temples are located near the summits
of the mountains in the east, while the chief Dufga
shrines, there are 108 of them, lie along the western
sea board. Of the Sasja temples, the most important
is the one situated on the summit of the Sabaritnala in
the Chenganur Taluk, Travancore. Numberless
pilgrims flock to this shrine from far and near after
qualifying themselves for the worship by a previous dis¬
ciplinary course of forty-one days (frugal diet and
sexual abstinence). Batches after batches of these
pilgrims with loads on their heads may be seen all
along the line of communication, calling out in unison
the name of the God to protect them. The temple is
situated on a steep hill and approach under ordinary
circumstances is difficult. But religious enthusiasm,
may be religious frenzy, sets at naught all physical
difficulties and pilgrims to the number of several
thousands annually undertake this journey to the
N. i J MALABAR TEMPLES 9

secluded shrine of Ayyappan in the thickness of the

forest. The auspicious date of worship is the first of
Makaram.
Coming to Vaishnavite deities, there are many 01
them who receive worship in Malabar, such as K^hjia,
Rama, Narasimha, Lak$hmaija and Bharata.
There are indeed temples where an amalgamated
form of Siva and Vi?hnu is worshipped as Sankara-
naraya^a; and the adoration of SSs|a, the issue of the
couple, is another example of nonsectarian worship.
There are also female deities worshipped. But
all of them partake of the character of the worship of
their spouses* Such as Saraswati, the wife of Brahma,
Lek$hmi, the wife of Vi?hnu, and PSrvati, the wife of
§iva. The grosser forms of female divinities worship¬
ped are those of Bhadra Kali, Chsmunda, etc. Of
the temples where such deities are worshipped, those
at Ma$$adi, Mandaksd, Koduigallur and Kottyoor
may be specially mentioned. Their worship involves
bloody sacrifices and the Namputiris always keep away,
though they are never slow to extol the merits of such
worship.
AtMukkolais a shrine where the deity worshipped
takes the form both of a male and a female.
There are a number of minor tutelary deities
worshipped by various classes of people, more or less
advanced in the idea of religion. Almost every house
in Malabar has or had but till recently, a place set
apart for the worship of such tutelary deities to whom
sacrifices are offered occasionally, so that, alongside
with the more refined worship of Vedic and Pauranic
deities, one is apt to find the grosser forms of worship
offered to these family divinities. And no one need
be surprised at this. For as observed by Dr. Fraser in
his Golden Bough* “As in Europe, beneath a superficial
layer of Christianity, a belief in magic and witchcraft,
in ghosts, goblins, has always survived, and even
to LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. *3.

flourished^ ....... _So it has been, and so it is in the

East Brahmanism, Bhuddism, Islam, may come and
go, but the belief in magic and demons remains un¬
shaken through them all and, if we may judge of the
future from the past, is likely to survive the rise and
fall of other historical religions*’.
Demonolatory exists in M alabar to a large extent,
hough it is confined mostly to the lower orders.
Unconnected, though it be, with the higher forms of
Hinduism, even the Brahmans are not free from the
fear they entertain of the power of the devils to do
mischief and cause injury to human beings. The
Narnputiris themselves do not worship these devils or
partake in the worship offered by their votaries. But
they do not hesitate, as occasion arises, to cause devil
worship to be performed by the lower classes. “The
spirits of depraved men, of those who have met with a
violent death by drowning, hanging or other means, are
believed to become demons and wander about, inflict¬
ing injury in various ways upon mankind- It is sup¬
posed that these having been cut short of their legiti¬
mate existence in this world before the expiry of the
full period allowed them, their spirits have to spend
the unexpired portion of their lives before they meet
with reward or punishment adequate to their deeds.
At noon as well as at midnight the devils are supposed
to lie in wait for seizing or ‘possessing’ those who walk
in lonely places or under the tamarind trees or on the
shores of tanks. Iron rings, iron staffs or leather
shoes are considered to afford protection against their
influence. At night the devil is believed to call loudly
in order to allure people out of their homes into distant
jungles, there to kill them. Hence calls at night are
never responded to until the fourth repetition, for devils
would not call more than thrice. At the period of
puberty and after childbirth, women are peculiarly
liable to the attacks of demons and these are the cause
of convulsions and similar disorders. The sudden
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES it

illnesses of children and adults are also believed to arise

in the same way. The devils which have such power
to afflict mankind are appeased by sacrifices, and their
influence averted by harms and incantations. The
greater number of them are supposed to reside in trees,
many are constant wanderers, while others are dwel-
lers of houses* The trees and other places believed to
be thus haunted are always approached with very great
fear and none dare approach them during nights.”1
The worship of animals, birds, reptiles, plants and
other objects have also to be noticed. Of animals, the
cow and the bull are the most sacred objects of wor¬
ship. The cow is Kamsdhgnu, the giver of all things.
The bull (Nandi) is Siva’s vehicle. The elephant is
the form in which the God Gaijapati was born. The
monkeys formed the army of Rsma, and their chief
Hanumsn, has temples dedicated to him. Fishes and
crocodiles are reared in tanks and reservoirs attached
to temples, as they a.e held to be favourites of the gods
to whom whose shrines are dedicated. Among birds,
Garuda, the Brahmani kite, is most worshipped. It is
the Vahanam of Vi§hniu. The peacock is a favourite
of Brahma, Saraswap, and Subramanya and receives
due attention. Of reptiles the serpent and the common
house lizard deserve mention.
Of stones worshipped, the Salagramam and the
Siva Lingam deserve prominent mention. The use
and value of Salagrsmams is thus explained by a writer
in an issue of the Madras Mail in March 1906:—*uSa«
lagrimams are fossible cephalopodes such as Anammo-
nite or Blenorite, and are found chiefly in the bed of
the Gandak river, a mountain torrent which, rising in
the lofty mountains of Nepal, flows into the Ganges at
Salagrami, a village from which they take their name,
and which is not far from the sacred city of Benares
In appearance they are small black shiny pebbles of
various shapes, usually round or oval, with a peculiar
1. The Travancore State Manual, Vol. II, p. 55*
12 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 23.

natural hole in them. They have certain marks and

often are flecked and inlaid with gold. The name
Salagram is of Sanskrit derivation, from Sara chakray
the weapon of Vi§hnu, grava, a stone, the chakra or
chaktam being represented on the stone by queer
spiral lines, probably believed to be engraved
thereon at the request of Vi§hnu by the creator.
Brahma, who, in the form of a worm, bores the holes
known as Vadanas and traces the spiral coil that gives
the stone its name.The mystic river Gandaki
is within the jurisdiction of the Maharaja of Nepal and
is jealously guarded on bothbanks, while the four special
places where the sacred stones are mostly picked up are
leased out under certain conditions, the most important
being, that all true Salagrams found are to be submit*
ted to the Maharaja. These are then tested, the selected
ones retained and the others returned to the lessee.
The first test of the Salagrams to prove if they are
genuine is very simple, but later they are put through
other ordeals to try their supernatural powers. Each
stone, as it is discovered, is struck on all sides with a
small hammer, or, in some cases, is merely knocked
with the finger. This causes the soft powdery part
produced by the boring of the w’orm, to fall in and dis¬
close the Vadana or hole, which may, in those of the
more valuable Salagrams, contain gold or a precious
gem.,... .There are over eighteen known different
kinds of true Salagrams, the initial value of which
varies according to the shapes and markings of the
stone. The price of any one Salagram may be so
enhanced after the further tests have been applied that
even a lakh of rupees will fail to purchase it, and should
experience prove the stone a lucky one, nothing will,
as a rule, induce the fortunate owner to part with it.
The three shapes of Salagrams most highly prized are
known as the Vishnu Salagram, the Lekshmi Narasimha
Salagram, and the Mutchya Marti Salagram. The
first has a chakram on it, the shape of a garland and
hears marks known as the Shenker gadar padma^ or
N. i.l MALABAR TEMPLES 13

the weapons of Vi§h$u, and is peculiar to that god.

The second has two chakrams on the left of the Vadana
and has dots or specks all over it. This stone, if pro¬
perly worshipped, is believed to ensure to its owner
prosperity and enternal life. The third, the Mutchya
Murthi, is a long shaped flat stone with a Vadana that
gives it a resemblance to the face of a fish. It bears
two chakrams^ one inside and one outside the Vadana
and also has specks and dots on it in the shape of a
shoe. There are four or five varieties of this species
and it also, if duly worshipped, will infallibly enrich its
possessor- One Salagram there is which has no Vada•
na and is known as the Oogra chakra Salagram- It is
quite round with two chakrams, but it is not a particu¬
larly safe one to possess and is described as ‘furious
Salagram’, for if not worshipped with sufficient
ardour, it will recent the neglect and ruin the
owner. There are many other kinds, but space
will not admit of a detailed description of them.
Again, possession of them without worship is be¬
lieved by all Hindus to be most unlucky, ar.d as
none but Brahmans can perform the worship, none but
Brahmans will retain the stones in their keeping. For
an orthodox Brahman household, the ownership of
three or more stones is an absolute necessity* These
must be duly worshipped and washed in water, and the
water drunk as tirtha, and sacrifice of boiled rice and
other food must be daily performed. When this is
done, speedy success in all business of life will fall to
the lot of the inmates of the house, but otherwise ruin
and disgrace await them”.
Among plants and trees may be mentioned the
^ulasi (Ocimum Sanctum), the A§vafha (Fiscus releg-
iosa) and the Bilva (Aegle Marmelos).
Temples.
Coming to the subject of temples or
houses where the deities are worshipped, Professor
Wilson says that temples find no mention in the Vedas.
In his Introduction to the Rig Veda, Professor Wilson
observes—“There is no mention of any temple, or any
M LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

reference to a public place of worship, and it is clear

that the worship was purely domestic.” The Vedic
people did not raise temples because of the peculiar
nature of their worship at that time which did not then
require such edifices. The forms of worship prevail¬
ing in the Vedic age were widely different from that
prevailing at present under popular practice* The
worship which the Vedic hymns describe, “compre¬
hends offerings, prayer and praise, the former are
chiefly oblatious and libatious,—clarified butter poured
on fire, and the expressed and fermented juice of the
Soma plant, presented in ladles to the deities invoked
in what manner does not exactly appear, although it
seems to have been sometimes sprinkled on the fire,
sometimes on the ground, or rather on the Kusa, or
sacred grass, strewed on the floor and in all cases the
residue was drunk by the assistants* The ceremony
takes place in the dwelling of the worshipper, in a
chamber appropriated to the purpose and probably to
the maintenance of a perpetual fire although the fre¬
quent allusions to the occasional kindling of the
sacred flame are rather at variance with this practice/*1
This torm of worship needed no separate public place
specially set apart for it. Further it is extremely doubt¬
ful if the Vedic Indians made use of images to
represent their gods. The better opinion is that they did
not. For Max Muller says, “The religion of the Veda
knows of no idols. The worship of idols in India is a
secondary formation, a later degradation of the more
primitive worship of ideal gods”2 • Dr. Bollenson,
however, thinks that the vedic hymns contain clear
references to the images of gods. Dr. Muir while noti¬
cing the specific texts quoted by Dr, Bollenson leaves
the question open.3 Dr. Bollenson argues from the
vedic gods being called divonaras, “men of the sky**
1. Wilson’s Rig Veda, Vol. I,xxiii, xxiv.
2. Chips from a German Workshop. Vol 1, p. 38,
3. Muir’s Texts, Vol 5, p. 453.
 MALABAR TEMPLES 15

or nirpisas, “having the form of men,” that the Indians

did not merely in imagination assign human forms to
their gods, but also represented them in a sensible
manner. Upon this Pandit Prannath Saraswati perti¬
nently remarks, “1 confess my inability to follow the
latter part of the argument* By parity of reasoning,
when the Book of Genesis speaks “And God said, let
us make man in our image, after our likeness.
So God created man in his own image, in the image of
God created he him” .... we ought to assume that in the
time of Moses, the Jews worshipped their God by
making human images”. The learned Pandit refers
to Psalm XI verse 4, Psalm XVII verse 8 and Psalm
XVIII verses 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, and argues that from
these we shall have to conclude that the Jews in
David’s time worshipped their national God, as a visible
image with hands and feet and wings, riding on a
cherub and holding arrows in his hands, i*
In later literature, such as the Adbhuta Brahmana
of the Samel veda, the Adbhutadhyaya or the chapter on
Omens and Portents in the Kausika Sutra, etc.,
images of gods are mentioned* When we come to the
Pauranic period, the practice of worshipping images of
gods had become crystalised.
R. C. Dutt points out that temple worship and tem¬
ple building were not a part of the Hindu religion before
the Bhuddhistic revolution, and that Hindu temple archi¬
tecture commences only with the 6th century A. D.2
1. la,gore Law Lectures Hindu Law oj Endowments p. 37.
2. Ancient India, Vol 3, p. 344—5.
According to the vedic Hindu religion, there was no worship
of gods in temples. The Buddhists started viharas where they
worshipped Buddha. Viharas were not mere places of worship.
They were educational institutions where knowledge of all kinds,
material and spiritual, were imparted to people and cases effected
of all diseases gratis.
When Buddhism was extirpated from Kerala, Viharas were
converted into temples. (Bhadanta Aagarjuna's Rasa Vatseshika
Sutras edited by Dr. K. S. Menon, M. A., L, T., Ph. D., in the
Travancore Government Press.)
16 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L.

The Dravidians in the south had evidently temples

where the deities they adored were housed and worship¬
ped in the early centuries of the Christian Era. The
Periplesof Arian as well as Ptolemy the geographer
mention the worship of Durga at Komar, the great
promontory, satisfactorily identified with Cape Como¬
rin. “It has derived its name,” says Bishop Caldwell,
“from the Sans: Kumari, a virgin, one of the names
of the goddess Durga, the presiding divinity of
the place, but the shape which this word has
taken is specially in Komar, distinctively Tamilian.”
The Malabar style of temple architecture differs
radically from that of other parts of India. Indeed it
has little or no affinity with the Dravidian style
obtaining on the East Coast. If at ail, it has some re¬
semblance to the Jaina temples of Canara, constructed
on an entirely new style from those of Northern
and Southern India and having some resemblance
to the Nepalese style. Most of them are constructed
entirely of wood and such of the stone temples as exist,
are close imitations of the wooden ones.
Regarding this style, Mr. Ferguson in his History
of Indian and Eastern Architecture makes the follow¬
ing suggestive remarks:—
“When we decend the ghauts into Canara, or the
Tulava country, we come on a totally different state
of matters. Jainism is the religion of the country, and
all, or nearly all the temples belong to this sect, but
their architecture is neither the Dravidian style of the
About temples, Mr. P. K. Narayana Pillai, B. A. B. L.,
M. L. C., late a Judge of the Travancore High Court, has the
fo!lowingtremarks in the Devaswam Separation Committee Report,
in the Travancore Government Gazette of 12th July 1921,
The Vedas do not tell us of any idol or idol worship. We be*
gin to get sight of images in the later phases of the vedic period—
Then we have the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India, the
former being the older of the two .... The growth of, not the
rise itself, of temples and public religious worship is due in no
small measure to the influence of Buddhism.
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES if

bouth nor that of Northern India, and indeed is not

known to exist anywhere else in India proper, but
recurs with all its peculiarities in Nepal”. “They
are so much plainer than Hindu temples usually are.
The pillars look like logs of wood with the angles
partially chamfered off, so as to make them octagons,
and the sloping roofs of the verandahs are so evidently
wooden that the style itself cannot be far removed from
a wooden original. In many places, indeed below the
ghauts the temples are still wholly constructed in wood
without any admixture of stone, and almost all the
features of the Moodbidri temples may be found in
wood at the present day. The blinds between the
pillars, which are there executed in stone, are found
in wood in every city in India, and, with very little
variation, are used by Europeans in Calcutta to a
greater extent, perhaps, than they were ever used by
the natives.
“The feature, however, which presents the great
est resemblance to the northern styles is the reverse
slope of the eaves above the verandah. I am not aware
of its existence anywhere else south of Nepal, and it is
so peculiar that it is much more likely to have been
copied than reinvented.” 1
Quoting the above extracts trom Ferguson, Mr.
Logan remarks that “This style of architecture marks
out better than anything else the limits of the ancient
kingdom of Chera (or Kerala), for the style prevails
all through the West Coast country from the limits of
Canara to Cape Comorin. In Malabar proper, the
style is reserved almost, if not altogether, exclusively
for religious edifices. In Travancore it is often to be
seen in lay buildings.”
The Mahomedans of Malabar also seem to have
imitated this style of architecture for their mosques,
and Mr* Logan accounts for this by the tradition that
some at least of the original nine mosques were built
on the sites of temples, and that the temple endowments
iS LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

in land were made over with the temples, for the main¬
tenance of the mosques. Before Mahomedanism had
become quite established in the country as to have its
own places of worship, it is not difficult to suppose
that the temples themselves thus transferred were
at first used for the new worship, and this may have set
the fashion which has come down to the present day.
So faithfully is the Hindu temple copied, that the
Hindu trisul (or trident) is not unfrequently still placed
over the open gable front of the mosque.
Mr. Logan is of opinion that this system of temple
architecture was introduced into Canara and Malabar
by the Jains. He thinks that Asoka was a Jain by re¬
ligion and that the great Emperor’s Missionaries spread
over the Malabar Coast about the third century B. C*
and has left behind them this style of temple building.
The indigenous style of temple architecture in
Malabar, as pointed out by Mr. Nagam Aiya, lacks
both the costliness and grandeur of theDravidian struc¬
tures, but are neat and simple with ample provision
for admitting plenty of light and fresh air, and in these
respects are undoubtedly superior to the costly edifices
of the Dravidian style. “Their style of architecture’s
observes the author of a Memoir of the Travancore
Survey, 4‘is sufficiently complicated, but never remark¬
able for design, elegance or magnificence of dimensions;
it consists of a series of low buildings encompassed by
a strong wall, * * * the centre is frequently oc¬
cupied by a temple or temples occasionally of a circular
form and covered with a conical top, the whole often
being roofed with copper though covered with ’minute
complexity” s.
Nothing can be more beautifully picturesque than
the situation of the Malabar temples. They are all
located in the best possible sites available, either on the
top of a hill, on the verge of a large lake, or by the side
i« Vol. I, p, 20.
N.I.] MALABAR TEMPLES 19

of a running stream embosomed in the exuberant foli¬

age of majestic trees- They are surrounded with groves
and tanks for the refreshment and devotion of wor¬
shippers.
An ordinary Malabar temple consists of the
following:—
(i)The Srikovil containing the Garbha Griha
(,sanctus sanctorum), the holy of holies, into which no
one except the Ssnjikkaran, the priest who ministers
to the image, is permitted to enter. *• It is generally
i. Except the persons performing the puja% the services to
the image, no other person of whatever caste is allowed into the
inner shrine or garbhagriha. Other Bnfhmins and Kshetriyas are
permitted to approach up to the steps, and to get up on the man*
tapam for devotional purposes. Vysias and Sudras can go as far
as the sop ana.
'Thus, even among the Savarnas themselves, there are marked
distinctions. There are times and circu nstances in which even
Savarnas are excluded from temples. Then there are special
usages in certain temples excluding classes ordinarily entitled to
admission, such as Kshetriyas, and Savarna ladies. Exclusion is
thus not a result of any inferiority complex.
There is a separate class of Sastric works devoted to the sub¬
ject of temples and temple-worship. They are known as Agamas.
Pancharatra, Pasupata, Vishnusamhita, Kamikagamay Vaikhana-
sagama, Isanugurudevapadhati, 2atvapradipika, Tantrasamuchaya
and Tantraprayuschilta are some of the very important authorities
accepted in Kerala. Some of these are not original works, but
Nibandhas treated as authoritative expositions of agimic doctrines
and rules. 2antrasamuchaya is the Nibhandha most widely ac¬
cepted in Kerala. This is the work of Chennassun Namputiri.
The other two (which are also in consonance with the usige of
Kerala are Yogiarprayaschithu cf Nilakanta Yogiar and the
Prayaschitha vimarstni of Mahishamangalam Namputiri. (Report
of theTr. Temple Entry Com. 1934;. The words agama^antra and
yamala are at times used as synonyms. But they differ slightly,
Agama is said to treat of 25 subjects, while the other two treat of
7 and S only, respectively.
The effectiveness of the puja is proportionate to the spiritual
power of the Pujari or Tantri. rie must be a Brahmin with the
necessary knowledge of Mantras and lantras and of unimpeach¬
able character.
 20 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

square in plan but sometimes circular also, surmounted

by a conical roof covered with copper plates or tiled,
with a'|'5likaku{am or Sfupam of gold, silver, or copper
gilt, at the top. The image is placed in the middle of
this inner shrine (Garbha Gfha). In some of the
older temples, the Srikovils are circular in form. The
square ones have occasionally what looks as a double
roofing, one slightly raised over the other.
Garbha Gfha is raised a few feet above the sur¬
rounding level, and its door is reached by a flight of
steps called SopSna. Surrounding this structure is an
open space called ankana.
(2) In the front of the Srlkovil is the raised
platform, the Ma^apam (;mukha mantapam) which is
always square in form, where Brahmans sit for prayer,
facing the image and perform Narnasksrams or prostra¬
tions* In Siva temples a bull is placed in the Ma^Ja*
pam in the middle of the front edge facing the image.
(3) Beyond it is the Nalampalam which con¬
sists of corridors or pillared halls all round the Sfl-
kffvil and the Mantapam. These are used for several
purposes. The Nslampalam is divided into cells,
rooms, and halls for storing articles of daily consump¬
tion in the temple, for cooking the Nivgdyam or food
served to the god, for Brahmans to sit for prayer in
seclusion, etc-

o/ltQ-jg cdae/lnns ^cronruocro0(^'l«cB>®aQi8

cru j 0 cd") <D)« ai e 0 co a oj) j « ai (oto) o
03 ffR 0 ^ ^ 0 jaJ 3 ® OJ ® (0 0 (JUT 8*1 (8 c0a9d 0

acdjMoji'laJatvjl 2®(ooa^'l«e03oa^.

The spiritual power (*®.«i<wcr>jo) has also to be protected

from dissipation by the action of adverse influences. The events
:hat create such disturbing influences are called Ntmithas, and
they cause what is technically known as (Asud/ii) defilement. The
Agamas prescribe elaborate rules as to Nimithas and the rites,
known as prayaschittas or purificatory ceremonies, which have to
be performed to counteract their evil influences,
N.i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 21

(4) The front part of the Nslampalam is divi¬

ded into two raised portions with a passage in the middle
leading from the Belikkalppura outside to the inner
court containing the Ma$$apam and Sflkovil. There
are similar approaches behind and on one side. The
raised portion on either side of the passage in the front
is generally known as Vsplms^am.
(5) The passage in front leads outside to a
portico called Belikkalppura in the centre of which
stands the Valia Belikkal (the principal altar-stone
where rice is offered.
(6) Next to the Belikkalppura facing the
image is the Dhwajam, flagstaff, covered over with
gold, silver, or copper sheets, on which a flag is hoist¬
ed during the Uthsavam, or temple festival. On the
top of the Dwajam is placed the vshanam or repre¬
sentation of the vehicle of the deity worshipped in the
temple,—a bull for Siva, Garuda or Kite for Vifh^u
and so on facing the deity.
(7) The Gopurams are towers which mark the
entrance to the temple grounds enclosed by high walls
all round. The larger temples have these Gopurams
in the middle of the outermost walls on each side.
(8) In the larger temples, the Nslampalam will
be surrounded by a similar square structure with a
narrow passage between the two—the outside of which
being provided with Cvdumns of lamps (iron or brass)
which are lit upon important occasions. This is called
ViiakkumStam (house tor lights). It consists of wood*
en or metal trellis-work, the outer surface of which
has a great number of small oil lamps. The space be¬
tween this frame-work for lights and the boundary wall
with Gopurams is called the bshyanka^a.
Provision is also made in temples for the residence
of priests who are enjoined to keep within the temple
precincts while employed as such.
(9) Just out of the staff or in a line with it, and
therefore a few feet away from the Dlpa$ala is the
22 LETTERS FROM MALABAR (I* *3*

Pfadak§hi$a vali or path paved with stones or granite

slabs for taking the image in procession round the
temple building and for the worshippers to take then*
devotional rounds (Pfadak§hiniam).
(io) Both in the anka^a inside the Nalampalam
and outside it in the bshiyankaija close to the Pfada*
kshinavali, at prescribed spots, are placed certain stones
called Belikkallu on which boiled rice is thrown
every day when the god is taken round in procession,
as an offering to the Bhu{2s. The most important of
these is the Volici Bill Bullu already mentioned,housed
in the Bclikkctlppurct* The daily offer of boiled rice to
the Bhutas begins from and ends at this stone.
(i i) Extending from the flag staff to the Gopuram
is a covered shed, known as Anakkottil, for the ele-
phants to take their stand in a line on occasions of
temple processions.
(12) Gopuram is the entrance gate. In large temples,
there will be four gates connected by the boundary wall.
Construction. The Hindu Sashas prescribe ela¬
borate rules regarding the construction of temples.' *•
j Vastu-vidya means the science of architecture and deals
with the rules of construction of all kinds of architectural and scul¬
ptural objects. (P. K. Acharya’s Dictionary of Hindu Architecture

pp. 545—&•)
The meticulous attention to definite numerical relationships
between the dimensions of the different parts of a building is
characteristic of Kerala Vastu-vidya, as it is of Chaldea, Egypt,
Persepolis, Creete and Greece.
The Three Main Styles of Temple Architecture recognised by
the Silpa-sastras (.Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum).
According to Silpa-sastras, including the Manasara and Supre-
bhedagama, the three main styles of temple architecture at the
time when they were formulated were—-(a) Nagara, in which the
vimana was quadrangular, throughout, (b) Vesara, in which the
vimana was crowned by a circular sikhara above the neck, (c)
Dravida, in which the vimana was crowned by an octagonal or
hexagonal sikhara above the neck.
The earliest samples of this are the seven pagodas at Maha-
balipuram,
N. 1.] MALABAR TEMPLES 23

As the house of God, the temple comes under the

operation of many rules relating to houses in general, to
which are added some special ones. The general rules
of universal application relate to:—
(1) The selection of time to begin construction;
certain months of the year, days of the week,
asterisms and conjunctions being held auspi¬
cious, while certain others are supposed to be
inauspicious; and
(2) The selection of the site with regard to the
nature and qualities of the ground on which
buildings are to be erected. For this purpose
the soil 1 is classified into three sorts, viz.,
(1) Good, (2) Medium, (3) Bad.
“The best sort of ground should abound with
milky trees full of fruits and flowers; its boundary
should be of a quadrangular form, level and smooth,
with a sloping declivity towards the east, producing a

(The tower over a shrine is usually surmounted by some form

of sikhara or head, bearing a stupi or final, sometimes called a
sikhara or flame but the tower itself is a vimana, whatever its
shape* not a sikhara).
The age of the Manasara is probably about 500—700 A, D.
The Suprabhedagama is somewhat later. Nearly a thousand years
later still, in the latter part of the 16th century, a compendium of
the Silpa-sastras was prepared under the title of Silparatna by
Sri Kumara at the instance of king Deva Narayana of Ambalap-
puzha. In this he (according to Messrs. F. H. Grave, D, Sc. and
T. N. Ramachandran, M. A., the authors of the above Bulletin,
all these treatises belong to the south.) links nagara with the
Satvika temperament, Dravida with the Rajasa and Vesara with
the Tamasa temperaments.
1. The Brahmin soil is white, and smells like clarified butter
and is astringent to taste. The Kshetriya soil is bloodred, and
smells like blood and is bitter to taste. The Yaisya soil is yellow,
and smells like alkaline earth, and is sour. The Sudra soil is
black,and smelis like faeces and tastes like wine. Bhuvanaptadipa
by Visvakarma (Canons of Orissan Architecture by Babu Nirmal
Kumar Bose.)
34 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

hard sound, with a stream running from left to right,

of an agreeable odour, fertile, of a uniform colour.,
containing a great quantity of soil, producing water
when dug to the height of man's arm raised above his
head, and situated in a climate of moderate temperature.
The ground possessed of qualities directly opposite to
those mentioned above is the worst, and that which has
mixed nature is the middling.”1
The ground to be avoided is described in a special
manner as follows:—“That which has the form of a
circle, a semi-circle, containing three, five or six angles,
resembling a trident or a window, shaped like the
hinder part of a fish, or the back of an elephant, or a
turtle, or the face ot a cow, and the like, situated oppo-
site to any of the intermediate quarters—north-west,
and the like—abounding with human skulls, stones,
worms, ant-hills, bones, slimy earth, decayed woods,
coals, dilapidated wells, subterraneous pits, fragments
of tiles, limestones, ashes, husks of corn, and exposed
to the wafted effluvia of curds, oil, honey, dead bodies,
fishes, etc*, such a spot should be avoided on every
account”.
It will be seen that the tests applied are those of
(1) colour, (2) smell, (3) taste, (4) form, (5) touch, and
(6) sound. Other tests are also prescribed which it
would be tedious to detail. But a universal maxim of
selection mentioned by Varaha Mihira is:—“And that
(site) too is auspicious (to the builder) whose heart
delights therein”.—a test which the most enlightened
of moderns or the most captious of critics cannot
demur to.
Coming now to special rules relating to the build¬
ing of temples. They are to be built on the common
boundaries of villages, if they are public temples, pro¬
bably as marking the boundary. They should not be
built so as to encroach upon the boundaries of another
pre-existing temple or building and the new erection
1, Ramraz's Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus pp. 15—
N. 1.] M ALABAR TEMRLES 25

should be placed at a distance of double the height of

prior structures.
Varaha Mihira gives the following description of
the surroundings of temples:—
“The gods use to haunt those spots which by
nature or artifice are furnished with water and pleasure-
gardens.
“Lakes where groups of lotuses like umbrellas
ward off the sun’s darting beams, and the waters receive
access of brightness by the rows of white water lilies
pushed aside by the shoulders of swans; where swans,
ducks, curlews, and paddy birds utter their resounding
notes, and fishes repose in the shade of Niculas; on the
brinks, places where rivers flow, having curlews for
their tinkling zone, singing swans for their melodious
voice, the water-sheet for their cover, and carps for their
belt; regions where streams have blooming trees on the
margin, comparable to ear ornaments, confluences not
unlike to buttocks, sandy banks like to high swelling
bosoms and merry laughter from swans; tracts of land
in the neighbourhood of woods, rivers, rocks and cat-
racts, towns with pleasure-gardens, it is such grounds
the gods at all times take delight in.” 1
As to the location of temples of particular deities,
the following general directions are given in the 9th
Chapter of the Mdnasani Vassu. “The temples of
Vishnu, in whatever form that deity may be worshipped,
should be erected within the village, facing towards the
east, except in the incarnation of Nara-Simha (the man-
lion) whose temple should be built without the wall,
with its face turned from the village or town * * *
If the emblem of Siva (Liuga) is to be consecrated ac¬
cording to the Sidhanta Agama, it may be placed with¬
in the village, otherwise it should remain without. In
the case of Vishnu, too, if the idol is to be consecrated
according to the system of Vyghanasa, it may be admit¬
ted within, but if according to the doctrines of
x. J. R. A. S, Vol. 6, page 317*
26 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

Pancharatra it should be placed without the village.

The shrines of Durga * * * * should be erected
without the village”.
After the site is determined upon, there follows
the ceremony of Bhumi'parigraha or taking possession
of the land. It consists in ploughing the land, the sow¬
ing of seeds, the grazing of the resulting crop by cows
and the assembling of Brahmans- The next important
step is the ascertaining of the cardinal points for which
elaborate methods are prescribed- When the directions
have been all marked out on the spot1 with thread
marks, the spot should be further sanctified by feast¬
ing Brahmans thereupon- The underground impurities,
such as thorns, etc., have then to be removed. The
ceremonies which follow the cleansing and purification
of the ground are collectively styled VasthuySga- This
consists, according to the Gobhila Grihya Sutra in
1. Signs and indications at the time of the first measurement:
If a conch shell is heard, then the spot is sacred to the gods,
men should not live there. If music is heard, then wealth will
accrue as the land is favoured by Kubera.
Similarly, different effects are indicated in starting work in
different months of the year, days of the week, different Naksha-
thras.
According to the Silpasastra, a naga lies encircling every
building-Site. It moves round in a clocklike direction once a year.
The auspicious pillar should be posted only on certam points of
the naga’s body.
For posting the auspicious pillar the hole
for it must be cleansed by besmearing it with cowdung. Then
gems, pieces of gold and silver, a piece of cloth, a mango twig
and a cocoanut have to be put into it.
Carve upon the foundation-stone a lotus with 8 petals and
show its pistil clearly. Dig a hole at the heart or stomach of the
Vastu-naga and purify it. Worship the village deities, the artist,
astrologer and priest. The 8 petals when placed in position must
point to the 8 points of the compass. Place it and say ‘‘Being
placed by the hand of a Brahmin, then remain permanently”.
(.Bhavanaprasada of Visvakarma Ed, by Bubu Nirmal
Kumar Bose.)
N. 1.] MALABAR TEMPLES 27

establishing the sacrificial fire in the middle of the site

and the performance of sacrificial rites. According to
Ashwaloyana, a square or oblong portion of the land has
to be measured out and prepared for the sacrifice after
which follow an elaborate ceremony.
After the ground is thus prepared and the materi¬
als for building are selected, for which also are special
rules laid down, the ceremony of Silanyasa or laying
the foundation stone is performed and then the work is
proceeded with* The special architectural rules laid
down for the construction of temples are: —
“Temples consist of the garbhagriha (the womb of
the house), the antarcila (the anti temple), and the
ard’ hamantapa (the front portico)- The diameter of
the whole length of the building, including the walls,
is to be divided into four and a half or six parts, and
the garb' hagriha to take up two, two and a half or
three, the antarala, one and a half or two, and the
ard' ha-mantapa, one or one and a half. Sometimes
a portico is made round the garb'hagriha and, anta¬
rala together, the whole being closed by walls on all
the sides but the front, in which are the doors for
entrance, approached by the front portico, which is
generally a peristyle and it serves, as the innermost
court around which people perform their circum*
ambulations; I say the innermost court, because
there are other courts around the whole temple*”
“Temples on a large scale have three or four
successive porticos attached to them in the front, which
are called ard' hamantapa, Maka-manta pa, Stapanci
mantapa, urittya man tap a, etc. Ard'ha mantapas are
sometimes made broader than the garb'hagriha, in
which case the width of the former is either one and
a half or twice that of the latter. In the event of the
three compartments being of the same breadth, the
length of the whole should be two and a half the
breadth.
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

‘ The breadth of the <rarbhagriha being divided

into three, four, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen or
fifteen parts, let two, three, four, five, six, seven, or
eight be allowed to the interior space, and the remain¬
der take up the thickness of the walls on all sides.
“The thickness of the wall being divided into
twelve equal parts, let five or six be given to the door¬
frames or posts without, and seven or eight to the in¬
side of the door. The door-frames or posts may be
placed either in the middle or at the extremity of the
p int of the division before-mentioned.
“The height of the pillars of the vimana is to be
divided into ten or eight equal parts, and nine, eight,
or seven of them are given to that of the doorway, the
breadth of which is to be half its height.
“In temples and houses of Brahmans and others,
two-learM doors may be used. The doors are turned
either by means of a perpendicular cylinder, one end
of which rests on the ground, or by hinges. The out¬
side of the door frames are ornamented with foliages,
etc., and on the architrave of the door, and on both
sides of it, are carved the images of the gods and god¬
desses presiding over gates and doorways.
“Let a water-spout be made over the base on
the back wall of the garb' hag riha, on the left side of
the idol, either towards the east or the north, accord¬
ing as the temple may face towards the south or the
east. The thickness of the spout should be either
eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen, angnlas. Its
length should be equal to the ad' histhana, which
length being divided into three equal parts, one
is given to the projection below (lambaua). The
breadth of the bottom of the spout is to be divided
into five parts, and three to be given to the breadth of
the sloping extremity below. The whole spout being di
vided into five parts, three to be given to the citgmala
(an ornament made in the form of a bird),one to the
N. i/| MALABAR TEMPLES 29

padma (lotus or cima recta)y and one to the Vajina or

fillet. On the surface of the spout a cavity is to be made
for discharging the water, from one to five angulas
broad. The breadth of the cavity at the end should be
three-fifths of that at the bottom. The spout may be
made to spring from the head of a lion, etc., and the
whole so devised as to project like a plantain flower”. 1
Vvre have already observed that temples are con¬
structed in Malabar in a somewhat different style from
those elsewhere. But in architectural principles as
also in most details there seems to be no great differ¬
ence. Our author has given in this letter a rough idea
fair enough, of an ordinary Malabar temple. Early
Portuguese travellers have also given us descriptions of
temples they had met with, specially at Calicut.
The following extract from Mr. Na^am Aiya s
Report on the Census of Travancore ([891) gives us a
very good idea of the Architecture of a Malabar tem¬
ple.
“A Hindu pagoda is a very scientifically built
structure. It commences with the Bimbam or image
of the god, which is lodged in a Sreekoil r inner
shrine. This image is the unit of construction. The
size of the image is fixed at so manyyavams, a Sanskrit
term for one of the grains in India. The image size
being settled, the next point for settlement is the size
of the Sricoil or inner shrine, for the shrine should
bear a certain definite proportion to the size of the
Bimbam or image* These being determined up m, the
dimensions of the other parts of the temple cm be
easily deduced. Every native architect knows, given a
certain size for the image, what the sizes of the Man-
tapam or square-roofed platform in front of the God,
of the inner yard paved with stones, of the quadr¬
angle called nalambalam, cf the velikkappura, of the
flagstaff, of the outeryard, of the sivali-mantapa/n or
i, Hindu Lazo of Endowments l>y Prannath Saraswathv,
Chapter III, pp. j j. to /<'%
30 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

the covered porch for the God’s procession, and of the

several other buildings inside the premises should be.
The measuring rod used in the building of the temple
is also generally engraved in some paved stone or
pillar inside the temple itself, a standard measurement
to be referred to in all future ages when the temple is
repaired or rebuilt.” 1
In the following table are given the measurements
of the different parts of one of the chief temples in the
country:—

THE PAGODA MEASUREMENTS.

Circumference
Length Breadth Height
Name of the portion
of the Temple.
I nch

Feet
Inch

Feet

Inch
Feet

I Vattasricoil 7 8£ 117 feet

6 inches
4 J LI 6* 13 6£ 7 6
2 Mantapam <1 18 6£ 18 5 7l

( 43 6| 9 9* •• ••
3 Valliambalam <
\ 37 1 23 7t •• ••

4 Do Maligay or
upstair 43 61 9 9* 7 6

5
Nalambalam 437 6 8 6£ 7 1

6 Velikkappura 20 7* 9 4i 7 1

7 Vilakkumadam 542 11 3 6£ •• ••

Hanuman’s sricoil 6 1 6 1
8 2 7 82

9
Dhwajom or flagstaff 48

10 Anakottil II 3 100 feei

10 inches

11 Approaches to do. or 33 feet

Mukappu .. II 3 9 inches

12 Oottupurah .. 186 8 20 •• 9 4i

1. Vol. I, pp. 338—339

N. 1.] MALABAR TEMPLES 3i

The following is a description of the temple to

which De Gama was taken on his first visit to Calicut.
‘‘The Kotwal brought him to see a temple of the
Malabars, which was as large as a great monastery.
It was built of freestone, and covered with tiles. Over
the front door there hung seven bells; and before it
stood a pillar as high as the mast of a ship (the flag¬
staff), made of wire (probably, covered with copper
sheaths), with a weather-cock (the vahana or vehicle of
the God or Goddess to whom the temple was dedicated)
of the same at the top. Within it was full of images.
This made De Gama and the rest take it for a Christian
Church****. On the walls of this temple were many
images painted, some with great teeth sticking above
an inch out of their mouth; others with four arms and
such frightful faces that the Portuguese began to doubt
whether it was a Christian Church or not. Upon the
top of the Chapel which stood in the middle of the
temple, was a fort or freestone tower, with a little wire
(copper plated) door, and stone stairs on the outside. In
the wall of this tower was an image, on sight where of
the Malabars called out Mary! Whereupon De Gama
and the rest, taking it for an image of the Virgin, fell on
their knees and prayed. Only one, Juan de Sala,
who had some doubt of the matter, in making his
genuflexions said; Tf this be the Devil, I worship
God* ; which made De Gama smile. They would
not see the Statue distinctly, the Tower being dark
within, nor were they permitted to go near enough
to examine it”.1
Faria-Y-Sousa gives a similar description of this
temple, and adds that the image did really represent the
Virgin Mary, “for it could be no other, those people
many ages before having professed Christianity”.2
Varthema referring to the Chapel in the Zamorin’s
Palace says, “His Chapel is two paces wide in
z. Astley's Collection of Voyages,
2. Vol. 1, p. 46.
32 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L, 23

each of the four sides and three paces high, with, a

wooden door covered with devils carved in relief”.*
In Purchas we read the description of another
temple, said to be “dedicated to an ape”, probably the
monkey-god Hanurnan, the faithful servant of Rama,
the hero of the Ramayana. “It hath,” says he “a large
Porch for cattle, to the use of sacrifice, in which are
(saith Maffeus) seven hundred marble pillars, not in¬
ferior to those of Agrippa in the Roman Pantheon \2
Barbosa gives the following description of Malabar
temples generally: “And these temples have their prin¬
cipal door to the west, and each temple has three doors,
and in front of the principal gate, outside of it, is a
stone of the height of a man, with three steps all round
it, and in front of that stone inside the Church is a
small Chapel, very dark,'inside of which they keep their
idol of gold, silver, or metal, and three lamps burning' .3
Faria-'Y-Sousa has given us a description of
some of the temples of Cochin and Travancore of the
seventeenth century. He says .
“Before they build a Pagoda, they sow the ground
with Kidney-beans; when they are green, they turn
in a greyish Cow to feed on them, and where she
Dungs, they believe is the place for the Pagod, placing
on the very spot a pillar and on the top of it the idol,
to whom it is dedicated. Then they build the walls,
which are never of great extent, but rich, as being
black marble well carved, covered with copper plaks,
with globes of Gold, or Gilt. The inside is set thick
with images with many Heads and Arms, and girt with
serpents. Then they build a square wall about it, on
each side of it is an entrance with a sumptuous Portal,
with Histories of their Gods carved about them. They
are covered in the same nature as the temples. Under¬
neath are Heads of Elephants, Bear, Lion, Tigers and
other wild beasts with terrible^ eyes and teeth. It is

1. Fage 137*
2. Page 625.
3. Page 122.
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 33

thought these things are to terrify those that resort thi¬

ther, and move them to give alms though their Poet
Palcanar (Pakkanar—the Pariah) laughs at it. Those
who go to visit the idol enter the enclosure, but not
the temple. The inhabitants of Pande, subjects of
Bisnagar, are singular in these works-
‘‘The most famous Pagods are, that of Rettora 1
built by Cheram Perimal living at Cranganur who
placed in it the statue of a man ten cubits in length,
lying on a snake with five heads in the sea of Milk.
The temple was covered with plates of Massy Gold,
but because they were subject to be stole he put them
into the treasure of the Pagod, and instead of them
placed others of copper. The idol is still covered with
pure bright gold that shines like fire; his crown is of
an inestimable value and has many precious stones; in
the Forehead three Rubies that exceed all price, on his
Feet Buskins valued 200,000 Ducats.
“In the Treasure, besides the covering plates there
laid up, there are nine boats of gold set with rich stones
each big enough to contain three men; the same number
of Kettles of the same matter, each deep enough to hide
the Brahmene with the idol upon his head, many Pots,
Peacocks, and Cocks of Gold and Silver and an infinite
quantity of coin. These are useless vessels; those that
are of use and the same Metal are kept more at hand.
At the entrance of the Pagod hangs a Gold candlestick
so big, no man can lift it from the ground, and with the
continual smoak looks like Ebony. Several idols and
candlesticks that stand before the principal idol are of
the same metal. In fine, the treasure is unmeasurable,
if we may believe a Brahman who turned Christian, and
had many good qualities that show he merited credit.
1. Most probably Tiruvanandapura=Trevandrum. The
description of the image exactly fits in with the one at Trevan-
c
drum. It is in the form of Anantasayana, i. e., Vishnu reclining
on the thousand headed snake Ananta. The wealth of the temple
as described also points to Trevandrum. In the History of Tra-
vancore we read that Cheraman Perumal repaired this temple.
34 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23,

“The Revenues of the Pagod are incredible, and

very many live on them. The enclosure is of marble
six yards high and above one in thickness; it is about
half a league from the store, a beautiful way lead¬
ing to it. At each of the wonderful Gates can enter
at once four elephants with all their furniture. It
is guarded by 1,000 Armed Men; The Coast is
dangerous, which secures many great men who keep
their Treasures there.
“The Pagod called Comori, from which that
famous point of land takes its name, is also remarkable.
Comori Pagod, signifies, the church of the Virgin. It
is like the other in structure, but not in Riches, be¬
cause they trust them not there, since our Fleets sail
upon those Coasts. The Pagod is dedicated to a Virgin
Daughter* * * *
“The Pagoda ot Tiruvate is more ancient than that
cf Rettora, but poor, having been plundered by the
Nayque of Madura. It is not much frequented”. This
is Tiruvettar, a celebrated South Travancore Temple.
The temple accounts show that on the 12” of Tye
'February—March) 745. M. E. (1570 A .D.) one
Veerappan Suppa Naique assaulted Tiruvattur,
plundered the temple of all its riches and desecrated it,
so that it had to be purified afterwards before worship
could be resumed. The ceremony of purification
(Kalasam) began on 24” of that month. It was once
more plundered by the Nadars on the 29” Pankuni
856 M. E. (May—June 1681) and desecrated and
Kerala Varma of Trippappoo Swarupam being the
Mootha Tiruvadi or Ruling chief of Cherwai had the
purificatory ceremonies performed. Twelve years later
the temple was once more threatened when the
authorities removed all valuables except the silver
ewelry that adorned the idol to a place of safety*
“That of Upper Cranganur has an idol 1 on whose
head one of the Brahmenes gives several strokes of a
hammer every day. For they think if this were not
(1) Kshetrapala.
N. i.] MALABAR TEMPLES 35
done, he would by this time touch the stars with his
head. In the frontispiece are several images in the
Portuguese Habit, whence is concluded either that work
was finished after their arrival, or such a habit was form*
erly used there’?I • This certainly refers to K§hg{f*a*
palan of the Bhagavati temple at Cranganur. It is not
with a hammer that the strokes are given. The priest,
who is not a Brahman but an Ajikal, does it every day
with a piece of sandalwood lest it may not grow higher
and higher.
Conquest, conversion and commerce were the
three main objects the Portuguese had in coming to
India. As soon as the first was accomplished, they
set about the achievement of the second. The des¬
truction of temples and places of religious worship was
considered a necessary step preliminary to the subver¬
sion of the religion of the Hindus and was soon decided
upon. In 1540, all Hindu temples in the Island of Goa
were destroyed under the direct orders of the King of
Portugal.2 Towards this the Portuguese were further
prompted by their greed for lucre* Many of the temples
were enormously rich and were reported to contain
almost fabulous wealth. The richer the temple the greater
the attraction. In the year 1544, says Mr* White way,
Governor Alfonso de Sousa resolved to plunder the
temple at “Tebelicare”—(near Quilon) situated within
the territory of the Raja of Kayamkulam with whom
the Portuguese were then at peace. On the Coast
between Cochin and Quilon, the Portuguese had been
settled for over 40 years and they depended upon the
good will of the people for the supply of the merchan¬
dise, which was the bait that drew them to the East.
But this did not prevent De Sousa from committing
the outrage. He had received information that the
temple was full of gold, and he resolved upon leading
at once a plundering expedition. An offer of £ 12,000
down failed to turn the Governor from his intention
and before night-fall the temple was reached. Governor
1. Yol. 2, Part IV, Chap. IV.
2. Correa IV, p. 290.
35 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [E. 23.

and his immediate following went inside the temple

and shut the door; those outside the building passed
a miserable night enough, a prey to every imaginable
horror—the fall of a shield nearly caused a stampede.
Inside, the Governor and his friends spent the time in
torturing the Brahmans of the temple and in digging
up the floor. It was never known exactly what was
found, a gold patten worth £ 50 was all that was ever
shown, but as two barrels of matchlock powder were
emptied and the barrels passed in, and, as afterwards, as
they each required eight slaves in relays to carry them
scandalous tongues were busy*1 Faria observes that it was
said that these barrels carried water; such as were not
easy of belief affirmed it was pure gold and precious
stones. The truth was never known* He adds “Some
writings declare, there was only a pot of gold found,
in which the idol was bathed, valued 4,000 crowns,
which King John (of Portugal) ordered to be restored,
much admiring this action of Martin Alfonso, as if it
had been a greater crime to rob at Teblicare without
his order, than at Tremele (Tiruvella) with it” 2. Dur¬
ing their retreat, the Portuguese were harassed by the
country people and suffered heavily, 30 Qf their number
being killed and 150 wounded and the Gover¬
nor himself being at one time in great danger
having had to dismount to save his life. But
his greed egged him on and he went in at once for
another adventure. As Faria tells us, “No strangers
to terrific avarice, they went to another Pagod. Out of
it was taken a chest, which was publicly opened, and
some silver money that was in it distributed; but of so
little value, that many believed thence proceeded the
liberality”.
Not long after, in 1549, the Portuguese committed
another and a more dastardly sacrilege. Governor
Jorge Cabral who was subservient to ecclesiastical
influences got information that the pagoda at Pallurute
5. Whiteway, p, 2S4; Correa IV, pp. 325-32^.
2 Vol II, pp. 83 84.
N. 2,] MALABAR TEMPLES 11

in the vicinity of the palace of the Raja of Cochin, the

particular friend and ally of the Portuguese, and much
venerated by him, contained a large amount of treasure.
Cabral at once arranged to rob it. The Raja earnestly
requested him to desist from such a sacrilegious act.
He stayed his hands for the moment. But, as soon as
the Raja left Cochin, he ordered his subordinate Fran¬
cis de Silva to make the attempt at once with the re¬
sult that the Portuguese lost 3 of their men in this mad
endeavour. “This” says P'ariya “was the cause that
three ships set out for Portugal late and ill laden” *.
From this time the Raja of Cochin was estranged
from the Portuguese.
From a letter written by the King of Portugal to
the Viceroy in India, of the year 1594, we see that the
latter had urged on his sovereign “how necessary it
was for the increase of the Christianity of those parts
to destroy all the pagodas and mosques, which the
Gentiles and the Moors possessed in the fortified places
of this State”. The King, however, warned the Viceroy
to treat this matter carefully with some theologians
and canonists of those parts, but not to act till he shall
have reported to the king.2 The secular authority in
India playing into the hands of the ecclesiastical was
prompted to do sacrilegious acts more by burning ava¬
rice and covetuousness than zeal for religion. The ver¬
dict of the historian Faria-y-Sousa already quoted in
another connection is indeed remarkable.
2.
Pagodas. The word according to Yule
and Burnell is used in three different senses,
of which the primary or the first only need be
noticed'here, viz., “An idol temple”. As to the origin
of the word, five derivations are suggested. Thus from
the Chinese Pao-tah ‘precious pile" and Pok—Kuh—
tah (‘white—bones—pile5)3. It is added that anything
1. P. 141.
2. Arch Port Orient Ease, 3 p. 417.
3. There is a theory that the modern temples were originally
the graves of some great person.
 38 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

can be made out of Chinese mono-syllables in the way of

etymology. Another derivation is from the Portuguese,
pctgro, ‘a pagan’. This is adopted by so learned an
etymologist as H. Wedge wood. The aforesaid learned
editors of Hobson Jobson remark that it is possible that
this word may have helped to facilitate the Portuguese
adoption of pagoda\ it is not possible that it should
have given ri?e to the word. A third theory
makes pagoda a transposition of dagoba a word though
used in Ceylon is known in continental India, since the
extinction of Buddhism, only in the most rare and
exceptional way. A fourth suggestion connects it with
The primitive people dreaded the spirits of the dead. These
had to be propitiated by the offering cf gifts. Further, their
malignant activity was circumscribed by a magic circle. This led
to a new cult, one feature of which was the worship of graves and
tombs. This, in course of time, gave rise to temples. Graves
became shrines where the spirits of the dead might be worshipped.
Gradually, link with the dead became dim and remote, as the
village deities, who were supposed, in later times, to have the
power to ward off the evil effects ct spirits, began to grow in
power. To avoid a double expenditure, the anniversary of the
dead of the community began to be celebrated along with the
annual festival of the village deities (gramadevata).

The temple which grew around the graves is the dolmen-tem¬

ple. Another type is the hut-shaped one. The hut-shaped temple
was superimposed upon the dolmen-shaped and the result is the
Modern South Indian temple. The latter is the result of a long
process of evolution.

Chutala-matan is a village god. The words literally means

(god of the grave hut). (Chutala=Cremation ground. (Matam=
Hut). The connection wi'h the graves is not confined to the
village deities, but also to gods like Siva of a higher plane. The
god himself declares *‘the crematorium of all pleases my heart
Hence the crematorium is the sacred abode to me; . .it seems to
me to be the very heaven”. (.Mahabharatha—Anusasana parvom
Chapter 141), Bhavabhuti describes a temple of Durga situated in
a SmaSana in his Malathi-Madhava. We have another descrip¬
tion of a Kali temple in a Smasana in Mani»mekhaldit (Origin
of the South Indian lemple by Mr. N. Venkitaramana Ayyar.
M. A , Madras University Publication.)
N. a.] MALABAK. TEMPLES 39

the Sanskrit Bhagavat, ‘holy, divine’ or Bhagavati,

applied to Durga and other goddesses. A fifth makes
it a corruption of the Persian but—kadahs ‘idol temple’;
a derivation given by Ovington. The learned editors
having noticed these suggested derivations, proceed to
remark that there can be little doubt that the origin
really lies between the last two. But they could not
agree as to which of these is the correct one* Dr.
Burnell is disposed to adopt the Persian origin, obser¬
ving that but—kodak is a phrase which the Portuguese-
would constantly hear from the Mahomedans with
whom they chiefly had to deal on their first arrival in
India. He adds that this is the view confidently as¬
serted by Reinand1 and is the etymology given by
Littre.
Col. Yule, however, traces the word to a Sanskrit
original and argues, “Now is it not possible that the
word in all its applications may have had its origin
from bhagavat, or some current modification of that
word ? We see from Marco Polo that such a term was
currently known to foreign visitors of South India in
his day, a term almost identical in sound with pagoda,
and bearing in his statement a religious application,
though not to a temple. We thus have four separate
applications of the word pacauta, or pagoda, picked up
by foreigners on the shores of India from the 13th cen¬
tury downwards, viz., to a Hindu ejaculatory formula,
to a place of Hindu worship, to a Hindu idol, to a
Hindu coin with idols represented on it. Is
it not possible that all are to be traced to bhagavat,
‘sacred’, or to Bhagavat and Bhagavati, used as names
of divinities—of Buddha in Buddhist times or places,
of Krishna and Durga in Brahminical times and places?
The use of the word Bhagavati as the name of an ob¬
ject of worship in Malabar was very common • ThO
1. Memoires Sur C’lnde, 90.
2. In Wilson’s work on the Mackenzie Mss., we find in
the list of local Ms. tracts belonging to Malabar, the repeated
40 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

term Bhagavati seems to have been very commonly

attached to objects of worship in Malabar temples 1.
And it is very interesting to observe that, in a paper
on “Coorg Superstitions,” Mr. Kittel notices parenthe¬
tically that Bhadra Kali (i. e. Durga) is “also called
Pagodi, Pavotiy a tadbhava of Bhagavati” 2—an inci¬
dental remark that seems to bring us very near the
possible origin of pagode. It is most probable that
some form like pagodi or pagode was current in the
mcuths of foreign visitors before the arrival of the
Portuguese; but, if the word was of Portuguese origin,
there may easily have been some confusion in their ears
between Bhagavati and butkadah which shaped the new
word. It is no sufficient objection to say that Bhaga¬
vati is not a term applied by the natives to a temple,
the question is rather what mis-understanding and
mis-pronounciation by foreigners of a native term may
probably have given rise to the term?

3. An arch, a work of art—-Most probably

the reference here is to the pagoda at Tiruvanjiculam,
a mile to the south of that of Cranganur. The arch
referred to stood, though in ruins, till some time ago,
when probably, some subordinate officer of the Sirkar,
ignorant of its historical and antiquarian importance,
but alive to its dilapidated condition, pulled it down
and substituted a more substantial structure in its
occurrence of Bhagavati in this way. Thus, in this section of the
book, we have at p. XCVI (Vol. II) note of an account “of a
temple of Bhagavati” at p. c iiii “Temple of Mannadi Bhagavati
goddess..“Temple of Palliarakavu Bhagavati..” ; at
p. civ.; “Temple of Mangombu Bhagavati.“Temple of Pad-
deparkave Bhagavati.“Temple of the goddess Pannayennar
Kavu Bhagavati“Temple of the goddess Patali Bhagavati,
“Temple of Bhagavati p. cvii; “Account of the goddess
Bhagavati; etc Account of the goddess Yalanga Bhagavati'\
‘‘Account of the goddess Vallur Bhagavati.
1. See also Fra Paolino, p. 79 and p. 57.
2, Ind Antiq^y ii p. 170.
N. 6.] IMAGES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 4»

place. With it perished many an inscription chiselled

on its walls and foundations which would have opened
a long vista of now-forgotten history-

4. Marble arches and facings. It marble

was ever used for temple building in Malabar, there is
no trace of it left at present- Neither Malabar nor
any country in its neighbourhood produces marble,_
and it is most unlikely that, in days when means of
communication between long distances was very spar¬
ing and most difficult, that material was brought from
Rajaputana, perhaps the only province in India where
marble could be had. But our author is not
the only writer who speaks of marble being used in
Malabar temples. We have seen that Maffeus quoted
in Purchas speaks of the temple ‘dedicated to an ape
at Calicut’as containing a porch “in which are 700
marble pillars, not inferior to those of Agnppa in the
Roman Pantheon-’’ Faria also speaks of ‘black marble
being used in building temples in Malabar. It must
however be noted that in Malabar there is a kind of
black granite stone available capable of great polish and
which resembles marble very much, and it is probable
that our author is referring to arches and facings made
of that material.
5; Stone elevation. In Malabar templesj the
idol is placed within the sanctuary, just in the centre
on a stone platform which is not supported, as our
author says, on four columns. But it is so in Konkapi
temples.
6. image of various materials. Before notic¬
ing the various materials of which images are made,
it would be useful to refer to the classification
of Images according to the Hindu Sastras. T e
sacred writings of the Hindus notice two kmds of
images—one self-revealed (Swaycunbhu) and the other
artificially created and consecrated (Pratijhta). In
the Paijma Pursna, Siva declares to P3rvap: Hear,
 42 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

O goddess, I speak of that partial abode of Hari; it is

celebrated of two kinds, the established and the self-
revealed. The image of Hari prepared of stone, earth,
wood, metal, or the like, and established according to
the rites laid down in the Vedas, Smrities, and Tan-
tras is called the established. Now hear me speak of
the self-revealed- Where the self possessed Vishnu
has placed himself on earth in stone or wood, for the
benefit of mankind, that is styled the self revealed.99 1
“Vishnu in the above passage,” says Pandit Prananath
Saraswati, is typical of all deities.” Self-revealed images
are of greater importance than established ones. The
Hindu sages have always treated worship in which
images are used as an inferior form—fit only for those
who are unable to grasp the abstract conception of the
Supreme Being. Mr. Saraswati refers to the following
texts in this connection:—
“I am in the fire for those who sacrifice; in the
neart of those who recite prayers; in images for those
of small understanding; for those possessed of true
knowledge I am everywhere.”2 {Agni Puranci)'
1. Uttar a Kha7iday Adhyayay 73,

2, The Hindu Ideal by Sri Ramanada Saraswati Swami.

Chapter 25.

By antecedent miscV ngs in innumerable lives before, the

mind has accumulated a lot of impurity. To remove this accu¬
mulated dirt from the mind, the Sastra prescribes the observance
of good deeds (Sat-karma). The object of Karma is such purifi-
cation of the mind or Chitha-sudhi. Even after such purifi-
cation, there may be no proper reflection of Atma on it; for, the
mind has another dosha, called Vikshepadosha, which is its un¬
steady, restless and ever-changing character. In order to regu-
ate in the first instance and then finally to conquer the restless¬
ness of the mind, the practice in concentration is prescribed in
t e shape of upasana or devotional worship of some great Per¬
sonal Ideal, preferably of the Almighty God of the universe in
some one of the forms described in the Sastra. It is the process
whereby the wandering mind, on whose varied activity the
I inker or Vyavaharika Jeevatma depends for his existence, is
gradually brought to a centre of attraction, and thereupon its
N. 6.] IMAGES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 43

“For the needs of the worshippers, forms are in¬

vented of the Supreme Being (B rah mam) who is
Chinmayd, without a second, indivisible and incor¬
poreal.”
The Sastras give various classifications of images,
The Gautmiya Tantra classifies them into two kinds,
the lepya and the lekhya. The former ordinarily denotes
moulded figures and may be made to include metallic
figures cast in moulds. Similarly the latter usually
signifies pictures, but may be made to include chisell¬
ed figures of wood and stone.
flickering tendencies are, one after another, removed by constant
one-pointed contemplation on the nature of the One Limitless
Self of whom the image, used for worship, is a manifestation
under name and form or limitation.
Ch. 26. The Christians and others have adopted only men¬
tal forms, and they send their prayers up to the Divine Feet of
the Lord in Heaven. They shut their eyes, form a mental picture
of the Lord and contemplate on his glory. This, no doubt, is
very good. The Aryan Hindu however is not satisfied with a
mental image alone. He adopts also physical Images for wor¬
ship.
Works of Swcimi Vivekananda, Vol. IV. On Bhakti-Yoga
pp. 33—4*
Religion is realising and I will call you a worshipper of God,
when you have become able to realise the Idea. It is th s power
of realisation that makes religion. So we have to realise religion,
and this realisation of religion is a long process.
In order to attain to the state where we can realise, we must
pass through the concrete, just as you see children learn through
the concrete first and gradually come to the abstract. We are
all of us babies here ; we may be old and have studied all the
books in the universe, but we are all spiritual babies. We shall
have to begin in the concrete through forms and words, prayers and
ceremonies, and of these concrete forms there will be thousands;
one form need not be for everybody. Some require an image
outside, others one inside the brain. All forms, though leading
to the same goal, may not be for all of us. The chosing of~one*s
own road is called in the language of Bhakti, Ishtam, the chosen
way. So with words, the prayers, the mantrams.
The Elements of Hindu Iconography —by T. A. Gopinathi
Rao, M. A,, Vol. I, Art.i, Introduction:—
 44 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [E. 23.

The Matsya Purana divides them into four class¬

es, viz., (1) paintings, on canvas, walls or vessels;
(2) moulded, of clay; (3) melted, of metals; (4) chisell¬
ed, of wood or stone. Another passage of the same
work recommends the construction of images of gold,
silver, copper, iron, brass, bell-metal, jewels, stone,
auspicious wood and conch-shells: whilst in a third, the
phallic emblem of Siva is recommended to be made of
jewels, crystals, clay, or auspicious wood as the wor¬
shipper might desire.
A passage in the Gautamiya Tantra speaks of
Kasmira, amongst others, as the material of which an
image may be prepared. According to lexicographers,
this means saffron, as well as the Fiscus elastica.
M inute regulations are prescribed by the Sastras
regarding the shape, size, and figure of images, • Very
full descriptions are given not only of the shape and
colour which the image of a particular deity should
assume, but also of its surroundings, such as its arms,
ornaments, dress, vehicles, attendants and the like-
The proportions of size are also fully set forth there-1
p. 1. The use of an external object to cencentrate the mind
in the act of meditation is as old as the practice of Yoga itself
in India. Patanjali defines jDhartna or fixity of attention “as-
the process of fixing the mind on some well defined object in
space.” This process he says is internal or external.
p. 17. Images are divided into chala (movable), achala (im¬
movable), and chalachala. Achala vigrahas are of 3 kinds_
sthanaka.asana, and dyana (standing, sitting and reclining).
p. 18, Yet another classification of images into chitra wher
the whole is completely shown, chitrardha and chitrabhasa.
Still another into terrific (raudra or ugra and pacific (or
Soumya),
p. 23. 1 he worship of the different aspects of the deity as
the yoga.bhoga. vira and abhicharika, intended to enable the de¬
votee to obtain certain desired ends, such as peace, plenty
victory, etc.
(31023610)0000 0 IS 0 Q1CV 0 (0&0 QQ> (0)') <2> 0 8 oJCOlc&gp (B>0?

Jabala- Upanishad
{Quoted in Dev a Prathishta Tattvcim p. 644).
1. Those desirous of pursuing the subject further will
find the authorities collected in the Hari Bhakti Vilasa and its
N. 8.J MORE ARMS AND HEADS 45

7. Pounetoor Namboori. This ought to be

Punnattur Nambidi and not Nampupri.
M

8. ntore arms and heads. The description

given by the Portuguese of the images worshiped by
the Malabar people does not differ much from that
our author. It is idle to expect of those who are abso¬
lutely unacquainted with the rationale of Hindu
worship to form any other opinion than the one formed
by our author! Here is what Camoens says in the
Lusiad:—
“Before them now the sacred temple rose,
The portals wide the sculptur’d shrines disclose-
The chiefs advance, and, enter’d now, behold
The gods of wood, cold stone, and shining gold;
Various of figure, and of various face,
As the foul demon will’d the likeness base.
Taught to behold the rays of godhead shine
Fair imag’d in the human face divine,
With sacred horror thrilled, the Lusians view’d
The monster forms, Chimera-like, and rude.
Here, spreading horns a human visage bore,
To, frown’d stern Jove in the Lybias’ fane of yore-
One body here two various faces reared;
So, ancient Janus O’his shrine appeared.
A hundred arms another brandish’d wide;
So Titan’s son the race of heaven defied.
And here, a dog his snarling tusks display’d;
Anubis, thus in Memiphis’ hollow’d shade
Grinn’d horrible. With vile prostrations low
Before these shrines the blinded Indians bow”
(Mickle’s Translation;.
commentary. The 58th chapter of the Brihat Samhita :s also
a good compendium on the subject. (Prannath Saraswati p. 102).
The Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira says that the ornamenta¬
tion and clothing and beautification of the images should be
worked out in accordance with the usage in the country in which
the images are made (used).
AQgjQ
 46 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

Varthema has the following description of the

image worshipped by the Zamorin. “In the middle
of his chapel there is a devil made of metal,
placed in a seat also made of metal* The said
devil has a crown made like that of the papal
Kingdom, with three crowns; and it also has four
horns and four teeth, with a large mouth, nose and
most terrible eyes. The hands are made like those of
a flesh-hook, and the feet like those of a cock; so that
he is a fearful object to behold. All the pictures
around the said chapel are those of devils, and on each
side of it there is a Sathanas seated in a seat, which
seat is placed in a flame of fire wherein are a great
number of souls of the length of half a finger and a
finger of the hands. And the said Sathanas holds a
soul in his mouth with the right hand, and with the
other seizes a soul under the waist.”1

A similar description of this image is given in

Purchas. 2 It is significant that we learn from Astley
that De Gama and his followers when taken to this
temple were not “permitted to go near enough to
examine it (the image) because they were told that
none but Kafirs (unbelievers) could have that privi¬
lege.” They could not have seen the image dis¬
tinctly for the “Tower inside which it was placed
was dark within. Our author also tells us that
“no Christian, Jew, or Moor, may penetrate into
the sanctuary,” so that it is rather difficult for one
of them to obtain a sight of the interior or to have an
exact idea of the images within, except on information
gathered from those who have actually seen and
examined them. It is not that some of the images used
for worship are hideous enough to look at, but that to
condemn them wholesale as altogether gruesome and
to hold them up to ridicule is as unreasonable as to
assert that they are all of them aesthetically and
1. Pages 137—8.
2, Page 625,
N. 8.1 MORE ARMS AND HEADS A1

artistically perfect. Of course we cannot expect a

Christian, whether a missionary or a layman, a
Romanist or a Lutheran, to understand the significance
of the figures represented by Hindu images and the dis¬
tinctive meanings attached to their forms by the Sastrss.
To him they look unnatural and inartistic and they are
therefore straightway condemned as hideous. But a
devout Hindu finds in them representations of princi¬
ples of nature worthy of his adoration.

The subject will be found discussed with great

elaborateness in the fourth volume of the Yoga Vasishta.
In chapter LXXXIV dealing with the definition of the
term Saktu Rama asks his preceptor Vasishta:—“Tell
me, Sir, why the goddess Kali is said to be dancing
about, and why is she armed with axe and other
weapons, and arrayed with her wreaths and flowers?”
In the course of the discussion that follows this question,
the sage observes:—
“It is the will of Siva (or Jove) that creates all this
world from its formless state, and it is this creative
power which is the intelligence of God and the intelli¬
gence of living being. (Para 7).
“This power takes also the form of nature in her
formation of the creation and is called the creation
itself on account of her assuming on herself the repre¬
sentation of the phenomenal world. (Para 8).
“She is represented with a crest of submarine fire
on her head, and to be dry and withered in her body;
she is said to be a fury on account of her furiousness,
and called lotus form from the blue, lotus-like com¬
plexion of her person”. (Para 9)*
The sage then goes on to enumerate her various
designations explaining why she is so designated
Coming to her designation of Uma, Vasi$hfa says:—

“Uma means moreover the digit of the moon,

which enlightens the worlds from the forehead of Siva,
 4$ LETTERS FROM xMALABAR [L. 23,

and the bodies of the God and Goddess are painted as

black and blue, from their representing the two hemis¬
pheres of heaven. (Para 14.)
“The sky appears as dark and bright from the
two complexions of these divinities, who are situated
in the vacuous forms in the bosom of the great vacuum
itself. (Para 15.)
“Though they are formless as empty airs yet they
are conceived as the first born of the void; and are
figuratively attributed with more or less hands and
feet, and holding as many weapons in them. (Para 16.)
“Now know the reason of attributing the Goddess
with many weapons and instruments, to be no more
than of representing her as the patron of all arts and
their employments.’’ (Para 17-)
Again
“This Goddess is adorned with the sacrificial
implements, as the morter, and pestle, the post and
ladle etc; and is arrayed with the weapons of warfare
also, as the spear, arrows, and the lance. (Para 31.)
“She is arrayed with the mace and many missile
weapons also, and accompanied by horse and elephants
and valiant gods with her. In short she fills the fourteen
worldsi and occupies the earth with all its seas and
islands”. (Para 32.)
Similar explanation will be found elsewhere in the
Yoga Vasishta with regard to the forms in which the
other gods and goddesses of the Hindu Pantheon are
represented.
9. Copper cow. I his too stands fcr Txru-
vanchikkuhm where there is a well-known temple of
Siva. The copper cow (Bull?) which our author saw is
not there now. But there is a stone representation of
a bull in the Mandapam.
10. Approach to threshold. In Malabar,
castes below high class Hjyars are not allowed to enter
N. 12 ] DAILY SERVICES 4)

the inner precincts of temples. Ihose castes whose

approach would cause pollution are not allowed to come
inside the outer walls of the pagoda while those Hindus
whose touch alone causes pollution are permitted to do
so.
Christians and Mahomedans also are not allowed
to come within the outer walls. Our author is not
correct when he says, in the previous paragraph, that,
within the quadrangle enclosed by the walls to which
entrance is afforded by a good front gateway, even the
Christian and the unclean castes can enter. The
Konka$i temples have an inner and an outer wall.
Within the outer wall, all are allowed to go. Perhaps
our author was misled by this. Where, there is, how¬
ever, only one quadrangular enclosure to the temple, no
Christian or other non-caste men are allowed to enter
there. All of them have to stop at the gate.
11. Consecration# In case of such pollution,
the temple has to be purified by performince of certain
ceremonies before worship is resumed. The ceremonies
are known collectively as Puny ah am•
12. Daily services. We cannot of course
expect our author to give us an accurate account of the
daily services performed in a Plindu temple, more
specially of a Malabar temple, where he labours under
the disadvantage of being altogether unable to ascertain
at first hand anything that takes place within its inner
precincts.
In a duly constituted temple, there is attached to
it a full complement of servants to whom are assigned
specific duties. The ministering priest who officiates
at the daily worship is called the Sanjikaran of whom
there may be more than one, the chief or Mel Santi
and his assistant the Keel Santi. In. some temples,
the office is hereditary in certain families. In others,
they hold office by appointment made by the proprie¬
tors, managers or trustees of the temple. During the
50 letters from maLabar [L. 23

period of the tenure of their office, they have to live

within the precincts of the temple and are remunerated
by wages and certain perquisites. In certain temples,
the SSntikSran is strictly prohibited from going out¬
side prescribed limits* They are then known as
Purappada Santu The other servants, who have to
perform menial service are compendiously termed
Kazhakakkar. These belong to the Ampalavasi section,
divided into sub-sections with specified duties in the
temple.
The duty of the Kazhakakkar is to sweep and
:lean the temple, gather flowers for the daily worship
and generally to minister to the daily work of the
temple. Their office also is sometimes hereditary when
they are known as Karaima Kazhakakkar. They are
paid either by wages and perquisites or by means of
property grants to which are always added perquisites*
Besides the above, every temple has got its staff of
servants and servant-maids, such as the light carriers*
the musicians, Maransy whose business Is to sing and
sound the conchshell, the flute, the Thakil or drum and
the Pani (another drum that gives a shrill note), the
sweepers, the vessel-cleaners, the cooks, the water draw¬
ers the accountants, the guards, etc. There are also
carpenters, washermen, smiths, and other workmen
attached to the temple who all enjoy privileges and
perquisites.
In the matter of worship, the Tantri or chief priest*
who has a higher position than even the Mel Sanli
and whose office is always hereditary, is supreme. He
presides at the Pratishtha Kalasam or consecreUtony at
its occasional renewals, at the Utsavam or annual festi¬
val and at all important ceremonies. He decides all
questions regarding worship and has to be referred to
in matters of doubt and detail.
Coming to the daily routine of worship, the daily
Puja commences with the Palli Unarthal or the waking
up of the god by the Maran who sounds the conch-
N. 12.] DAILY SERVICES S*

shell three times, its loud shrill booming noise resounds

through the temple and is heard throughout the neigh¬
bourhood. A chorus also is set up by the full comple¬
ment of temple musicians playing on the pipe, the flute,
the Takil, the drum, and other instruments* This takes
place generally at 3 a. m. Meanwhile the Santikaran
should rise from his bed and purify himself by a plunge
bath. By the time he reaches the temple, the inner
precincts have to be swept clean by the Variyar, the
Pisharoti or the Puthuval and the Keel Sant hit after
their bath, and the lamps lighted. After sweeping,
comes the process of smearing (upalepand) with cow-
dung); The next step is to remove the NirmSlyam or
the remains of the previous day’s offerings of flowers
etc. This is done by the Mel Santi who opens the
door of the sanctuary and performs the office. This is
a very essential ceremony, for a text declares the non¬
removal of the Nivmalya to be as destructive of reli¬
gious merit as the confinement of a thirsty animal
and the menstruation of an unmarried daughter. It
is considered highly meritorious to worship the
image at this and the next succeeding ceremonies, and
devotees flock to temples at this early hour to be
present at the ceremony, after having had their plunge
bath previously, and generally in their wet cloths.. In
worshipping,those who are Brahmans have the privilege
of ringing the bells hung up in front of the fane. Both
Brahmans and Sudras join their palms in front of their
face and bow down muttering prayers.
Then follows the Abhisheka or washing the image.
According to the Mantra Tantra Prakasha, after re¬
moving the remains of the previous day’s offerings,
the priest should present the deity with an offering of
flowers; of arghya^ or a respectful oblation of rice,
flowers, etc., with water; of pSdya, or water for washing
the feet; as also other articles necessary for washing the
mouth and so on. The first offeiing of rice is known
as usha nivedayam ard the first wc-ship usha puja.
But before this, some fried rice (malar) is offered.
 52 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23

Other Pujas follow in succession at intervals. When

the shadow of a man in the morning sun measures 20
spaces, the Ethirlha Puja is performed followed by the
Ethirtha Siveli, i. e., taking the image, with music
playing and drums beating round the temple three
times on the head of the priest or on the back of an
elephant. When the shadow measures 12 spaces, th
Panthirati Puja is pertormed, and at midday the
uchha Pu]a,which is followed by a similar taking of the
image three rounds as in the morning. After this, the
temple is closed for worship till 4-30 p. m., at which
time it is again opened. At dusk, the DlparSdhana
or the worship with lights is performed. This con¬
sists in the lights of the temple being well trimmed,
while a number of extra lamps are also lit up and the
Mel Ssnti, after making oblations, waves the light
before the image, music playing outside in the mean¬
while; some camphor lit up is also waved in front of
the image as a finishing rite. At this ceremony, wor¬
shippers gather in great numbers and make their bow
with joined palms. The Attala Puja followed by the
Atfala Siveli which take place at about 8 or 9 p. m.
brings the round of daily worship to a close- The fre¬
quent ringing of a hand-bell is a distinctive feature at
every Puja. The image is regaled with oblations of
rice, water, and flowers and is afterwards carried round
the temple three times just as in the morning. After
the image is^housed for the night, the temple is closed.
To those who go to worship, the Sanfikaran
would give Prasadam and Tlrtham, i. sandal paste
and flowers used in the worship of the image, and the
holy water in which it was bathed. To the twice-born
he pours the Teertham (holy water) into their palms
which they piously drink, after which they are given
the sandal paste and flowers, (Prasadam) the former of
which is applied to the forehead, the chest and both
shoulders while the latter is placed on the head in the
hair. To the Nayars these are given in plantain leaves
and cups made of the leaves, or the Prasadam alone is
N. 12] DAILY SERVICES 53

thrown on the floor for the worshipper to pick up. They

also make the same use of the Tirtham and Prasadam
as the Brahmans.
It will be remembered that, at his first visit to
Calicut, Vasco De Gama was taken by the Kotwal or
the Zamorin’s minister to a temple. Entering it they
were met by four Brhamans naked from the girdle
upwards, and from thence to the knees covered with
calico. They wore pieces of calico also under their
arm-pits, with certain thread which were hung over
their left shoulder, and passed under their right arm
just as the Romish Priests used to wear their Stoles
formerly.” This refers no doubt to the Poonunool or
yangjopavitct or the sacred thread, the distinguishing
badge of the twice-born. “These men with a sponge
dipped in a fountain, sprinkled their visitants
(*.*., with the Teertha or the holy water in which
the image had been washed)—and then gave each
of them some Sanders pulverised to strew upon their
heads, as the Papist do ashes (i. e. the Prasada of san¬
dal used in the worship of the image). The Portuguese
did the one but not the other, because their clothes
were on”1.
At every Puja there is Nivedyam> i. e., rice offer¬
ing. The rice is boiled and is offered in a lump by
placing before the image, and the Santikaran, muttering
prayers, shows certain signs, according to forms pres¬
cribed in the Sastras, calculated to convey the essence
of the food to the image. There are other preparations
of rice used for Nivedyam» viz-, rice boiled in milk with
sugar added and made into a porridge. Rice boiled
with ghee, molasses, cocoanut-milk and likewise made
into a porridge. These are known as Payasams. Then
there is the Tri'inadhuram or the preparation of the
three sweet things, viz., honey, sugar, and plantain
fruits with a little ghee added. The Appcim or sugared
54 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

cakes prepared in ghee, and the fried rice called malar

are also offered every day. Not a day passes without
these offerings being made by those who worship
in the temple. There are other offerings made and
other ceremonies performed varying according to the
gods and goddesses worshipped in the temple.
Every well-ordered temple has its annual festival
or utsavam which is conducted on a large scale for 5 to
10 days. It is celebrated in memory of the installation
of the presiding deity. On the first day, at an aus¬
picious hour, a flag is hoisted on the flag staff in front
of the temple, and from that day forwards till the
concluding day of the festival, special services are
performed with great elaboration of details. During
the Utsavanu the Tantri presides and the most import¬
ant of the special ceremonies he performs are the
Ltsavabeli and the Sreebootcibeli• These consist in
offering boiled rice to the gods and Bho0tarns. It is
believed that any mistake however small in the per¬
formance of the rite of Sreebhootabeliy whether committed
by the Tantri or the drummer {Maran) who beats the
Paul in measure to the quick Tantram passes of the
Tantri, will seriouly injure the Tantri and the Maran\
the Bkootams for whose propitiation the sacrifice is
offered being displeased or annoyed at their lapse. The
image is taken in procession round the pagoda in the
morning, evening and night on the back of an elephant
richly caparisoned with gold facings and trappings of
rich material. This elephant is attended on either side
by a number of other elephants clad alike in rich facings
etc. These as well as the one on which the image is
placed carry rich silk umbrellas with gold and silver
fringes, pairs of large round fans made of peacock
feathers, and snow-white brush or whisk of yak-tail
which are waved from time to time. In front walk the
musicians and drummers playing their instruments.
With regard to the- drumming, the following descrip,
tion given by Mr. Fawcett is interesting. “The number
 N. i*l DAILY SERVICES S5

of instrumentalists increases as the festival goes on,

and on the last day I counted over fifty, all Nayars. The
instruments were the ordinary tom-tom, a skin
stretched tight over one side of a circular wooden band,
about i J feet in diameter and 2 or 3 inches in width,
and the common long drum much narrower at the ends
than in the middle, something like an hour-glass cut
short at both ends. They are beaten with drum sticks,
curved not straight, thicker at the end held in the hand.
The accuracy with which they were played on, never a
wrong stroke, was truly amazing, although the rythm
was being changed perpetually ; and their crescendo
and diminuendo, from a perfect pury of wildness to the
gentlest pianissimo, was equally astonishing, especially
when we consider the fact that there was no visible
leader of this strange orchestra”. 1
The whole temple is illuminated- A large crowd of
sightseers, men and women in gala attire attend and the
whole scene presents a sight worth seeing. The pro¬
cession takes three rounds after which the idol is
removed to its usual place. As long as the festival
lasts, Brahmans are fed with rich meals twice a day,
rice conjee or gruel in the morning and rice in the
evening with suitable accompaniments. Sights other
than the procession are also arranged for, such as
acrobatic performances, dramas, sword play, rope
dancing, etc.
Utsavams “are made the occasion for the
gathering not only of the worshippers who muster
strong during the holy week, but also the young athlete
with his rings and strings, the amateur dancer with his
quaint head gear and uncouth dress, the country wit
with his sharp tongue for the men and events of the
day; the juggler with his cups and balls and his sleight
of hand, the native piper with his golden flute, piping
away to the tune and temper of the audience, the native
drummer with dexterous hands and bended back and
s6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. its.

strong in numbers drumming away with deafening chorus

to the extreme delectation of the country folk, and last,
not least, the thrifty merchant with his showy wares
spread to their best advantage*
The Arat or final bath concludes the festival.
But before this, the image goes through the village on
the back of an elephant with music and the inevitab e
drum, and as it passes along the gates of houses the
inmates receive it at the door with decorations etc., and
present it with a para of paddy some rice and a cocoa-
nUt. The idol receives the same and proceeds on its
mission till it goes round the whole village within which
the temple is situated. On the day previous to the
Ar5t comes the Palii Vetta or Palli NsySt, i. e., the
sacred hunt. This consists in the image being taken
in solemn silence to a secluded spot where the repre¬
sentation of a hog is placed in an extemporised bush,
and an arrrow is shot into it. The ceremony is
symbolical of the early hunting expedition of the gods
and men. As soon as the arrow is shot, a shout is
raised by the crowd and the image is brought back
with banners flying pop-guns, firing with music and
drum beating, amidst the noisome rejoicings of the
assembled multitude. Before proceeding to the final
bath, the image takes repose not in the Sanctum its, .if
but in a separate place for after hunt it is not holy so ,s
to be placed in the inner shrine. The next day the festi 'al
terminates with the SrSt which consists in taking *ie
idol to the temple tank or to a river close by or as at
Trivandrum to the sea, in procession for bath. The
idol being bathed, pujas are performed and Nivgdyams
offered. It then returns to the temple after which the
flag hoisted on the first day of the festival is hauled
down. The whole period is observed as holiday by
the people of the village who from the wealthy land-lord
to the meanest artisan, stop their work and make it a
point to spend all their time in the temple- Once the
flag is hoisted on the temptc flagstaff it is thought a sin
Am 12.] DAILY SERVICE 57

for any one to leave the village unless he could return

before the festival is over; or engage himself in work
of any sort. All are expected to devote their whole
time to the festivities going on in the temple.
It will be interesting to note the description given
by medieval travellers of the forms of daily worship
held in Malabar temples especially at the Zamorin's
temple at Calicut.
Vartherna tells us that ‘‘every morning the Brah¬
mans, i. e., the priests, go to wash the said idol all over
with scented water, and then perfume it, and when it
is performed they worship it; and sometime in the
course of the week they offer sacrifices to it in this
manner: They have a certain small table, made and
ornamented like an altar three spans high from the
ground, four spans wide and five long; which table is
extremely well adorned with roses, flowers and other
ornaments. Upon this table they have the blood of a
cock and lighted coals in a vessel of silver, with many
perfumes upon them- They also have a thurible, with
which they scatter incense around the said altar. They
have a little bell of silver which rings very frequently,
and they have a silver knife with which they have killed
the cock, and which they tinge with the blood, and
sometimes place it on the fire, and sometimes they take
it and make motions similar to those which one makes
who is about to fence; and finally, all the blood is
burnt, the waxen tapers being kept lighted during
the whole time. The priest who is about to perform
this sacrifice puts upon his arms, hands, and feet some
bracelets of silver, which makes a very great noise like
bells, and he wears on his neck an amulet (what it is
I do not know); and when he has finished performing
the sacrifice, he takes both his hands full of grain and
retires from the said altar, walking backwards and
always looking at the altar untii he arrives at a certain
tree. And when he has reached the tree, he throws
the grain above his head as high as he can over the
58 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

tree, he then returns and removes everything from the

altar”. l.
Again, speaking of the manner of offering food to
the idol, Varthema says;—
“You must know that four of the principal Brah¬
mans take the food which the king is to eat and carry
it to the devil, and first they worship him in this
manner: they raise their clasped hands over his head
and draw their hands towards them, still clasped to¬
gether and the thumb raised upwards, and then they
present to him the food which is to be given to the
King, and stand in this manner as long as a person
would require to eat it; and then the said Brahmans
carry the food to the King. You must know that this
is done only for the purpose of paying honour to that
idol, in order that it may appear that the King will
not eat unless the food has been first presented to
Deumo”.
With regard to Varthema's description, it has to
be remarked that, rough as it is, it applies only to
temples where the goddess Bhagavati in her grosser
forms, such as Kali or Chsmundi, is worshipped; for no
temple where a Brahman officiates and where the pre¬
siding deity is one of the Hindu Trinity or its various
incarnations will allow itself to be polluted by bloody
sacrifices. Again the description is applicable more
to the performances of the Velichapad than to the
PujaS offered by the Brahman priests.
Barbosa’s description of daily ceremonies at a
temple is as follows:—
“And no one may enter there except the minister
of that church, who goes in to sec before the idol
flowers and scented herbs, and they anoint it with
sandal and rosewater, and take it out once in the
morning, and another time in the evening with sound
of trumpets and drums and horns. And he who takes
it out first washes thoroughly and carries it on his head
with the face looking backwards, and they walk wtih
1. Page 139.
 N. 12.] DAILY SERVICE 59

it three times in procession round the church, and cer¬

tain wives of the Brahmans carry lighted lamps in front,
and each time that they reach the principal door, they
set the idol on that stone and there worship it, and per¬
form certain ceremonies; and having ended the three
turns with music and rejoicing, they again place it in
the chapel, and each day they do this twice, by day
and at night. And round this church there is a stone
wall, between which and the church they walk in the
before mentioned procession, and they carry over the
idol a very lofty canopy upon a very long bamboo for
state as for kings. They place all the offerings upon
the stone before the principal gate of the temple, and
twice a day it is washed, and they set cooked rice upon
it to feed the crows twice a day with great ceremony”. l.
Let us now hear what a modern Protestant Mis¬
sionary has to say on the subject of daily worship in
Hindu temples. The Rev. Richard Collins who was a
resident in Kottayain in Travancore for a long time
says in his work on Missionary Enterprises in the
East.—
“I may take this opportunity of endeavouring to
give some idea of the nature of the worship performed
in a Hindu temple. The daily rites which I shall des¬
cribe are those belonging to the temples of Siva, the
principal object of worship in most temples on the
Malabar Coast- In a large temple, like that of Tiruvilla,
for instance, which covers several acres of ground,
there are fanes to more gods and goddesses than one:
there is probably one to Bhagavathi (also named Kali),
the wife of Siva, another to Ganesa or Ganapathi, the
son of Siva, another to Krishna, or even Vishnu. But
the principal shrine, in nine cases out of ten in this
part of India, is to Siva. The shrine, or temple pro¬
per, cosists of two rooms, in the inner of which the idol
is placed. It is very commonly roofed with copper,
and surmounted with a final of some handsome device
x. Page 122.
Co LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23.

cast in the same metal* No bloody offerings are, I

believe, ever made in these temples, except in the case
of a temple dedicated to Bhagavathi alone; and then no
Brahman officiates, or takes any part in the proceedings
The blood shed is commonly that of a cock. Nairs,
Chogans, and the lower castes only, engage in this
offering. Bringing their cocks in their hands, they cut
off the head at an altar placed before the temple of
Kali, and then take the bird home and feast on it. This
is no doubt a remnant of aboriginal worship.
“The object of adoration which stands in the in¬
ner room in a temple of Siva is a plain conical stone,
cut out of granite* It is the lingam, the same emblem
as the phallus of ancient Europe. At daybreak, and
before the sun rises, the first act of worship is perform¬
ed. The Brahman who is the officiating priest for the
time being commences the day by anointing the lingam.
This is done by pouring over it ghee (clarified butter.)
A portion of the bark of one of the sapindacese, which
is commonly used among the natives instead of soap
when they bathe, is then taken, and with it the greasy
stone is well scrubbed. Water is then poured over it
by means of a Shankha, the sacred conch of the Hindus,
and the resulting water is most carefully kept; it is the
tirthum, or sacred water of the temple. The priest
then takes a portion of sandal wood (santalain album),
and rubs it with water on a stone, till he obtains a cer¬
tain amount of paste from the ground wood. This is
placed on the top of the lingam, and remains there till
the next morning. It is removed before the anointing,
and is carefully kept. A garland of flowers is then
placed round the idol, the Michelia champaca (one of
the Meagnoliacese) being in* much esteem for this pur¬
pose, when they can procure it, as also one of the
Ixoras, and the Poinceana pulckeriena, often called
‘The Peacock’s Pride’. Offerings are also made of co-
coanuts, palm sugar, ghee, and other things, among
which tbe chief is a portion of the food prepared for the
morning's meal in the temple, generally consisting of
N. 12.] DAILY SERVICE 61

parched rice and sugar. During all this time the

priest repeats his manthras, portions of the Vedic
hymns. After this, a small gold, silver or brass image
of the god, according to the wealth of the establish¬
ment, is carried round the temple with music. A
somewhat similar service, with the exception of the
anointing, is performed at noon, and again at sunset.
Sometimes a burnt offering is made, called homam, or
homabali, when ghee, rice, and other things are thrown
into a fire, kindled, not in the shrine itself, but in the
open space. But this is not, I believe, a daily offering;
the Hindu who wishes to perform his devotions in the
temple generally does so during the morning. Having
bathed, and marked his forehead, breast, and arms
with the ashes of sandal-wood, which they call
Bhasmam, he presents himself before Siva. If a
Brahman, he stands on the upper step of the shrine; if a
Nair, below. Here he probably repeats the gayatru
the most sacred verse of the Vedas, and makes his
requests, whatever they may be—most likely for riches.
“But a Hindu will not tell you what his private
devotions are. When I once asked a man, whom I
had known sometime, what he said before the shrine,
he immediately repeated some words in imitation of
our prayer book, which he knew, ‘Yende devamey
yenoda rakshikename\ ‘My God, deliver me’. But
the chief object of appearing in the temple is to receive
a portion of the ground sandal wood of which I spoke
above. On presenting himseif before the fane, the
worshipper is sprinkled by the priest with the tirthum,
a portion of which he may also receive in the palm of
his hand to drink. He then receives a small portion
of the sandal-wood which had been placed on the idol
the day before, and having moistened that with the
tirthum, he makes a circular mark with it by the fore¬
finger of his right hand on his forehead, just above the
nose, on his breast, and on his two arms near the
shoulder. This is to signify that his intellect, his heart,
and his strength are his gods, and also to show to the
I. Probably, the words are “yenltay Daivamay yenna rakshi
kkanamay” which means ‘6 my God, please protect me,*
 62 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 2y

outer world that he is a good Hindu, and attentive to

his religious duties.”. L
It will be found on the whole that the Hindu form
of worship conceives the deity as a living being. It is
treated in the same way as the master of a house would
be treated by his humble servants. The daily routine
of life is gone through,the living image is regaled with
the necessaries and luxuries of life in due succession,
even to the changing of clothes, the offering of food
and the retirement to rest.
We may fitly close our account of Malabar temples
and the worship conducted in them by quoting Mr.
Nagam Ayya’s estimate of them. Speaking of the
Hindu Pagodas of Travancore he observes.—
“There is nothing more impressive to the fervent
admirer of nature than the spectacle of a Hindu Pagoda
in Travancore viewed either in respect of its religious
importance, its architectural beauties, its health and
commodiousness or the feeling which it creates in the
human mind of the imposing scene around, it is
alike useful and instructive. Unlike the habit¬
ations of men, the habitations of the gods, are like
Olympus of old on the tops ot distant hills, among
cool groves, in secluded valleys, and by the side of
beneficent waters. The religious devotee, the Brahman
Pandit, the student of the vedas, the numerous
votaries for the favours of the God, alike find it pleasant
and sufficing for their purposes. On its festive occasions
which send a thrill into the neighbourhood and call
forth those great social gatherings unknown otherwise
in the country, it alike attracts the commerce, the youth
and the fashion of the land. The procession of the
God, the illumination of the temple, the devout attitude
of the old, the clasped hands of the thousands, the
happy faces of the children, the solemn stillness around,
all fill the mind with serene emotion and relieve the
monotony of life-” In another connection the same
i. Page 191.
 N. 13.] THE OFFERINGS OF THE FAITHFUL 63

writer observes.—“As a result you find that a Hindu

temple on this Coast is a centre of attraction to the old
and the young, by its perfect system of worship, by the
sweet fragrance and peace it breathes, the health and
recreation it affords, its remarkable neatness, its mar¬
vellous punctuality and regularity in all its varied
functions,the active beneficence which it dispenses and,
above all, by the devotion, the reverence and the order
which it silently inculcates on the thousands of votaries
that visit it’\ l,
x3» The offerings of the faithful. Turning
now to the secular side of the temples; when they have
been constructed, the image of the presiding deity duly
installed and the performance of daily worship resolved
on, the ways and means for the same have to be found.
The intensely pious and charitable instincts of the
people prompt them to bestow rich endowments on
these places of worship, for the maintenance of daily
services, as also for ordinary and extraordinary festivals.
The Hindu Sastras extol the merit of religious and
charitable endowments and promise for the endower
untold bliss in the other world and unlimited prosperity
I. The Travancore State Manual Vol. II, Page 77.
Most of the large temples in Malabar “stand for the admini.
stration of charity, the dissemination of education, the encourage¬
ment of Fine Arts and the employment cf a great number of
people. Some of the ancient temples exhibit the wonderful
development reached in architecture, sculpture and iconology.
The paintings on tne walls and panelled ceilings are marvels of
the art, and serve to impart instruction in the legendary lore
of the Puranas. Temples are also centres of festive gatherings.
During the time of these rejoicings, there will be procession,
dancing and drumming, music and piping, Drama, Koothu\
Paitakam and sports of various sorts. Objects of show and
curiosity and articles of household use will be vended there. The
songs that accompany the sports and dances, the dramatic
literature and the hymology which are the outcome of the
existence of these temples are of a high order. Many of these
are rightly ranked as classics.” Progress of Cochin, a blue-book
edited by I. K. Krishna Menon; p. 274. Cochin Government
Press.
64 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

in the future generation. The gift of land to Brahmans

is declared meritorious but special rewards are pro¬
mised for the gift of lands to the gods. Thus in the
Vishnu Dharmottara it is said that the donor of land
for the erection of temples attains the abode of the
particular deity to whom the temple is dedicated. In
the Siva Dharma it is declared that he who dedicates
to Siva cultivated land, dwells in bliss in the Rudra-
loka for as many Kalpas as there are (dandas) poles of
land found on measurement. In the Varaha Purana,
the bestower of a skin of land to Vishnu is promised
fortune and prosperity for seven births, and it is also
mentioned there that he who dedicates a field or a
house for the enjoyment of Vishnu is released from
all his sins. The Bhavishyat Purana similarly treats
of the benefits to be derived from dedicating lands to
Surya.
The bait offered is too attractive for a devout
Hindu to deny himself the advantage of making large
dedications of property to temples if he has the means
to do so, and thus securing perpetual bliss in the abode
of the gods. At any rate the desire and the will to make
such gifts will never be found wanting. The law
interposes no difficulty. The Hindu proprietor is
absolutely free to dedicate his property to the service
of his deity. As observed by Mayne in his Hindu Law,
“gifts for religious purposes are made by Katyayana an
exception to the rule that gifts are void when made by
a man afflicted with disease and the like”. The text
of Katyayana runs thus.—
“What a man has promised in health or in sick¬
ness, for a religious purpose, must be given; and if he
die without giving it, his son shall doubtless be com¬
pelled to deliver it.”
There are a number of other texts by various
Smfti writers regarding the merits of a religious gift
and the facilities afforded to effectuate the same. We
are not therefore surprised to see that there are richly
endowed temples all over India, and in Malabar
 N. 13.] TEMPLES OF SORTS 65
especially where the country has been ever under the
rule of Hindu Sovereigns, and where the State reli¬
gion is Hinduism and where Brahmanism is rampant,
and where, according to Alexander Hamilton, “the
Namboories are first in dignity both in the Church as
well as in the State.”
The temples together with the endowments at¬
tached to them are known in Malabar as Devaswams.
The Devaswam is in law a corporation sole and acts
through its officers, and is capable of suing and being
sued.
There are said to be four classes of temples in
Malabar, viz.—
(1) Ancient temples founded by Parasu Rama*
(2) Temples founded by the Rajas.
(3) Temples founded by village communities
or individuals*
(4) Temples founded by devotees from alms
received.1
1. Devaswam Separation Committee Report published in
the Travancore Government Gazette of 12th July 1921,
It is the genera! belief that most of the temples in the State
were founded and endowed by the people. The successive
sovereigns held these institutions in high veneration and fostered
and richly endowed them from time to time adding to theii
wealth. A new conquest or change of dynasty was also the oc¬
casion for the construction of a temple. Devaswams founded by
the people were under the management of a body of persons
called Ooralers or Karakkars. These managed them through their
delegates called Sctmudayams or Manushyams% etc, The Rulers of
the State exercised their sovereign or melkoinia right over all
these and their Sankethatns. In some instances, the State had
to interfere with the management of these to correct abuses or to
undertake direct management. Surrender, escheat or conquest
also added to the number of Devaswams under Sirkar manage¬
ment.
Almost every temple of note had a synod of the priestly
class or other bodies. With the vast accumulation of properties
under these synods, these bodies began to exercise judicial and
executive functions which made the sovereign power in the land
a mere shadow and a name. The power of the synods turned out
at times to be a menace to public security and good Government,
66 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

In the language of the people, the Manager of a

temple of the first two classes is said to be subordinate
to the temple, whilst in the last two classes, the temple
is said to be subordinate to the Manager. Another
distinction drawn is that, where a temple is built over
a self-revealed image and is endowed with property,
the Manager is called Devantte uralen (the uralan of
the god); where the image is newly constructed and
the temple built to house the same and is endowed
with property, the god is said to belong to the manag¬
ing proprietor, or Utalent te Devan.
The Kerala Mahatmyam gives a detailed descrip¬
tion of the founding of various temples by Parasu
Rama to each of which the sage is said to have endow¬
ed property and appointed Managers, priests, etc. To
the other classes of temples mentioned above, the
founders seem to have appointed the various officers
necessary for their management and working*
The ancient constitution of Malabar Devaswams
generally was thus described by Mr. Conolly, a former
Collector of the District, in a report to the Madras
Board of Revenue. “The Pagodas of Malabar generally
are, and have always been independent of Government
interference. They are either the property of some
influential family, the ancestors of which either built
and endowed them or, as is more commonly the case,
are claimed and managed by a body of trustees (ura-
Ians) who derive their right from immemorial inheri¬
tance and who conduct the affairs of the temple under
the patronage and superintendence of some Raja or
other person of consideration.”
Consequently, to reduce and destroy this power, Col Munro, as
Diwan of the State, quietly assumed, on 3-2-987 M. E.t the
control and management of 348 Devaswams.
Report of the Travancore 7etnple Entry Committee (1934).
Travancore, Cochin and Malabar have the same
social and religious systems. Their temples have the same archi¬
tectural style, and he principlesand rules of worship in them are
based on the same authorities, (p. 6).
N. 13.] TEMPLES OF SORTS 67

The general superintendence of all endowments is

vested in the sovereign and is termed Melkoima. In
the Native States it is still so, and the Rajas do
exercise supervision in the case of public endowments
by appointing an officer to represent them known as
Koima or Melkoima. The British Government does
not however exercise the Melkoima right over the
temples in the Malabar District. The Malabar Rajas,
who have ceased to be sovereigns and who as ruling
chiefs had before the British conquest exercised general
supervision, are still allowed to do so by the British
Courts when their rights are contested.
A writer in the Calcutta Review has given us a
better and perhaps a more correct and rational account
of the origin of these Devaswams and their endowments
and of the nature of those heirarchical rights so pecu¬
liar to Malabar.
“According to all legends and all available evi¬
dence, the Malabar Coast was populated by Aryan
emigrants from the Eastern side of the Ghauts. It is
equally a fact that the priestly class not only predomi¬
nated among the emigrants, but actually monopolised
the whole of the land of their adoption to themselves
the rest of the emigrant population being their
‘drawers of water and hewers of wood*—their serfs,
or at the most, their tenants-at-will. But to stereo¬
type the configuration of a society for all time to come
is as much an impossibility as to fix that of the clouds
in the sky. Aggregations and segregations of power,
influence, and wealth, must ever and anon go on under
the guidance of the universal law of struggle for exist¬
ence and survival of the best. Those priests are the
wisest, and consequently the most powerful, who,
without directly arrogatingsecular power to themselves
can bring into the meshes of their moral influence, those
in whose hands the universal law places such powers.
The ecclesiastics of the Malabar Coast knew this as
instinctively as the ecclesiastics of Rome. But they had
the additional advantage of having something more
68 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

solid than benedictions and indulgences to confer-

upon their political stewards—viz-, the sovereignty of
the land which exclusively belonged to them* They
were equally wise and far-sighted in another step
they took. They foresaw that the halo of sanctity which
encircled themselves might not be proof against the
gradual degeneracy of religious feelings which time
must produce, and the consequent encroachment upon
their supremacy in the land. And they constitutionalised
that sanctity, by demising large tracts of land and their
revenues to certain temples built and consecrated by
them. Men who would not hesitate to rob a priest may
hesitate to commit sacrilege on an object of general
religious worship. Of these temples the priest assumed
the proprietory wardenship. Almost every temple of
note had a synod of these priestly wardens. They
invited the leading layman or chief to a membership of
the synod, and entrusted to him the stewardship of the
whole temple domain subject to their superior author¬
ity. Thus arose these rich temples. Thus arose tht
sovereignties of the Malabar Coast”. 1
The chief officers in a temple are termed Uraima,
Samudayam, Karaima, Santis and Pattamali. The fol¬
lowing extract from judgment of Mr. K. R. Krishna
Menon, an experienced and learned Sub-Judge of Mala¬
bar. himself a Malayalee, would give us some idea of the
nature of some of the most important of these officers:
“The Melkoima is analogous to the right of Ad-
vowson under the Common Law of England. As the
original founders of Devaswarns were either the reign¬
ing Raja or his Lieutenants, the Melkoima right, as a
general rule, is vested in the sovereign and it, on that
account, resembles in a great measure an Advows or
donation. The practice of presentation, institution and
induction is, however, unknown to the Malabar Law.
By the mere deed of donation of the Melkoima, the
families of the persons, to whom it is made, become the
1. (pp. 286 — 287of the Volume for 1883)*
N. 13.I TEMPLE OFFICERS f>9

urallers, and in them the free-hold of the entire Devas-

wam is absolutely vested- Like other public offices in
Malabar, the office of the urallen from its origin has
been hereditary and consequently the occasion for the
exercise of the right of the Melkoima is very rare, as it
asserts itself only on the extinction of the family in
whom the uraima is vested. The Melkoima, however,
does not entitle the holder thereof to the bodily posses¬
sion of the temple and its property, but it is a right to
give some other men a title to such bodily possession.
“Urallen answers to the Parson of the English
Church. By virtue of his nomination to the uraima,
he has the entire free-hold of the Devaswam and in this
character is regarded as its proprietor. f he urallers
possess the right of appointing all the temple servants,
and they form a sort of corporation and manage the
Devaswam. To guard against dissensions and conse¬
quent mismanagement, they, as a rule, appoint a mana¬
ger who is styled a ‘Samudayam’, through whom the
Devawam business is transacted. He, as a general rule,
is entitled to demise Devaswam lands and to sue and
to be sued on behalf of the Devaswam, but he cannot
do this against the express will of the majority of the
urallers, nor can he assign such lands on any perman¬
ent right or to sell them. When the function of the
manager is limited to the collection of rent and to the
general superintendence of the ceremonies of the tem¬
ple, he is called a Pattamali. In the absence of
special authorization, a Pattamali has no right to de¬
mise Devaswam lands nor to sue or to be sued on its
behalf. In this respect he differs from an ordinary
Samudayam”.
Mr- Krishna Menon is here speaking only of one
class of Devaswams, i. e., the one founded by a Raja or
a chief. Mr- Wigram in his Malabar Law and Custom
explains these terms to mean as follows:—“The Uraima
originally denoted the rights of the heads of the village
community to regulate the affairs of the village temple
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

It was subsequently applied to those who founded

temples and constituted themselves managers and to
those who were appointed as managers of temples by
the Rajas. The Uraimais invariably vested in families
and is hereditary. It is exercised by the head
of the family.
The Samudayam was originally the committee of
management who managed on behalf of the body of
the Uralans- Sometimes the management was vested
in a single Uralen who became Samudayi. The- term
subsequently came to be applied to any person appoint*
ed as an agent to the Uralans. Sometimss the office
is hereditary.
Any temple servant who possesses an hereditary
right to perform any particular service in a temple is
said to be a Kat ala. The term Santi has been already
explained.
“The Pattamali is the rent collector and is usually
a mere paid servant of the Uralans but his office is
sometimes hereditary.
“The Uralans have no right to alienate trust
property but may create subordinate tenures in accord¬
ance with local usage. They have no authority to
transfer their office and its duties together with the
trust property to a stranger.
“In some important temples of Malabar, the
management of the temple and its endowments is
vested in persons selected by the community to which
the temple belongs in conjunction with the sovereign
and the local chieftains and inducted into office with
the performance of elaborate religious ceremonies
which invest them with a degree of sanctity not recog¬
nised in others, and rights over the temple and its
appertenances that are peculiar to them alone. The
process by which they are jn ducted into office is called
Avarodham (consecration). There are, it is said,
eighteen and a half Avarodhams in Malabar, the
N* 13.] AVARODHAM 7i
eighteen being those of Brahmans and the half being
that of a Nayar- In the case of Brahmans, the
Avarodham clothes them with the right of management
and confers on them certain privileges. But in the case
of the Nayar, it does something more. The Avarodham^
raises him in caste status. He becomes almost a Brah¬
man, at any rate a half Brahman. All ties with the
family of his birth are cut off and henceforward he
stands, by himself not as a Nayar as he was by birth,
but as one. ennobled or raised from that class by virtue
of ceremonies performed on him. The most prominent
instance of the Avarodham of a Brahman was that of
the Yogiathiripad cf Trichur. A Nambutiri Brahman
of the Adhyan class of acknowledged learning and
purity of life used to be installed as Yogiathiripad in
the Vadakkunnathan temple at Trichur in the Cochin
State* His primary duty was to perform Pushpanjali
worship in the temple. But to his office was attached
the duty of managing the secular affairs of the Devas-
wam. The Avarodham of the Yogiathiripad was
continued till the expulsion of Pataykkara Yogiar,
whom the Zamorin is said to have forcibly inducted
into office in 1763. When the Cochin Raja, setting at
naught that ceremony, assumed the management of
the Devaswam and its rich endowments he stopped
the Avarodham of a successor. Since then, no
I 0giathiripad has been appointed”.
The Nayar Avarodham is in the Kootalmanikkam
temple at Irinjalakkuda in the Cochin State, and the
person installed is known as ThachudayakaimaL His
position in the temple is unique, and is thus
described by Dr. Day following Ward and Connor.
“At Irinjalakkucla is a temple, the chief of which is a
Sanyasi, who must be nominated from certain families.
He enjoys considerable immunities, and when he goes
out, is preceded by a lamp and sword and has. the
insignia of supreme authority. He acknowledges no
superior and w ill reside in the presence of no Prince,
72 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

He watches over the temple, superintendents its minis¬

terial and lay concerns, sees to its revenues, and over¬
looks its expenditure.*’1
There were long-standing disputes between the
States of Cochin and Travancore regarding the right of
nomination to the “Sacred Sthanam or office desig¬
nated Thachudaya Kaimal,” which were finally settled
by the award of the Arbitrator appointed by the Madras
Government to dispose of all such disputes between
the two States. The late incumbent of the office was
appointed after the decision of the arbitrator* It
declared that “the Raja of Cochin has according to
custom to send a Titturam (Royal writing) to the Raja
of Travancore through a Yogakaran (member of the
community) requesting the nomination of a Thachudaya
Kaimal to the Pagoda of Irinjalacuday; that the Kaimal
is the manager of the temples and its endowments, that,
though the Agent and nominee of Travancore, he is sub¬
ject to the Civil and Criminal Jurisdiction of Cochin; that
Cochin has no right of interference whatever in the
affairs, spiritual or temporal, of the Irinjalacuday Pagoda,
save such as may pertain to the office of Yogakkar held
by the Raja of Cochin jointly with the Namboories.’’
The manner in which the Raja of Travancore
came to possess the right of nomination, as related by
tradition and relied on before the Arbitrator, is inter¬
esting. It is thus set forth by the Travancore Durbar
in a statement presented to the Arbitrator:—
“The Irinjalacuday Pagoda, considered the prin¬
cipal and most sacred in the whole of the Malabar and
Travancore, belongs to the Namboori community called
the Yogam consisting of 42 families (illoms), and was
founded admittedly 4,289 years ago or at the com*
mencement of the Kaliyugam (Era.)
“Some centuries back, the Namboori Brahmins,
observing an extraordinary red' refulgence on the per¬
son of the deity, (so runs the tradition) were very
1. Page 23.
N. 13.] AVARODHAM 73

desirous of ascertaining what it was the like of, and

with this view set out in search of a ruby of uncom¬
monly good colour and waters. At last they found
such a precious stone in the possession of His Highness
the Maha Raja of Travancore (then known as the
Venattoo Raja) from whom they obtained a loan of it,
promising to return the same within 41 days after
having instituted the much desired comparison. When
it was taken near the person of the deity by the Tantri
(officiating priest) for purposes of comparison, the
precious stone, obtained after so much labour and
with such strong assurances of being punctually
returned, was, it is said, absorbed by the deity which
is ever since known by the name of Kudal Manikkam
(absorber of ruby)*
“The Namboory Brahmans returned and explain,
ed what had occurred, and in consideration of their
having failed to return the gem, offered to confer on
the Raja the right of nominating a person to the
management of their sacred temple. Thus originated
in ancient days the right of nomination exercised by
Travancore through ages but now boldly contested by
Cochin.
“Whatever might be the foundation and probabi¬
lity of this tradition, it is an undeniable fact, that the
deity, at the temple of Irinjalakkuda is known at the
present day by the name of ‘Kudal Manikkam , and
every successive nominee of His Highness the Maha
Raja of Travancore to the office of Thachudaya Kaimal
signs as ‘Manikom Keralanb Again, the compound
word Thachudaya (the component parts of which, viz.,
Thachoo—building and oodaya—ownership) means the
owner of the building, in the present instance, the
Pagoda”.
The ceremonies and the method by which the
nominee of Travancore is inducted into office and
invested with the sacred character of Thachudaya
Kaimal, are not only interesting in themselves, but also
74 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23.

disclose the early system by which a temple, dedicated

for public worship, situated within the territorial sover¬
eignty of one State, was allowed to be managed by a
Nayar, nominated by the sovereign of a neighbouring
State, who is inducted into office and raised in caste
status by a community of priestly Brahmans, with the
assistance ot a number of chieftains, coming from dif¬
ferent localities outside both States, whose interests in
other respects, more specially politicab are more or less
antagonistic to one another.
The following account, extracted from the re¬
cords of the Devaswam, contains an accurate descrip¬
tion of what transpired at the installation of the present
Thachudaya Kaimal’s predecessor in office in the year
983 M. E. 1808 A. D.
“On the 30th Thulam 983 M. E., the Yogam having
resolved on the consecration of a Thachudaya Kaimal,
the ceremony known as Tevar Seva (the serving of God)
was begun by the yogakkars on the 1st of Vrischigam.
It was continued for 40 days, after which the represent¬
atives of the Yogam proceeded to Trippunittura (the
seat of the Raja of Cochin), had an audience with the
Raja, and informed His Highness that it was their de¬
sire that a Thachudaya Kaimal should be consecrated
without further delay. His Highness answered that,
if they desired it, His Highness had no objection.
After this, two members of the Yogam proceeded to
Alavancheri to ascertain the convenience of the Tam*
prakal (the high priest of the Namputiries) a inform¬
ed him that the consecration of the Thachudaya Kaimal
has been resolved upon. The Tamprakal said that he
would come on being sent for after a date for the cere¬
mony is settled* The Yogam then assembled in the
Vsthal Madam, a particular part of the temple, where
they usually assemble in council for purposes of con¬
sultation, and prepared a writ (Theet) to the Maha
Raja of Travancore requesting His Highness to send
the horoscope of his nominee for consecration as
N. 13.] THACHUDAYA KAIMAL 75
Thachudaya Kaimal. Then four members of the Yogam%
accompanied by Kolom Moothatu, Chirayath Moothatu,
Olloor Nayar and Thuruthikat Nayar—all officers
attached to the temple—went to Tripoonitura, saw the
Raja and obtained a Theetooram (Royal writing) and
left for Trivandrum on the 17th of Makaram, reaching
the place on the 23rd* The party was received with
all hospitality and housed in the Tycad Madom and
was informed that the interview with the Maha Raja
will have to be postponed till after Bharani and Ksrtika
which were inauspicious days. The deputation waited
till the 26th, on which day after sunset, the members
proceeded to the Chowkkaket of the Palace and were
admitted to an audience with the Maha Raja. They
informed His Highness that they had come to get the
horoscope of His Highness’ nominee for consecration
as Thachudaya Kaimal, and had brought with them,
according to usage, the Tltturam of the Raja of Cochin
and the Tltt of the Yogam. The former was handed
over to the Tevsri (purohit or priest) while the latter
was placed in the hands of His Highness himself.
Then the members of the Yogam were asked to
sit on a plank placed for them. The rest stood there.
The Theet and Theettooram were read aloud, and
His Highness answered, ‘So let it be.’ On the 27th,
the deputation again waited on His Highness in the
Chowkka Etakket, and the members of the Yogam sat
on a plank facing to the East while the others stood by.
The Maharaja sat facing westwards* The Elaya Raja
(the heir-apparent) and the 3rd Raja were also present.
Vatayattil Pillai stood down the Chowkkay. The
Maharaja handed over to the deputation the horoscope
of Panayara Illattu Puthenveettil Kumara Kuruppu. It
was then Meenam Rasi (indicating the exact point of
time). Olloor Nair Sanku took it. On taking leave
of His Highness that day, after meals, rich presents
were given to all. Similarly the Dalawa or Prime
Minister also gave presents. Leaving Trivandrum
the same day, the party reached Irinjalakuday on the
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

3rd fcumbham- Two members of the Yogam repaired

to Trippunithura to acquaint the Raja of Cochin of
what had transpired- After an audience with His
Highness, the 10th of Meenam was selected as an
auspicious day for consecration, and invitations were
issued to all those whose presence at the ceremony was
necessary. Theets and Theettoorams were sent through
special messengers of the Yogam and the Raja to Tam-
prakal, Velattukara Nampidi and Wadakumkootil
Nair. All responded to the invitation and came to
Irinjalakkuday on the 9th of Meenam. On the morning
of the 10th, the Yogam assembled in the Thekke Vathal-
madam and sat facing eastwards. Lamps were lit. A
para (measure) of paddy and rice were placed there
with a bunch of plantain fruits as an offering to Ganapathi.
The Raja sat on a piefce of cloth spread facing west¬
wards with his sword placed in his lap. Kolom
Moothathu, Cherayath Moothathu, Olloor Nayar,
Thuruthikkat Nayar, the four Kaimals of Nanthipulam,
Wadakunkootil Nayar, and Muriyatathu Nampiyar
stood in the Thekke Vathilmadam. In the Vadakke
Vathilmadam stood the Uralers of the nine houses,
Vellattukara Nampidi and Veloss Nampidi and Veloss
Nampiar. The Chieftains can be allowed to come up
to the Vathilmadam and stand there, only on purging
themselves of any offences they had committed, by
presenting an elephant to the temple as penalty for the
same* Of the erring chiefs, Chankarakanda Kaimal
was the first to be called on to make amends for the
wrong he had committed. A dispute then arose be.
tween Tekineyedat Karumukk and Vadakenediath
Karumukk Nambutiries as to which of them was enti¬
tled to enforce the penalty and the Yogam disposed
of the dispute by calling on a third party Arithodath
Nambutiri to exact the penalty. The office of Velose
Nampiar having become vacant by the death of the
last incumbent, his heir and successor was ordered to
surrender the silk and sword, the insignia of office
which had been given to his uncle. On these being
 N. 13.]
THACHUDAYA KAIMAL 77

given up, Itteyetath Nampiar was chosen to fill the

vacant place. On his entering the temple through the
eastern gate after taking his bath in Kuttankulam
(tank) and the Theertha Kolam (tank); Moothathu
presented him with the silk and sword and called out
his designation as Velose Nampiar. He stood in the
Vadakke Vathal Madam* The Tamprakal, after this,
ascended the Mandapam (raised platform in
front of the Sanctum) and sat on a plank
in the middle facing the image of the god. On
the Mandapam wrere placed lighted lamps, a para
of paddy, and rice, cocoanuts, molasses, ghee,
plantain fruits, etc., as offerings to Ganapati* Money
for dakshina—one fanam (4 as. 7 ps.) for Danam and
3 fanams for Muhoortam—were also placed there.
Tamprakal made the presents and proceeded to per¬
form the consecration ceremony. On the 10th of the
month of Meenam being Uthrattathi asterism, Desami
or 10th day of the 2nd half of the fortnight, Monday at
Karkadakam Rasi, Panayara Puthenveettil Kumara
Kurup was consecrated as Thachudaya Kaimal. At
that time none was allowed to stand within the inner
precincts of the temple. The Marar who was to blow
the Shank (conch-shell) did so from the northern door
(standing out of sight).
After Tamprakal had finished Puja to Ganapa^y,
Kolom M oothatu placed on a plank on the Mandapam
in a leaf icoi fanams for Dakshina. He also took to
Vellattukaray Nambidi and Vadakamkooletil Nayar,
who were standing in the Vatal Madam, 101 fanams
each and presented them with the same. Here ended
the first part of the ceremony, which closed with a
grand feast to the Brahmans and Ampalavasies.
“At an auspicious moment on the nth Meenam,
eight members of the Yogam accompanied by
Kolom Muthatu, Chirayath Muthatu, Ollur Nayar
Thuruthikattu Nayar, Perumpilli Nayar, Nanthikaray
Panikar, Krishnapisharath Pisharody. Arakkaypisharath
78 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [I*. 23.

Pisharody, Akathuttu Wariyar, and the Marars attached

to the pagoda left for Trivandrum, to bring down the
Thachudaya Kaimal. They reached the place on the
23rd* On being presented to the Maha Baja, they
were told that the 25th has been selected as an auspi¬
cious day for the further ceremonies to be performed
at Trivandrum. The deputation was located at Tycad
Madham and entertained with magnificent hospitality.
On proceeding to the Valia Etaket of the Palace on the
morning of the 25th, the place was found to be richly
decorated with silk hangings, etc. A bunch of plantain
fruits had also been placed for Ganapati* There was
also a lighted lamp and a para of paddy and rice. The
members of the Yogam were seated on a plank facing
westward, the other members of the deputation stand¬
ing. The Maha Raja sat facing the east. Kolom
Muthatu then placed before His Highness, on a plantain
leaf, a new pot, filled with saffron powder, the mouth be¬
ing covered with plantain leaf. Then a member of the
Yogam announced to the Maha Raja that Panayara
Illath Puthen Veettil Kumara Kurup has been conse¬
crated as Thachudayan of Irinjalakkuda. Upon this,
His Highness sent for the person consecrated and
addressed him thus:—“You have been consecrated
Thachudayan for Irinjalakkuda. Go you along with the
Yogam and manage the temple as I had done.” So say¬
ing, a piece of silk was presented to him which he
received making obeisance. As soon as this was done,
a screen was drawn between the Maha Raja and the
Kaimal (for he cannot see the Maha Raja after this)
and the Shank blown. Olloor Nayar and other temple
servants made their obeisance to the Thachudaya
Kaimal first- These were followed by the Dalava and
other officers of State. The bunch of plantain fruits
placed for Ganapati is the perquisite of Olloor Nayar.
“The Thachudaya Kaimal entered his palanquin
from inside the Palace and went round the temple in
procession with music playing and drums beating, with
 No* «3] THACHUDAYA KAIMAL 1q

lamps of peculiar make1 carried before and after and

proceeded thus to the Sreekanteswarath Madham. The
Thachudaya Kaimal’s daily functions began from this
day. On the members of the Yogam taking leave of
the Maha Raja that evening, presents were given to
all. The party left Trivandrum the same day. On
reaching Quilon, boats were supplied. It reached Paroor
on the first Medam and was accommodated in the
Mookambi Palace* Staging there till the 6th, a move
was made to Trippayya, a couple of miles to the south
of Irinjalakkuda. On the morning of the 7th, the Raja
ot Cochin attended by the chieftains and noblemen who
had been invited by His Highness came to Trippayya,
placed the Thachudaya Kaimal on the back of a magni¬
ficent elephant and took him to Irinjalakkuday in pro¬
cession with popguns firing, music playing* drums
beating and all other paraphernalia that generally
accompany a procession of the kind- He was ac¬
commodated in a special shed put up for the occasion to
the south of the Gopuram or Gate-Tower of the temple.
The Kaimal sat there with a lighted lamp and a para
of paddy and rice placed before him, attended by the
chieftains and nobles and attendants above-mentioned
who were dressed in a peculiar fashion with clothes
supplied by the Devaswam. There he had to be shaved
by Olloor Nayar (for which the Nayar receives certain
perquisites he is entitled to), after which he bathed
first in Kuttam Kulam (tank outside the walls of the
pagoda) and again in the Theertham (the sacred pool
within the walls). He then dressed himself in the
peculiar orthodox style of the Nambootiries, and had
consecrated water poured on his head (Kalasom ati)
being seated on a plank placed on the floor decorated
with figures formed with powders of different colours
{Yatmam), inside a closed shed of five Aoles circum-
ambit erected on the bank of the sacred pool to the
west of the Mandapam. The water was consecrated
by having elaborate Pujas performed and mantrams or
incantations muttered on it according to rituals laid
1. Changalavatta lamps.
So LETTERS FROM MALABAR J.L, 23.

down in the Sastras. After being bathed in consecrated

water, he proceeded to the inner precincts of the temple,
attended by men, carrying lighted lamps of peculiar
make in front and rear and accompanied by music.
He entered it by the eastern door and sat on a carpet
to the right of the image. Kolom Muthatu then
placed before him an Edangazhi, a measure, and the
keys of the temple. He took them up and, with the
first, he measured out rice for offering at the mid-day
service in the pagoda. Having done this, he ascended
the flight of steps leading to the Sanctum Sanctorum,
placed a piece of Veeravalipattu (a kind of rich silk)
before the image, rang a bell hanging there and
worshipped. The presiding priest gave him Theertham
(holy water), and Prasadam (flowers and sandal paste
used in worship). Receiving this on a plate, he went
round the Sanctum and by the time he reached the
Valia Belikallu (large stone altar) a palanquin had been
placed in a shed, erected to the south of the altar, on
four posts. Puja had been performed on the palanquin,
which was then removed to the east of the stone-altar
and so placed as to have one of its poles touch the
altar. On the Thachudaya Kaimal getting into the
palanquin, the Raja of Cochin touched the pole at the
other end that rested on the ground (indicating that
the palanquin is borne by the god at one pole and the
Raja at the other. It was then lifted up by the bearers
(Pa Hick an Nayars whose profession is to act as oearers
to Nambutiries) and carried round the pagoda in pro¬
cession with music, etc*, attended by the Raja, chiefs,
Nambutiries, and others to Kottilakal, the official
residence in which the Kaimal is to take up his perma¬
nent abode. On Kaimal leaving the temple, Koloman
Muthatu paid to the Raja 301 fanams in a bag. As he
alighted from his palanquin at the gate of Kottilakal, he
was received and welcomed by Turithikat Nayar,
dressed in the peculiar fashion of the Nambutiries,
carrying in his hands a plate filled with rice on which
was placed a mitror and a small painted round box.
N. 13.] THACHUDAYA KAIMAL 81

He entered the house and took his seat in the east

wing of the building on a piece of black cloth spread
over a white one. In front of him was a lighted lamp
and paddy and rice. Sitting there he gave the chief¬
tains each one and a quarter measure of rice and 32
fanams being their subsistence allowance. The
chieftains made their obeisance and received their
allowances on their shields. Then followed distribution
of allowances to the temple servants. The whole
ceremony was wound up by a grand and sumptuous
feast to the Brahmans and Ampalavasies, also to other
classes of people, together with money donations to
the twice-born-”
By this ceremony the Nayar individual who is
consecrated as Thachudaya Kaimal is raised almost to
Brahmanhood. He is not invested with the sacred
thread. But all the same he is regarded as equivalent
to a Brahman. He is henceforward clothed with all
the peculiar privileges of a high class Brahman. He is
to dress like the holy Namputiri priest, is allowed to
bathe in the sacred pool attached to the temple, can go
up the stairs of the sanctum and worship, may ring the
bell hanging before the idol, is entitled to get prasadam
in his own hands from the officiating priest and is al¬
ways preceded by a kuthu wi/ak1 or lighted lamp of
peculiar make, as also by men carrying swords and
shields. His approach is announced by the blowing of
a shank or conch so that all may give way to his sacred
presence. He adopts the designation of the deity and
styles himself Manikan Keralan and the faithful recog¬
nise in him the representative of the deity. In the eyes
of the ultra orthodox Malayali Hindu, steeped in
modern Brahmanism, can any position in this world
be more elevated or more sacred than that of the Kai¬
mal—a Nayar promoted to Brahman hood by means
of ceremonies performed by the Brahmans themselves?
Henceforward the Thachudaya Kaimal manages the
Devaswom and its affairs, and acts independently of
any one, though in these prosaic days of materialism
1* called changalayatta.
82 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

and agnosticism the judicial tribunals of the State

refuse to uphold the theory of the Kaimal’s assimilation
with the deity and his claims to absolute independence,
but admits to see in him only the manager of a religious
endowment.1
With the above account of a Nayar AvarodhctM
may be compared and contrasted the ceremonies
attendant on a Brahman Avarodkam that of the
Yogiathmpad for Pushpanjali in the Vadakunathan
temple at Trichur* The following account is gathered
from the Grandhavari or Chronicles of the Trichur
temple and it gives us an interesting description of an
old-world ceremony that has now gone out of use
altogether.
“When a vacancy occurs, the Baja of Cochin should
proceed to Trichur and summon the Perimpadappil
Mooppu (i. e., the senior in age of all the branches of
the Cochin Royal Family) who should take his seat in
the Vatalmadam of the temple. The 22 Nampikkoors
(i. e., temple property-holders or Nambis) as well as
the members of the Pathillam (10 houses of Brahmans)
and Ponnazhiath Kaimal have also to be summoned. At
this assembly, the Raja has to announce the proposed
Avarodham- On the proposals being accepted, intima*
tion has to be given first to the Azhuvancheri Tamp*
rakkal and Vadakkiniyedathu Karumukkil Namboodiri-
pad. The invitation to the former should be issued in
the names of the Patoor and Poran.5ttukara Gramams
(villages or communities) and should bear the signatures
of Mundakaseri Nambutiri and Ksvumkal Nambutiri
followed by those of the members of the 18 lilams. The
invitation to the other goes in the names of Mundaka¬
seri, Venad, Vettanad and Kavumkal Nambutiries.
The invitations have to be written on Olas, palmyra
leaves, in the handwriting of the Pattola Menon, here¬
ditary Secretary of the temple. They are handed over
> I* After a protracted litigation, and, as a result of an arbi¬
tration, it is norw settled that he acts independently of the two
States but, in certain respects, under the Political Agent.
 N. 13.] YOGIATHIRI AVARODHAM 83

to Perimpadappil Mooppu who delivers them to the

Raja who in turn despatches them through special
messengers to the addressees together with Royal writs
of his own and of the Perimpadappil Mooppu. Writs
have also to be issued to the following Nambutiries and
chiefs inviting them to be present at the occasion.
Thekkiniyedathu Namboodiripad, Paykkad Namboo-
diripad, the Rajas of Kurumpanad, Walluvanad, Thek-
kenkoor and Wadakkenkoor, the Karanavarpad
of Kakkad, the Punnathoor Chief and the four
Karalers. When all have arrived, the party should
assemble on the platform in front of the temple. Two
well lighted brass lamps should be placed there, and
in front of them a full measure of paddy and rice
together with offerings to the God Ganapathi. The
Azhuvancheri Tamprakkal should sit on aw Avanap-
palaka (a piece of plank in the shape of a tortoise)
to the south of the lamps facing northwards. Kirangat
Nampooripad should sit on his left looking to the
north on an Avanappalaka. The Raji should stand
on a black blanket spread on a white sheet placed to
the north of the lamps, sword in hand. On being
bidden to sit by the Tamprakkal, he should sit facing
southwards with the sword placed across in his lap.
Towards the right side of the Raja, facing the south,
Karamukkil Nambooripad should seat himself on a
piece of plank. Paykkad Nambooripad should sit on
a plank to the west of the lamp ^looking to the east
wearing his loin cloth in the Tathi form having
another piece wound round it. The members of the
Pathillom and the Irupathiran&u Illom have to sit on
small pieces of cloth behind the Paykkad and Kirangat
Nambooripads, the former facing to the east, and the
latter to the north. The Kurumbranad Raja as well as
the Manakkulam and Ayanikkoor Chiefs should stand
on the steps leading to the platform on the east with
their sword points resting on the ground. The
Pattola or Secretary should stand to the south of the
steps with the Ola on which the programme of the
ceremony is written in hand, and still further south
84 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

Panamukkatnu Kaimal should attend with sword and

shield. When the whole assembly has arranged
itself in this manner, the Raja should call on the Pattola
Menon to read the Ola. Then a sort of roll call is
made somewhat in this form;— “Are the following
persons, summoned to be present at the Avarodham
of so and so (name given) on such and such a day
(year—date—Rasi given) at Trichoor, present here ?”
The names of a number of Nambutiries, Swamyars,
Rajas and others are then called out.
“After the roll call is over, offerings are made to
Ganapathi, and Kirangat Nambooripad announces
that the Avarodham ceremonies are to be commenced.
Vazhiyil Marar and the other Marars present then
blow their conchshells. The party after this goes
in procession to the Illom or house of the Yogiar-
elect to conduct him to the temple for induction into
office. This party should consist of the Tevari or
priest of the Yogam and Keezhoottil Wariyar carrying
the Avanappalaka for the candidate to sit on; Vazhiyil
Marar and other Marars, the Asans or headmen of both
sides (perhaps of Tiruvampady and Parmelkavu villages)
with their following, Kandir and Chathir Nambootiries ;
—Perutaya Nayar should take the clothes for the
candidate; Pallichans (bearers) should take the Palkee
in which the candidate is to be brought away. On the
party reaching the house, the Avanappalaka is placed
on the floor and the clothes are also deposited there.
The candidate takes his seat on the Avanappalaka and
the conchshell is blown. The Pattola Menon would
announce to those present as well as to the ladies of the
house that the candidate is being taken to be installed
in the office of Yogathiri for offering flowers to the
God (Push pan jali Avarodhairi) and blows his conch¬
shell once. The candidate then goes to the tank to
bathe, preceded by the Vadhyan Nambootiri, the Marans
blowing their shells. After the ceremonial bath is
over and the candidate is decked in the new clothes
(Ltayata) that had been brought for the purpose, he
proceeds to the temple. Before he enters the temple
N. 13.] YOGIAR AVARODHAM 85
Sanketam limits, marked oft by four bridges one on
each side, the Raja should meet him in a Palkee at the
bridge at Viyyoor and accompany him to the temple as
his bodyguard (A&ampadi). The four Karalers
should also act as such. On nearing the temple at
Rishabhat in the vicinity of the main fane, the Tamprak-
kal, Nambooripad, the Raja and Perimpadappa Mooppu
meet together and see the candidate shaved by the
Puduval after which he bathes and proceeds to the
inner shrine to offer flowers (Pushpanjali)• As he
enters the Sanctum Sanctorum, he has to be accom¬
panied by the Tamprakkal and Puliyannoor Namboori.
When the installation is announced in public, the
Tirumunpus of the two Madhams, /*. the two
Swamyars of Trichur and Changaliote Namboori, the
Vadhyan or preceptor of the Yogam, should be present
at the Rishabhat temple. The following payments
have to be made in connection with the ceremony.
“To the Azhuvancheri Tamprakkal at the rate of
50 fanams per day from the date of his arrival at
Trichur to the date of the ceremony. For that day he
should be paid double the amount or 100 fanams. This
payment has to be made from within the Sanctum. To
the Cochin Raja 160 fanams should be paid tied up in
apiece of cloth after the Yogathiripad’s return to
Rishabhat temple. The Raja of Walluvanad gets a
similar sum- Kakkad Karnavapad and the Rajas of
Thekkenkoor and Vadakkenkoor get 120 fanams each.
The Kirangat Namburipad gets 101 fanams. Kara-
mukku Nambooripad, Ponnazhiat Kaimal and the
Punnathoor chief get 64 fanams each. The Raja of
Kurumparnad gets at the rate of 50 fanams per day
from the date of his arrival at Trichur to the date of
the ceremony. Kuttoor Nampidi, Vatakkum Nampidi,
Thekkum Nampidi, Kazhala Nampidi, and Panamuk-
kath Kaimal, get 32 fanams each. The Kurups on
both sides get 4 fanams each- The Nayars 2 fanams
each. The Chathir Nambutiris 4 fanams each, and the
Marans 2 fanams each.”
86 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

It is recorded, in the same temple chronicles that,

while the Zamorin of Calicut was holding court at
Trichur, having expelled the Cochin Raja from the
place, at the invitation of the Nambutiries of the
Trichur Grammam, he resolved upon installing
Pathakkara Nambutiripad as Yogiathiri. The
Cochin Raja protested against this and issued writs to
the various chiefs, Brahmans, and others concerned
prohibiting them from taking part in the ceremony.
The Raja also intimated to the Yogyar-elect that he
would be expelled from the office to which he is
illegally and unjustly raised on Cochin regaining
ascendancy over the temple. In spite of these vehement
protests, the Zamorin had his nominee installed as
Yogiatiri in the year 936 M. E. 1761 A. D. Most of
the chiefs did not attend the installation. The new
Yogiar did not enjoy his elevation long; for, on Cochin
Raja driving out the Zamorin with the assistance of
Travancore, the Raja called on the two Swamyars and
the Yogam to cancel the appointment, and they unani¬
mously declared that the installation having been made
against their protests and by force, it was ab initio
void and the psuedo Yogiar was led out of his residence
on the night of the 9” of Makaram 938 through the
northern gate-way and the doors shut against him.
He was expelled from the country altogether.
Another peculiar institution of Malabar in con¬
nection with religious endowments require notice.
Many of the more important Devaswams of Malabar
had originally their own Samketams or independent
jurisdictions—possessions beyond the control of the
Sovereign or local chieftains who are simply protectors
of those jurisdictions, the corporations themselves
managing their concerns and in certain respects sub¬
jecting the sovereign as well as the local chieftains to
their authority.
The Samketamris one of the many peculiar insti¬
tutions of Malabar, which has, in the course of the many
political revolutions the country has been subjected to,
N. 13.I SAMKETAMS 87

altogether disappeared. The term itself has lost its

original signification and is now used simply to mean
a tract lying within certain defined limits. Originally*
it meant the independent jurisdictions of Pagodas and
Brahman communities, and were places of refuge
altogether inviolable by any one by long established
custom.
Many of the more important Devaswams or
temple endowments had their own Samketams which
were well defined and of large extent. Within these
limits, the temple corporation used to exercise sovereign
authority. We have seen that most of the temples and
the lands attached to them were originally the creation
of Brahman lords and communities, who under the
early theocratic form of Government owned the pro¬
prietorship of all lands in Malabar. The Brahman
lords identified themselves with these corporate estates
which they had created and as time flowed on they as¬
sociated with themselves, for political reasons, a secular
leader to defend those possessions. That secular leader
became part and parcel of the Devaswam corporation.
The Brahman lords themselves never gave up their
rights of ownership or management. They, along with
the secular leader and other persons attached to the
temple collectively termed a Yogam, managed the temple
lands and ruled the tracts lying within the limits of the
Samketam.
The very existence of such a constitution as that
of the Samketam was much discussed recently in con¬
nection with certain disputes regarding the exercise of
sovereign rights within the limits of the lands attached
to the Elangunnappuzha and Annamanada temples
between the States of Travancore and. Cochin. These
disputes along with others were referred for settlement
to the arbitration of an officer appointed by the Madras
Government, The two temples mentioned may be
taken as typical instances of Devaswam corporations.
According to both parties, the Elangunnappuzha
88 LETTERS ERQJNI MALABAR [L. 23.

endowment was the creation of a local chief or Raja*

Travancore contended that 1 ‘the pagoda was built by
the Raja of Parur, and the villages which formed part
of his territories were ceded to the Devan (God) and
constituted into a Samketam under his protection, on
che 24th day of the Month of Makaram of the year
2767 Kaliyugam Era (B. C. 335)'’. According to
Cochin, the Devaswam was founded and endowed by
the Raja cf Cochin, who is said to have purchased 5^
Desams or villages and presented it to the temple-
date not known.
With regard to the Annamanada Devaswam,
Cochin stated that it was founded and endowed by the
Nambootiries and that the Samketam of the Devaswam
comprised 12A villages. According to Travancore, the
lands attached to the temple were known as forming
Adoor Gramam comprising many villages with a
superficies of about 10 square miles and was styled
Adoor Gramam Samketam. It is described as a
remnant of Brahman sway over the Malabar country-
Travancore referred to a document containing
answers to questions alleged to have been put to four
Nambutiri Brahmans at the instance of Major Cadogan,
British Resident in Travancore and Cochin, in A. D.
1829, and answered by two of them. These questions
were: —
1* What is meant by a Samketam ?
2. How many kinds of Samketams are there?
3- What sovereign powers can a Raja, whose
territories surrounded a Samketam, exercise over the
properties and ryots of the said Samketam?
4* Does the civil and criminal jurisdiction
in a Samketam vest in the Raja whose territories
surround the Samketam ?
5. Please state in detail what Koima, Aka
Koima and Samudayam are, and their respective
functions and powers.
N. 13.] SAMKETAMS 89

The substance of their answers \yas to the effect

that the term Samketam applies to a tract over which
no sovereign has any right or jurisdiction; that there
are two kinds of Samketams, viz., those self-existent, as
remnants of Brahman supremacy of old, and those
created under concessions made by sovereigns in
favour of pagodas or Brahman communities from
motives of religion; that the sovereign whose territories
surround a Samketam has, as such, no authority of
any kind over it, but all powers are vested in the
Samketam authorities conjointly with the sovereign
elected by them; that the civil and criminal jurisdictions
over Samketams vest in the constituent members elected
or in the sovereign protector of their choice; that the
terms Koima, Aka Koima, Samudayam are applicable
to the managing members who are generally sovereigns
elected for the purpose. In short, then, a Samketam
meant, according to them, an independent constitution
governed by its own members and presided over by a
sovereign elected by them-
Cochin stoutly denied the existence of any consti¬
tution as above set forth, and put forward its own
version thus:— “Samketam is a tract of territory,
belonging to a pagoda, the limits of which are defined.
Within these limits no act calculated to pollute the
pagoda, to which the tract belongs, can be committed.
Such lands as are exclusively set apart for the perform¬
ance of ceremonies, etc., at the pagoda, are said to be
lands comprised in the Samketam, and the sovereign
has as much sovereign supremacy over it as he has
over other portions of his territories.”
Mr. J.C. Hannyngton, the Arbitrator, rejected the
Travancore document as “inadmissible under all rules
of evidence”, and expressed his opinion that “the
existence of such an extraordinary corporation as is
described as a Samgaitham or Samketham in paras 13
to 15 of the Travancore statement, must be admitted
to be improbable, inasmuch as no trace oL any such
constitution exists at ihe present dav. ’ Hp rontinued
90 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

“That a sovereign who founded a pagoda and endowed

it with lands should give to the managers the power of
emancipating themselves at pleasure from his sovereign
authority and adopting at will a different and probably
a rival chief as sovereign is well nigh incredible.” The
learned Arbitrator was however forced to admit that
“the condition of things in the days when this pagoda
(that of Elengunnapuzha) was founded and endowed
was very different to anything now existing- I am
justified in stating that the sovereigns of the State in
which this Devaswam existed, even though they
themselves were the individual founders of the
Devaswam, conceded the deity, through his managers,
powers within the limits of the Devaswam which
included every function of Government save and
except Royalty. Within their Devaswam limits,
the managers of the temples collected the revenues,
and exercised all judicial powers. The sovereigns
themselves yielded homage and paid substantial
tribute to the Devaswams (they do so still). The
various chiefs or swaroopams assisted in the management
of the pagoda and in the celebration of its ceremonies.
In course of time, these endowments were infringed
upon and these privileges curtailed as the secular
influence prevailed and the religious influence dimi¬
nished. ’’
Possibly the learned Arbitrator was correct in his
decision regarding the constitution of the particular
Devaswams with which he was dealing. But the
reasons on which he based his conclusion seem to
throw doubt on the possibility, or even the probability,
of the existence at any time of any such institution as a
Samketham, as “an independent constitution governed
by its own members and presided over by a sovereign
elected by them”. We are in no way concerned with
the merits of the dispute between the two States, but, in
the interests of history, we think it necessary to scruti¬
nise the general reasoning on which the non-existence of
such a constitution at anv period of Malabar history is
 N. 13.] SAMKETAMS

sought to be based. It is argued that such an “extra¬

ordinary corporation” could not have existed as it is
improbable inasmuch as no trace of any such consti¬
tution exists at the present day.”' The argument is,
to say the least, unsound and fallacious. Because we
are not in a position now to detect traces of an ancient
institution that had flourished in the remote past, does
it follow that it could not have existed at all? If so, many
an ancient institution now defunct, having passed into
the limbo of oblivion, leaving behind but a bare name,
will have to be declared as having never existed, and yet
we have instances of institutions and usuages of hoary
antiquity of which very little trace can now be found.
Mr. Hannyngton himself observes: “I believe that the
condition of things in the days when this pagoda was
founded and endowed was very different to anything
now existing”. He added, “in course of time, these
endowments were infringed upon and these privileges
curtailed as the secular influence prevailed and the
religious influence diminished,” and this supplies a
conclusive answer to his objection that “no trace of
any such constitution exists at the present day.”Not to
travel beyond fyl^tabar itself, we find at present no traces
whatever of the following old institutions and customs:
viz., Kutippaka, Mamamkam, C/iamgadam, the cus¬
tom of Nayars constituting themselves ‘‘Amoucos” or
“Amocchi”. Nor is there any trace at present of the
custom mentioned by Barbosa of the kings of Quila-
care publicly cutting their own throats clean at the
end of their 12 years term. Such instances, as Pangan
Purapad, Pattini, etc-, may easily be multiplied
specially with reference to the period of Brahman sway
in Malabar.
The early Jewish and Syrian copper plates unmis¬
takably show that, when those deeds were executed,
there were guilds in existence exercising functions of
Government not unlike those exercised by the consti*
tuent members of Samketams. The Jewish and Syrian
guilds assembled in their respective corporate
92 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23,

head-quarters at Anjuvannam and Manigramam, “to

protect the church people’s (Palliyars) town.” Referring
to the Syrian and Jewish plates, Mi. Logan observes:
“The light thrown by these deeds on the state of
society as it existed in the 8th and 9th centuries A. D.
exhibits a community in a very advanced state of
organization. At the head of all was the Ron or King
or Ferumal—drawing from the land a share of the
produce of the soil called the Ko-pad's share (vSram).
Another share of the produce went to the Pati (over-
lord) intermediary between the Ron and the actual
landholder. The Pati, it seems, was not any particular
person, but a body corporate of the Jews in
their municipal township of Anjuvannam and of
the Christians in theirs of Manigramam, and
(inferentially) of the Nayars in their corporation called
the ‘Six Hundred’- But each body corporate had an
hereditary headman or chieftain. These bodies corpo¬
rate seem to have constituted the political backbone
of the country, and their particular functions in the
State were those of protecting and of supervising--”1
Where are these institutions or organizations
at the present day? A hundred and odd years of
British domination has wiped them off the face of
Malabar so completely that the present day Malabar
Christian, Jew and Nayar have no idea whatever of the
position their forefathers occupied in the body politic.
These deeds further indicate the existence of other
corporate bodies in Malabar such as those of “the five
kinds of artificers, the oil makers, Ezhavas, Chetties”,
etc. Where are these now?
To Mr. Hannyngton it seemed “well nigh
incredible” that a sovereign founder of a pagoda and
its endowments should “give to the managers the
power of emancipating themselves at pleasure from his
sovereign authority and adopting at will a different and
probably a rival chief as sovereign.” Mr. Hannyngton
has evidently failed to correctly understand the origin
and nature of these foundations. In the particular case
1, Vol. I, p. 271.
 N* 13. j SAMKETAMS 93

he was dealing with, he has assumed, or it may be that

it was proved or admitted before him, that the temple
in question was founded by the sovereign and the lands
attached to the Devaswam were a gift from him. But
if we keep in mind the origin of the Malabar temples
and the hieraichical rights tnerem we have already
given, it will be clear that the learned Arbitrator’s
argument is of very little use to support his conclu¬
sion. 1 o say that the ancient temples of Malabar were
endowed by the sovereigns would be to put the cart
before the horse. Most if not all of them were
Brahman foundations and the body of Brahmans, the
yogam, the community to which these belonged, called
in the sovereign or elected him only to protect the
temple and its endowments and to preserve the rights
and customs just as the Nambutiries called in or
elected Perumals from outside Malabar to rule over
them for a term of 12 years.
I he fact that these sovereigns were generally
samautha Kshetryas and were designated Koviladhv-
karikal (temple managers) is significant enough.
“Namputiri Brahmans”, observes Mr. Justice Kunhi
Raman Nayar in his Memo on the Land Tenures of
Travancore, “who held sway over the Devaswams or
pagodas possessing immense wealth and landed pro¬
perty, invoked the assistance of Samantha Kshetryas,
and these managed the Devaswams under the designa¬
tion of Kovi ladhikarikals* The Devaswams exercised
sovereign functions within the limits of their landed
property as did wealthy classes of Brahmans generally
within the limits of their Sankethams (tracts ^assigned
to Brahmans). The life and liberty of the Devaswam
tenants were at one time at the mercy of these Deva¬
swam communities.”*
The Copper plate inscription dated Tuthuvaippu
103, i. e., 619 M. E., 1414 A. D., filed by Cochin and
marked A by the Arbitrator affords ample support to
this. For it concludes by saying “Perimpadap-
pu (the Cochin Raja) has the authority (in the
i» Para 26. pp, 10, u
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.
94

Elengunnapuzha temple) to cause the different Swarocr

pams (Principalities) to pay the fines should they have
committed any irregularities, to protect the Samke-
tams and to preserve the rights and customs thereof”.
The Cochin Raja still styles himself Koviladhikarikal,
in the documents he executes with regard to landed
properties.
In the early days of Brahman supremacy, their'
political and spiritual influence over the constituent
members of the corporations as well over the various
sovereign rulers, whom they themselves had created or
called in, was so great that it was almost impossible for
any conflict such as contemplated by Mr. Hannyngton
to arise. It is an open secret that the ecclesiastics of
Malabar like those of Rome always kept the rulers
of the land under their thumb. To a large extent they
do so still. There is indeed considerable force in the
Travancore Diwan Ramiengar’s observation that ‘'such
corporations as Sankethamd in olden days are by no
means the myths he (the Arbitrator) imagines them to be.
If there was such a thing as the Hanseatic League—a
mere trade union—inexistence till the fifteenth century
exercising acts of sovereignty and judicial power which
were incompatible with the supremacy of the rulers in
whose States they were enforced; and if it is a fact that
the Head of the Romish Church at one time so arro¬
gated all civil power to himself as to set up Kings and
to depose Kings, there is nothing incredible or
extraordinary in the existence of such independent
hierarchies as are implied by Samketams in a country
at all times acknowledging the domination and influ¬
ence of its Priesthood”.
That such institutions did actually exist and that
they exercised sovereign powers within the limits of
their authority, even though there were sovereign
protectors placed over them, we have abundant evi¬
dence to show. An imperium in imperio is not more
extraordinary in medieval Malabar than in medieval
 N* 13-1 SAMKETAMS 95

Europe. Have we not instances of Republics flourish¬

ing under the protecting aegis of Monarchies? The
earliest mention we have by Portuguese writers of a
Samketam is that of Elengunnapuzha itself* It is
referred to as a “Sanctuary the Samorin dared not
violate”, to which the Cochin Raja retreated for safety
after his defeat at the battle at the Edappilly ford,
where three of his nephews, including the heir-apparent
Narain, were killed (A. D. 1503).1

Again we read in the Memorials of Governor

Gollenesse of the “free Desam” of Nedumpuram into
which the Queen of Peritally retired when hard pressed
by the King of Travancore. The Dutch Governor
M. Adrian Van Moens in his Memorials speaks of
‘Replim’ or Edappilly as a “free town”. He says:—
“The Company has little to do with the Chief
(of Edappilly). However, it is expedient for us to know
that his little State is a kind of asylum, like a free town,
to which people, who are afraid of prosecution and
punishment, retreat, and where they are safe, and more
especially when they are able to reach a temple or
pagoda there. This privilege is acknowledged and
respected by all Malabar Kings. However, I never
could find out on what right or grounds the privilege
is based, unless it be that this State obtained this pri¬
vilege as a matter of course on account of its ruler
being a priestly and a very pious chief”. But the only
other priestly chief in Malabar, the Ambalapuzha or
Chempakasseri Raja who, as Hough assures us on the
authority of Gouvea, was no less pious never possessed
the privilege within his territories* We have therefore
to seek for the origin of the privilege possessed by the
Edappilly Chief elsewhere in the early peculiar institu¬
tions of the country now forgotten.
Gouvea in his Journada, while describing the
visitation of Archbishop Menezes to the Romo-Syrian
1. Whiteway, The Rise of the Portuguese Power m India
Keralapazhama% p. 39. *
g6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

churches mentions Chenganore in Travancore as

forming a Samketam. We take the following extract
from Hough who writes on the authority of Gouvea:
“After passing through these villages he (Menezes)
visited the Church of Chenganore. This tour is said to
have been more celebrated for the worship of idols
than any other in Malabar. In fact, the country itself
was the property of a pagoda or temple, whose Brahmans
exercised sovereign power, and appointed governors
and subordinate officers throughout the province .
“The Church at Chenganore stood out of the town,
and so absolute was the power of the Brahmans there,
that the Christians were not allowed to repair it with¬
out their consent. Gouvea says that it required a
miracle to obtain for these poor people permission to
tile their church ; for the Brahmans objected to it, lest
the Christian temples should vie with their own”i*
Ward and Conner in their Memoirs of the great
Trigonometrical Survey (1816 to 1820) describing
Travancore says, “The original likeness the ample
space included within the modern limits of Travancore,
is not to be traced in its present united form: at the
commencement of the iSth century, it presented the
same divided authority as the other parts of Mallialum,
but the imperfect memory of its ancient state, can no w
enumerate only a few of the larger principalities.
Kotium was held by a Kurtav, Keedangoor Koymah
was the independent possession of a number of Sankai-
doms (independent possession of pagodas) was ruled by
Brahman authority, which extended through other
tracts”.
As to the nature and extent of the authority
exercised by these corporations within the tracts ruled
over by them it may be difficult to define them with
precision at this distance of time when all traces of
ancient institutions have been ruthlessly effaced. Still,
such Grandhavaries, or contemporary chronicles of
1. History of Christianity in Jndia Voi, 2, pp. 173—6,
N. 13.] SAMKETAVS <)7

temples, as have fortunately escaped the vandalism and

iconoclastic tendencies of modern times, which have
found expression in the organised and systematic des¬
truction of old records in Government offices, etc., give
us some faint conception of the powers exercised by
Samketams originally.
In the Grandhavari of the temple at Vykom, in
Travancore, we read that it was the duty of the Narn-
putiries of the four Ckeries, or divisions into which the
gramam or village was divided, to report to the
Samudctya-} ogam, i. e., the committee of management,
any crimes or derelictions of duty committed by
any one in their respective divisions, and it was the
duty of the Samudaya Yogam to summon the offender
at once to their presence, investigate the matter and
inflict condign punishment on those convicted. Again,
before hoisting the flag for the Ut$avam% i. e., the annual
temple festival, the committee of management had to
see those convicted by them of murder within the
Samketam limits hanged. This was observed till the
year 977 M. E. (1802 A. D.) when it was stopped.
A Chatta-Variola, or Rules for the regulation of
business, in the Elangunnapula temple drawn up in
958 M. E., 1783 A. D., embodies a provision for the
hanging of murderers by the temple authorities within
the Samketam.
Even the sovereigns themselves were subjected to
penalties for acts of tyranny committed by them within
Samketam limits and on the officers and men of the
Samketam. The constitutional rules of the Samketam
were such that, if ever any of the chiefs or their follow¬
ers committed an atrocity within Samketam limits, the
Samketam was held to be dissolved, and till ample
amends are made by the delinquent chief, or till they
are exacted from him by the sovereign Protector, the
working of the Samketam comes to a stand-still. The
sovereign Protector himself is not exempted from these
penalties if he is the erring individual. Thus, in the
9fc LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

Elengunnapuzha temple, we gather, from the copper¬

plate inscription already referred to, that “Should any
of the Swaroopams (Principalities) of the Samketam be
found guilty cf any irregularities, the Nambutiripad
(the chairman of the Yogam) fines the party and then
gives permission to hoist the flag (for the Utsavam)
sending the Tevary Nambutiri along with him,'* and it
is the duty of the Cochin Raja to levy the fine as Pro¬
tector of the rights of the Samketam. Again, another
document, dated 10th Kumbham 191 Puthuvaippu Era,
697 M. E., 1522 A. D., embodying the observances of
the Devaswam, marked D in the Arbitrators’ records,
says, “When all the Yogakkars (members of the Sam-
ketam) shall have fully assembled, they shall repair to
the aforesaid place and ask the Nambutiripad whether
he would give permission for the Kodiyettu, commence-
ment of the utsavam, and the Nambutiripad shall, on
his part, enforce a penalty from any of the Swaroo¬
pams (sovereigns) who has been guilty of any fault and
then grant the sanction applied for”. It further pro¬
ceeds to say, “On the 18th Vrischigam 88 at half-past
9 p. m., the individual named Percomparayan was put
to death by Thekkenkoor (Raja). On the occasion the
Samketam was dissolved. Twelve months after the said
date, the Koimastanam (an important office in the
temple) was surrendered, P'or the above and certain
other faults of Thekkenkoor (Raja), in accordance with
the decision of arbitrators composed of a representative
of the Perimpadappu Swaroopam, Porkalamattath
Vasudevan (Nambutiri), Perayil Narayanan Kumaran
(Nayar) and other arbitrators then present, the Perim¬
padappu Swaroopam (Cochin Raja), who was the
Melkoima, sovereign Protector, presented an elephant
together with the Thotti and Walaru (hook and stick)
and thus renewed the management of the Samketam.’'
This is a euphemistic expression to mean that the Raja
was mulct of an elephant as a penalty for not restoring
the Samketam earlier*
N. 13.] SAMKETAMS 99
Another document, a Grandhavari of Pallippurath
Nambooripad, marked E by the Arbitrator, of
the date 740 M. E., 1564—65 A. D., recording
the encroachments and tyrannical acts committed
by the Pintanivattattu Swaroopam (the Parur Raja),
within the Nedungad Desam of the Elengunnapuzha
Samkctcim on a particular day, after mentioning the
atrocities, goes on to say,—“We (Pallippurath Nam¬
booripad, a high functionary of the temple) witndrew
from the place on the same day; on that day the Desam
fell (the customary observances of the Desam were
stopped)’’. Other atrocities followed. The Nedun¬
gad people retaliated by entering Parur territory pull¬
ing down houses. The differences continued for about
8 years, “when the Pallippurath Nambooripad”, says
the document, “went in person to Elengunnapuzha and
having said what was proper, offered to do what was
necessary. After this, the Perimpadappu Swaroopam
(Cochin Raja) and Pintanivattattu Swaroopam (Parur
Raja) arrived at Elengunnapuzha on the 7th Kumbham
and summoned Moothedathu Namboori * * * Rayathil
Para, Ponancottil Bhattathiri, and Pulikkamana Bhat-
tathiri to act as Thatassers (arbitrators) in adjusting
these points. In accordance with their decision, the
Pintanivattattu Swaroopam paid compensation for losses
inflicted and expenses of the Pattiny fast, as also
fine for the wrongs committed. For the acts of aggres¬
sion committed by the Perimpadappu Swaroopam, the
Pat hies (on behalf of the Raja) presented an elephant
and placed its Thotti and Walar (hook and stick)”.The
document then proceeds to prescribe the manner in
which the fines are to be levied. It says:—“When the
latter ceremony takes place (i. e., the levy of the fine),
Pazhedath Panikkar should stand in the Kanni Rasi.
We (Nampooripad) should occupy a seat in the Man•
dapam (raised stone platform in front of the Sanctum),
and The van (priest) and yogakkar (members, of the
Samketam) assembled should stand in the Velikkappura
(portico of the temple). When the yogakkar ask us
100
LETTERS FROM MALABAR \)J> 23»

whether we are satisfied with the fine, we should

signify our assent and order it to be levied and then
Munnath Moothathu should take charge of it-
On the 23rd of April 1814, the Uralers of the
Elengunnapuzha temple and various aged men of the
Desams attached to it having been called on to depose
“to the rules ar.d usages observed in the Elengunna¬
puzha Devaswam Samketam and Desams from ancient
times” stated that Ochenthooruth, Manjanacaud,
Moondengad, Vysrakal, Poocad and Nedungad Desams
(villages) formed the Samketam or jurisdiction of
the Elengunnapuzha Devaswam. Among the rules
and usaoes mentioned by them is the following: “If a
man commits a crime in any of the Desams, so that it
becomes corrupt, the Paroor and Cochin Rajas should
both jointly repair to the Vathilmadam (gate in the
Pagoda) and cause the culprit to be punished and the
sovereign of the culprit should present the Pagoda with
an elephant’’.
In the Trichur temple Grandhavan tor the year
q. - M> £., I77o A. D., we see that, before the Kalasam
ceremony was performed in the pagoda, heavy penalties
were exacted from the Ayanicoor chief for having shot
thirty-two men of the Devaswam and committed other
atrocities in the Samketam. He had to surrender
3,941 paras of seed-sowing paddy-land, Mangalath Mata-
pad, one of his residences, as also 6 villages, in addition
to it. The fine was levied at a public ceremony in the
temple, in the presence of the Swamiyars, Vadhjan
Nambootiri, the Brahmans of the Ycgam, Kakkat
Karanavapad and other local chieftains and the Cochin
Raja. The Kakkat Karanavapad as the head of the
Aynikkoor family had to confess the crime, pay the
penalty and present an elephant. 1 he Cochin Raja too
had to present an elephant for the delay in enforcing the
penally on the wrong-doer. This was on the 14th of
Medam 945 M. E. (<77° A. D.).
Similarly, thtTaccounts preserved in the Archieves
cf the Trivandrum pagoda show several entries of heavy
N. 13.] SAMKETAM S IOI

payments exacted by the Yogam from various chiefs, as

well as from the Rajas of Travancore, for acts of aggres¬
sion committed by them in the Devaswam Sam kef am.
So far as can be ascertained at present, these entries
range from 500 M. E. (1325 A- D.) to 903 M. E.
(1728 A. D.). The earliest entry says that a sum of
30,000 fanams (7! fs. = i Re.) had to be paid as fine, to¬
gether with the surrender of valuable lands sowing 150
paras of paddy seed, to the temple by Kunninmel Sree
Veera Kerala Vurman Tiruvadi (of Travancore) for
killing the officers of the temple. The latest one says
that Sree Veera Rama Vurma of Trippappoor
Kezhapperoor (Travancore) being the Mootha (eldest)
Pandaram of Cherawaiwas mulct in an elephant for his
having on the 14th of Medam 896 committed various
atrocities and killed Devaswam officers within the
limits of Aykkanam, Veeranarayanasseri, Vikramana-
dichamangalam, Pulloorkuruchi, Rajaklamangalam,
lands belonging to Sree Padmanabha Perumal (the
presiding deity of the Trivandrum temple). Another
entry of the 15th Dhanu 894 refers expressly to the
Samketam■ Payments had to be made in full by Sree
Veera Aditya Vurma of Trippappoor Kezhapperoor
(Travancore) being the Mootha Tiruvadi of Cheravi,
for committing atrocities within Sree Padmanabha
Swamy’s Samketam and collecting revenue therefrom.
Villages yielding an annual revenue of 12,000 fanams
were surrendered for this. For committing incursions
in the Samketam villages, two elephants had to be pre¬
sented and, in place of men and slaves killed, others
had to be given up.
A document produced by Cochin and marked K
in the Arbitration records gives us a fair idea of the
government of a Samketam and the rules and obser-
vances obtaining therein- They deal indeed with the
Elengunnapuzha Devaswam but they are an index to
the general system followed in ether Devaswams,
Samketams as well.
102 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23.

A perusal of the document1 certainly leaves the

impression that the administrative functions of the
Samketam are complete in their own way and
provide for no intervention of an outsider. Para 2
lays down that the Uralers conjointly with the Aka
Koimas constitute the governing body. Para 4 states
that the hoima or the representative of the sovereign,
whose duty is to administer the villages was to be
nominated by him on intimation being received of a
vacancy, and the procedure to be followed at the cere¬
mony of nomination, Paras 5, 13, 16 to 20 and 35,
provide for punishment of offences, and paras 8, 24,
to 26, 32, 33, 39 to 40 provide for the collection of
different kinds of land revenue from all the villages,
while paras 11, 12, 21 to 23 and 36 provide for a
system of registration of all deeds relating to transac¬
tions of immovable property and the fees to be paid for
the same- Paras 5, 16 and ij show that the Koima
assisted by the Pathies exercised the authority tc pull
down houses2 and to inflict capital punishment over
the inhabitants of the village. Para 39 lays down that
the money and paddy paid to the Devaswam for the
paddy lands and gardens owned by the States of Cochin
and Travancore shall be continued to be paid in future
without intervention. The amount, if any, in arrears,
should also be paid after due enquiry• Para 40 says the
Karom (lax) payable to the Devaswam on the paddy lands
and gardens of the six Desams (villages) shall be paid
regularly from 958 M. E. Para 9 authorises the Koima
to levy a house-tax on the houses of certain classes of

1. A Chattavanola, dated 958 M.E., prepared, in consultation

with the authorities connected with that Bevas7vam and in
consonance with the provisions of an old grandhavari, by the two
States. Chattavariola means a wiit or detd of rules for the
conduct of business, from chattam - rule or regulation, and
variola - a writ or deed, so called, perhaps, as, until recently, the
rules used to be recorded on ola, a palmyra leaf, prepared for
writing.
2. Similar provisions are to le found in the Trichur temple
Grandhavari also.
N. 13.] SAMKETAMb 103

the inhabitants and para io, the profession tax on

outside Pulayars (agricultural slaves), while para 15
imposes a cess on oil mills. Paras 7 and 13 show that
the Yogam, u e., the Aka Koima together with the
Uralers, constituted the highest governing body, while
paras 14, 31 and 34 state that they received a subsidy
from the villages besides other dues. Paras 2,7, 13, 14,
29, 31 and 34 make it clear that the Aka Koima pre¬
sides at the meetings of the Yogam, bearing a prominent
part in the ceremonies attendant on the appointment
of a Koima to the villages, receiving a double share
of the subsidy. He had at one time the privilege of
demanding grants of money from the villages*
An attentive consideration of the provisions of this
document places it beyond dispute that the Samketam
in itself constituted a self-contained and independent
community exercising sovereign powers, levying taxes
and punishing crimes. In fact, we find all the elements
that go to constitute a body politic which, though of
primitive structure, was self-working and independent,
owning no Sovereign except the Yogam1, Of course these
Samketam jurisdictions have ceased to exist with the
rise of the secular power and the diminution of religious
influences just as the Cochin Raja has stopped the
Avarodham or installation of the Yogiatiripad in the
Trichur temple, he, as well as the other ftajas of Mala¬
bar have infringed upon the rights of the Devaswarns
within their limits and annexed them to their respective
States. With the advent of British supremacy whidh was,
not long after, followed by the administration of the
Governments of the Native States of Cochin and Tra-
vancore by the British Resident, Colonel Munro, most
of the rich and important Devas warns were annexed to
the States, and it necessarily followed that their Samke-
tams also ceased to exist as independent jurisdictions.
According to the State Manual, there are nearly
10,000 temples in Travanrnre and 15,000 other places

t. Sec 18 Cochin Law Reports p. 376,

104 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

of worship in the shape of groves of serpents, etc. Many

of these are private institutions having been endowed by
pious Hindus hundreds of years ago. About 1549 were
taken over under State management by Col. Munro. In
Cochin there is no means of ascertaining the number
of places of Hindu worship in the State, but, according
to the Report on the administration of the State for
A. D. 1907-8, there are about 172 temples managed by
the Sirkar.

[T&ntras (Skt. tan = to believe) are compositions assuming the

form of a dialogue between Uma and Maheswara in which the
goddess asks her consort for directions to perform ceremonies and
for advice as to the prayers and incantations it hi which
they should be accompanied (Ency. Dicty.t Vol. IV, p. 91)
Properly, a Tantra ought to treat of five subjects; (1) the creation:
(2) and the destruction of the world;(3) the worship of the gods;
(4) the attainment of all objects, especially of the six superhuman
facilities; and (5) the four modes of unicn with the supreme spirit.
(Monier Williams). 2antras form an invaluable treasure, em¬
bracing religion,theology, law, medicine, cosmology, rules regard¬
ing elementals, and all branches of transcendental philosophy.
(Pandit B. K. Majiundas)
Revelation, according to Kalluka Bhatta, is two-fold: Vedic
and lantric. Tantras constitute the fifth Veda. They are said to
number 64. Their authorship is sometimes ascribed to Dattatreya,
but generady thought to have been revealed by Siva. Professor
W.D. Whitney, of the Yale University, emphasising one aspect of
the lantraSy writes of Tantras as religious treatises teaching ma¬
gical formulas for the worship of the gods and the attainment of
superhuman power. Max Muller rightly says that the symbols
and sites of Tantnc celebrations are invested by the priests with
mystical and occult significance, unintelligible to the masses,
and confided only to those who, after severe trials of faith and
endurance, are found worthy of initiation into the divine secrets.
“The Tantric religious system is by all odds the most exten¬
sive in myth and dogma, the most finished and consistent in
theology, the most elaborate and dogmatic in ceremony, and the
richest and most poetical in symbolism of any cult in the world;
it was probably the earliest in origin; ha3 certainly been the most
persistent in the continuityjand is claimed by its adherents to be,
and thought by most scholars tabe, the origin of all other sys¬
tems.” (R. A. Campbell in his Phallic Worship. Religion and
Worship. Ch. I, p. 46.)
N. 14.] IMAGES WITH BAGS i°S

14. Images with bags. There still stands one of

these at Karimadi, to the south of the bridge across .the
canal, but no bag hangs, at any rate at present, from its
neck to receive offerings from passengers, though boat¬
men generally break a cocoanut thereby way of offering.
The companion image has disappeared. The figure is
popularly known as Karimadi Kuttan “and is said to
be of Jaina origin, while some put it down as a
Buddhistic image.” Both Buddhism and Jainism had at
one time their votaries in Malabar. We have seen
that one of the KSrala PerumSls, Bsria, had turned
Buddhist, that there were public disputations between
the Brahmans and Buddhist Missionaries, and that
Sankara, the greatest opponent of Buddhism, was born
in Malabar. So early as the date of Asoka, Jainism
also made its appearance in Malabar and has, as we
have seen, left its influence in the temple architecture
of the Malayalis.
We have still remains of Buddhistic and Jaina
sculptures in Malabar. Those in Travancore are thus
noticed in the State Manual:—
“The Buddhistic sculpture consists of bas-reliefs
and detached statues. A few of these are to be found
here and there in Travancore. There is.an image of
Buddha standing on the roadside between Msv^likkara
In India alone, the followers of the Tantra may be reckoned
by hundreds of thousands. The life of many an Indo-Aryan from
birth to the burning-ground is that of eternal bondage to the ordi¬
nances of the Tantra. This was so in 400 A. D., and equally
the same conditions prevail after a lapse of 1500 years. (i>r.
Rajendral Lai Mitra, Ancient and Medieval History, Vol.I, p.404)-
The metbodof the Tantrik is to test everything to its final
analysis, and receive as trutn nothing whose entity cannot be seen
with absolute certainty. (Carl Grant Zollner). That is why
Mr. F. G. Warwick says that “the Tantra wilt at lea^t provoke
its students to silent and open disputation, compel him to a
balancing of reason, and develop an independeirfTudgmenf. Such
a discipline is eminently wholesome as it prepares one for the
affairs of life*’. Ed.
 io6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

and Ka^diyur. In the Museum at Trivandrum are a

few images distinctly Buddhistic in appearance.

“The Jaina sculptures are for the most part

restricted to a representation of their twenty-four
hierarchs or Thirtankaras with their symbols. These
are very rare in Travancore. Some of them are to be
hardly distinguished from Buddhistic images, so much
so that a few which are considered Buddhistic are not
infrequently styled Jaina images* The figure popu¬
larly known as Karimadi Kuttan in the canal near
Karimadi is said to be of Jaina origin, while some put
it down as a Buddhistic image. In the central com¬
partment of the rock-cut hall in the Bhagavathi
temple on the summit of Chitral near Kuzhittura is a
figure which would appear to be a Jaina image, as it is
said to be ‘quite naked’. It is in sitting posture on an
elevated stone plinth and has three umbrellas over its
head* There is another in the southern compartment.
On the rock-face on the north of the temple are
thirty-two figures, repititions of the images in the
pagoda. I take these also to be of Jaina origin’’.

The rock-cut cave temple at Kallil, about 8 miles

to the east of Alwaye in Travancore, shows distinct
traces of Buddhistic, may be of Jaina, origin.

15. Feeding Brahmans. There are few tem¬

ples in Malabar at present which are ‘burdened’ with
the charge of feeding such a large number of
Brahmans, and it is not likely that there were such at
any time. Our author is perhaps mistaking the insti¬
tution of Oottupurahs or feeding houses where way¬
farers, specially Brahmans, were fed. These were
generally attached to the temple buildings, but formed
no part of those religious institutions themselves,
except in a very limited sense* It was considered a
great merit from a religious point of view to feed
Brahmans, and the Rajas, chieftains, and the wealthy
N. 16.] MARROE 107

generally never stinted in that direction. The SSstrSs

prescribe a feast to the Brahmans as an inevitable con-
comitant to every religious ceremony and the merit is
increased when money doles are also added.
16. Marroe. Malayalam Madham. Separate
buildings for the purpose of feeding Brahmans are
generally attached to the Palaces of the Rajas as well
as to the residences of the chiefs and the wealthy, where
food is dispensed to Brahmans who resort to them.
Though these institutions, the Oottupurahs and
Madhams, were originally designed to minister to the
wants of travellers, more specially pilgrims without res¬
triction to caste, in course of time they degenerated into
choultries maintaining even an idle resident Brahman
population* The States of Travancore and Cochin
maintain Oottupurahs on :he roadside where Brahmans,
whether way-farers or not, are fed, and Gosais or
pilgrims are given supplies. With the increase of
facilities for travelling, these institutions became a
source of great drain on the resources of the States.
From an economic point of view, the Oottupurahs are
wholly indefensible. They are at the same time
demoralising to a great extent* They have become
centres round which an idle resident Brahman popula¬
tion gather, setting a bad and unwholesome example to
the industrious classes around. In Travancore, every
Oottupurah supplies meals gratis to every Brahman,
resident or non-resident, resorting to it. But not so in
Cochin at present. There the recent Rulers have reduced
the number of Oottupurahs in the State and has confined
the feeding in them to bona fide travellers. Their
number at present is only 14.
Some reforms have been recently made in Tra¬
vancore also. There, exclusive of the Ootupurah at
the capital known as the Agrasala, there were 41 of
them. Thirty-five of these were VazhimOottus or way-
side feeding institutions and six were Devaswam Oottus
or feeding institutions attached to temples. Ten of
ios LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

them provided two meals a day, one in the morning

and one in the evening; 21 gave one meal in the
morning, 7 one in the evening and the remaining three
supplied Conjee or rice-gruel in the morning and rice
in the evening*
The Travancore Government had recently deputed
an officer of superior status and qualifications, a Puisne
Judge of the High Court, as special Commissioner “to
investigate and report upon the numerous and com¬
plicated problems involved in the administration of
Slate charities and Devaswams”. As a result of the
special Commissioner’s Report, the Government
introduced various reforms in their working* Eight of
the Oottupurahs have been closed, while the cost of
maintaining another one has been considerably cut
short. As regards the number of meals to be given in
the Oottupurahs, the Government order says, “In Oottus
which now give two meals per aiem, two meals may be
continued for bona fide travellers. In regard to the
resident poor, who now wholly depend on the OottUs
and who are too old and too poor to shift for them¬
selves, the question of the number of meals does not
arise. An attempt should be made to prepare lists of
these people and the Padivus (scale of expenditure)
should be so fixed as to meet their wants as well as those
of bona fide travellers, care however being taken that
the lists are not recklessly added to”.
It is also interesting to note the opinion of the
special Commissioner, a highly educated brahman
gentleman, on the origin and scope of these institutions
as set forth in the order of the Government on the
Report. It says:—
“In the earlier chapters of the Report, Mr. Rama-
chandra Rao has dealt with the origin of charitable
institutions in civilized countries, he has traced the
causes which led to the difference of ideals in the dis*
pensation of charity between European countries and
N- 16.] MARROE 109

India, he has shown how the domination of the priestly

classes has influenced the restriction of the scope of
charities and he has explained why the gift of food is
the most meritorious form of charity- Then he has
proceeded to explain the considerations in support of
the Oottupurahs of Travancore, how they were called
into existence to suit society as it existed from time
immemorial, and what a serious mistake it would be to
totally abolish Oottupurahs and thus ‘turn adrift a large
body of men belonging to an intellectual race, who are
generally persons without any means or professional
occupation’. He has recorded his opinion that, in the
case of endowed Oottupurahs at least, abolition should
not be thought of* With a view to ascertain whether the
Oottupurahs of Travancore have not been allowed to
deflect from their original purpose, and whether it
could have been the intention of the founders to feed
gratuitously not only the travellers but also the resident
population, Mr. Ramachandra Rao has examined the
origin and history of these institutions, and has arrived
at the conclusion that, in spite of the declarations of
Diwans Krishna Rao, Seshia Sasthri and Ramaiengar
that the Oottus were originally intended only for the
benefit of Brahman travellers, there were reasons to
believe, from the high padivu (scale of expenses) fixed,
from the institution of Anchu-sadyas (five feasts) and
of Dharma-canjee (charitable distribution of gruel) to
the resident poor, and from uninterrupted practice,
that the resident poor of the Brahman community were
also intended to benefit by gratuitous feeding in
Oottupurahs—at least in such of them as give more than
one meal a day”. Here we have the gist of the defence
of these almost universally condemned institutions by a
highly educated and highly placed Brahman gentleman
of no mean attainments.
The Agra§ala at Trivandrum, the capital of the
Maharaja of Travancore, as we have seen, does not
no LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

come within the operation of the Order quoted. Mr.

Nagam Aiya gives the following description of it;
“This is a very large institution unique of its kind in
the whole of India. The extensive corridors and
galleries of Padmanabhaswamy Pagoda serve as the
dining halls. The number fed daily is on an average
1500 at breakfast and an equal number at supper. The
arrangement for supplies, custody and account of stores
for cooking, serving, etc., are yery perfect and self-acting
as it were* * * * The establishment consists of 103
hands controlled by a Tahsildar of the second class,
whose almost sole duty it is to look after and manage
this institution.”1
“The daily meal given in the Agrasala is a homely
fare and is unchanged from day to day. It consists of
cooked rice, prepared in huge copper vessels, and tama¬
rind soup, a vegetable curry made either of the plantain
or pumpkin, a little salt and a highly diluted butter¬
milk. A slightly better meal is served on five or six
days in the month which are generally of religious im¬
portance in the bright or dark fortnights, or on the
return of particular asterisms of departed sovereigns.
On festive occasions the meal consists of crisp cakes,
fruit, sugar, honey and sweet hells', the vegetable
curries are richer and more numerous, the rice is finer
and the butter-milk less diluted with water, sometimes
it is curd itself.”2
17. Charitable establishments. This is a
mistake. The pagodas as such do not furnish provi¬
sions to any Brahman way-farer as a rule. There are
however some pagodas in which provision is made by
the charitably inclined for the feeding of a specified
number of Brahmans. Such endowments are called
Namaskarams• It is indeed highly desirable that these
pagodas should really serve the purpose of charitable
establishments by devoting at least a part of their
1* State Manual, Vol. 3, p, 526.
2. Ibid, p. 527.
 N. 20.] TEMPLES OF SOME CASTES lit

income towards affording shelter to the needy and the

destitute. At present, they do not serve “like hospitals,
or charitable establishments, where a man, however poor
or destitute he may be, can always find shelter’’.
18. Bending Knees* The practice of bending
the knees to the image held up by the priest is quite
unknown to the Malabar form of worship, and it is
difficult to understand where our author got his informa¬
tion from. The devotees join the palms of their
hands above their heads or in front of their face or
chest and bow to the image.
19* Compulsion to contribute. The Hindu
Religion does not compel any one, nor do temples
compel any one to contribute anything towards their
maintenance* On the other hand, every Christian,
specially Roman Catholic, and every Mahomedan,
attached to a Church or Mosque, has to contribute
something to these institutions.
20. Temples of some castes. Among these
classes, the Izhavers and Valans have a few temples of
their own, where their caste men officiate as priests The
Brahmans will, of course, have nothing to do with
these temples. We have a good description of Izhava
temples given by the Reverend Mr. S* Mateer. “The
Ilavar temples are generally low, thatched buildings,
with front porch, a good deal of wooden railing and
carving about them, an enclosure wall and a grove of a
few trees, such as Ficus religiosa Plumieria and Bassicu
At the Ilavar temple near Chakkai. in the outskirts of
Trivandrum, the goddess Bhadrakali is represented
as a female seated on an image, having two wings, gilt
and covered with serpents. A temple at Mangalattu-
konauij about ten miles south of Trivandrum, at which
I witnessed the celebration of the annual festival on
the day following Meena Bharani, in March or April,
may be taken as a fair example of the whole. Ia con.
nection with this temple may be seen a peculiar wooden
II* LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

pillar and small shrine at the top, somewhat like a

pigeon house. This is called a tani-maram, and is a
kind of altar, or residence, for the demon Madan,
resembling the temporary shrines on sticks or plat¬
forms erected by the Pulayars. On it are carvings o&
many-headed serpents, etc,, and a projecting lamp for oil.
“For the festival, the ground around the temple
was cleared of weeds, the outhouses and sheds decorat¬
ed with flowers, and on the tani-maram were placed
two bunches of plantains—at its foot a number of devil¬
dancing sticks. Close by were five or six framework
shrines, constructed of soft palm leaves and pith of
plantain tree, and ornamented with flowers. These were
supposed to be the residence of some minor powers,
and in them were placed, towards night, offerings of
flowers, rice, plantains, cocoanuts, and blood.
“The Ilavars who assemble for the festival weer
the marks of Siva, a dot and horizontal lines on the
forehead, and three horizontal lines of yellow tur¬
meric on the chest. They begin to gather at the temple
from noon, and return home at night. Over five hun¬
dred persons attend on this occasion—formerly many
more came. The festival lasts for five cays. Some of the
neighbouring Sudras andShanars also attend and some
Pulayars, who pay one chukram for two shots of fire¬
work guns in fulfilment of their vows^ Offerings here
are generally made in return for relief from sickness or
trouble of some kind.The PujarU or priest,is an Ilavan,
who receives donations of money, rice, etc.”1
21. Valdurti. Palluruthy, a couple of miles south
of Mattancheri in Cochin.
Mouton. Chertala, still further south, and 12
miles north of Alleppey.
22. Vows to Deities. Vows are often made
to obtain boons from the gods. They take the form of
festivals, kavadies, lustrations or illuminations and
1. Native Life in Travancorc, pp. 92_93.
N. *3-] BELKA PADU *13

decorations, offerings of rice in various preparations,

penances, hook-swinging, self-mortifications, etc. Mr.
Fawcett speaking on this subject observes: “The subject
of vows can be touched on but incidently here. Avow is
made by one desiring offspring, to have his hand or leg
cured,to have an ulcer cured, to fulfil any desire what¬
ever, and he decides in solemn affirmation to himself
(it isinot necessary to go to a temple for the purpose of
vowing) to give a silver image of a child, a silver leg
and so on, in the event of his having fulfilment of his
desire. The offering is never an adjunct of the
prayer, it is always something done for benefit received.
The thing to be noted is that a vow is always
fulfilled as well as the vower can possibly fulfil it; it is
never forgotten or overlooked.
“When the devil is ill the devil a saint would be;
When the devil is well the devil a saint is he”!
is a couplet inapplicable to the Nayar, or, indeed, to any
people in Southern India, where vows of objects to be
given or animals to be sacrificed, are treated always
with the utmost sacredness even by people who, per¬
haps, in no relation of life, behave for an hour with
common honesty.” 1
23. “Belka Paru”. Mai. VelichhaPadu'- A veli-
chhappad is a person attached to Bhagavati temples who
acts on certain occasions as if he was inspired with the
spirit of the presiding goddess and pretends to possess
divine powers. The following accounts of a veii-
chhappsd and his doings by Mr. Fawcett gives one a
fair idea of the institution in Malabar.
“Plate XII shows a man standing with a sword of
the shape known as Nandakam. He is an individual
called a velichhapad,and, as he stood to be photographed
by me, his forehead and face streamed with blood from
a self-inflicted wound on the head. The velichhapad is
a familiar character in Malabar. His profession illus¬
trates the very mixed character of the Hinduism of the
1. P, 267.
ii4 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

Nayar, partaking as it does of much of the lower cult,—

animism, and deification of ancestors, worship of snakes
and kites, ceremonies connected therewith sacrifice,
magic, witchcraft and sorcery —- together with the
purest form of Vedic Brahmanism known in Southern
India, of which there is the highest expression in the
temples attached to the wealthy Nambootiri Illoms, to
which the Nayar goes daily to pray, to purify his mind
after having purified his body by bathing. There is
very little to be seen of prayer in Southern India out¬
side Malabar. The great mass of the people (I exclude
the Brahmans, a very minute percentage of the whole)
never dream of going to a temple daily to pray, in fact
prayer for its own sake scarcely exists* People go in
crowds to a temple on the occasion of a festival to make
obeisance to the god, and in a vague way to pray, or
they will go to fulfil a vow ; but going merely to pray
by way of self-purification of spirit is certainly rare, for
this denotes a phase of religion to which the great mass
of the people of Southern India has not reached.
“Far away in, as it may be said, rural Malabar, I
witnessed the ceremonydn, which the velichhapad exhi¬
bited his quality. It was in the courtyard of a Nayar
house to which thronged all the neighbours (Nayars),
men and pretty women, boys and girls. The ceremony
lasts about an hour. The Nayar said it was the custom
in his family to have it done once a year, but could give
no account of how the custom had originated most pro¬
bably in a vow ; some ancestor having vowed that if
such or such benefit be received, he will for ever after
have an annual performance of this ceremony in his
house. It involved some expenditure, as the velichha¬
pad had to be paid, and the neighbours had to be fed.
Somewhere about the middle of the little courtyard,
always as clean as a dinner table, the velichhapad placed
a lamp (of the Malabar pattern) having a lighted wick,
a kalasam, which he had prepared, some flowers,
camphor, saffron and other paraphernalia. Bhagavati
 N. 24.] BELKA PADU

was the deity invoked, and the business involved

offering flowers, and waving a lighted wick around the
kalasam. The velichhapad’s movements became quicker,
and suddenly seizing the sword he ran round the court¬
yard (against the sun, as the sailors say) shouting
wildly. He is under the influence of the deity who has
been induced into him, and he gives oracular utterance
to the deity’s commands. What he said I know not and
no one else seem to know or care in the least, much
interested though they were in the performance. As
he ran, every now and then he cut his forehead with
the strange misshappen sword, pressing it against the
skin and sawing (vertically) up and down. The blood
streamed all over his face. Presently he became wilder
and wilder, and whizzed round the lamp bending
forward towards the kalasam. Evidently some deity,
some spirit, was present here, and spoke through the
mouth of the velichhapad. This, I think, undoubt¬
edly represents the belief of all who were present.
When he had done whizzing round the kalasam, he
soon became a normal being and stood before my
camera. The fee for this self-inflicted laceration is one
rupee and some odds and ends of rice, etc., I saw the
velichhapad about three days afterwards going to per¬
form elsewhere- The wound on his forehead had healed!
The careful observer can always identify a velichhapad
by the triangular like patch over the forehead where the
hair will not grow, and where the skin is somewhat in¬
durated. The velichhapads seem to get used to cutting
their foreheads as the eels to skinning”.1
24. Consecration. The temple having been con¬
structed and the image to inhabit it prepared according
to rule, it has to be formally installed in its future abode.
Having selected an auspicious day for the installation an
elaborate series of ceremonies have to be gone through
preliminary to the installation.
The preliminary purification of the image is
1, Page 173. See also Day, p. 321.
ii6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

termed adhivasa, and a separate structure styled the

Adhivasa mandapa has to be erected. Varaha Mihira
prescribes its location to the north or east of the temple
in which the deity is finally to repose; the Mandapa or
shed is to be provided with four archways covered with
sprouts from auspicious trees and adorned with
wreaths and streams of various colours. The Mandapa
is to be covered in all directions with green boughs, and
ornamented with flower-wreaths, streams, looking-
glasses. bells, chowries, etc*) and an aw ning spread under
the rook Sand from the Ganges river is to be strewn
and the panchagavya sprinkled on the outside.
A Vedi or altar is to be erected in the middle of
the Mandapa and four Rundas (pits) excavated in the
direction of the four cardinal points of the compass from
the Vedi.
North of the Adhivasa Mandapa is to be erected
Snana Mandapa or hall of ablution, square in shape and
provided with four doors, as also with means for the
egress of water*
A third Mandapa has to be erected for the storage
of the numerous articles required for the performance
of these ceremonies.
The image up to this time has remained in the
hands of the artist, who generally belongs to a low
scale in the Hindu gradation of castes and so it has to
be purified on delivery by him.
According to the latest development of the ritual,
the Hayasirska pancharatra the image has to be brought
in procession with dance and music after a preliminary
ceremonial ablution with twenty jars of water, either in
the artist s place, before starting the procession, or at
its close outside the precincts of the hall of ablution.
The following invocation is addressed to the image
at the end of this preliminary ablution, prior to its
entry into the hall cf ablution:—
“O Queens of the gods, wrought by Viswakarma\
hail to thee! Salutations to thee, the preserver of thy
N. 24.] CONSECRATION 117

own-created countless worlds! In thee we worship

the god Narayana, who is free from disease! Mayes
thou, being cured of all the faults of the artist, ever
remain in perfect (or prosperous) condition.”

The artist is rewarded with suitable presents when

the image is removed from his custody.

Varaha Mihira thus describes concisely the first

step in the ceremonies inside the Snana Mandapa.
“After smearing with cowdung a plot of ground within
the shed, and strewing it with sand and then with
sacrificial grass lay the head of the image on a throne
and the feet on pillow”.

Then follows the Sankalpa or solemn vow to per¬

form a religious rite. This solemn resolution is a neces¬
sary preliminary to the performance of every reli¬
gious ceremony. The formula for the Sankalpa on the
occasion of pratishta or installation of an image is
thus given in the Pratishta- Mayukha. “On this
day (here follow full chronological details) (so and
so), being desirous of obtaiping (as the case might
be) longevity, prosperity, all progeny, eternal bliss or
the love of God, for causing the presence of the divine
emanation in this image or lingam shall perform the
pratishta of the image or lingam of such and such
divinity*’5

After performing the Sankalpa, the worshipper

should, according to the Gnhya Parisishta, request
the incanters, sacrificial priest and the Acharya
(superior priest), to begin their respective functions*
The door-incanters or Dvara Japakas denote priests
who mutter prayers at the door of the structure where
the image may be placed for the time* In the
Hayasirsha Parisishta, provision is made for the
appointment of five Japakas, four for the doors,
evidently of the Mandapa and one for the Garbha,
or inner chapel, where the image is to be finally
installed.
n8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

A Murti-dhara or image bearer, 32,

16, or 8
Murtipas or image-keepers and four Dwarapalas or
gate-keepers are also appointed.
Between the Sankalpa and the appointment of the
priests, etc., the following ceremonies intervene, viz.,
(x) the worship of Ganapati, (2) Puny aha Vachanat
(3) the worship of the Matrikas, and (4) the
Vrid hi Sr ad ha.
The worship of the Nava graha or the nine
planets is also recommended by the Matsya Purana as
a necessary preliminary to the fruitfulness of all
Kaniya works.
The Acharya or superior priest so appointed is
directed in the Grihya Sutra Parisishta to proceed to
the Yagabhumi (the place for the sacrifice;, the
Prasada (temple) and the Snanashala (ablution-hall),
and sprinkle the same with water from the tips of
Kusha grass pronouncing ihe text Apohistha, etc., and
also to strew white mustard seed about. This is
followed by the ablution ceremonies of the image.
The image must first be washed with cow-dung,
cow-dung.-ashes, and earth from an ant-hill, in order
to remove the impurity created by the touch of the
artist. The text of Varaha Mihira on the subject is
more elaborate. It directs that:—
* ‘Let the image, with the head to the east, be
bathed with an infusion of wavy-leafed fig, pipal,
glomerous fig, siris and banyan, mixed with all
sorts of auspiciously named plants, with sacrificial and
other grass, with clay dug up by elephants, and bulls
from mountains, ant-hills, confluences, river banks
and lotus-grown lakes joined to water from holy
bathing places and the five products of cows, the
whole combined with scents and water containing gold
and jewels. Let the bathing be performed amid the
sound of variow musical instruments, solemn shouts,
and the recital of holy texts.
 N* 44.] CONSECRATION 119

“Eminent Brahmans have to mutter prayers to

Indra in the East; prayers to Agni in the south¬
east, for doing which they ought to be honourably
rewarded.
“Let the special priest make an offering also to
fire, with prayers addressed to the god whose idol is
being consecrated/’
After this the Bhavishya Pura7ia prescribes that
“The Prana Prathishta and the honia should be
performed according to rules, and the priest’s fee
duly paid for the completion of the ceremony.”
According to the Tantras, the Prana Prathishta
or vivification consists in pronouncing certain mystic
syllables followed by an invocation, asking for the
vivification of particular organs of the image with
the vital energies of the divinity whom the
image represents, and the continuance of such
energies for all time. According to the Vasishta
Samhita> the incantation is to be performed by
the worshipper touching the heart of the image, the
heart being supposed to be the essential seat of life.
The Kalika Parana, however, requires the cheeks of
the image to be touched before touching the heart. It
is this process of vivification that infuses the spirit of
the deity into the image and it is by this process that
in law the image from its previous status as an inani¬
mate object, a simple piece of wood, clay, stone or
metal, acquires the status of a judicial personage capable
of holding property.
It is the spirit within and not the gross material
of which the image is made that is worshipped by the
Hindu. The idol is but the symbol. “Throughout
the history of the world,” says Swami Vivekananda in
his lecture on Bhakti or devotion, “we find that man
is trying to grasp the abstract through thought-forms,
or symbols, and all the eternal manifestations of reli*
gions—bells, music, rituals, books, and images—all
iio LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23.

come under that head. Anything that appeals to the

senses, anything that helps man to form a concrete
image of the abstract, is taken hold of, and worshipped”.
The Swami points out that “the great attempts of the
Mahomedans and of the Protestants ( among the
Christians) have been directed to this one end, of doing
away with all rituals, and yet we find that even with
them, rituals creep in. They cannot be kept out; after
long struggle, the masses simply change one symbol
for another. With the Mahomedan it is the temple at
Kaba. With the Protestant it is the Church or the
Book. The image of the Cross with the Protestants
takes the place of the image of the Saint with the
Catholics. It is vain to preach against the use of sym¬
bols, and why should we preach against them? There
is no reason under the sun why man should not use
these symbols. They have them in order to represent
the thing signified behind them. The universe is a
symbol in and through which we are trying to grasp
the thing signified, which is beyond and behind. This
is the lower human constitution, and we are bound to
have it so.”
After pointing out that we are always struggling
to get to the thing signified, to get beyond the material,
to the spiritual, that the spirit is the goal and not mat¬
ter, the Swami says, “Forms, images, bells, candles,
books, churches, temples, and all holy symbols are very
good, very helpful to the growing plant of spirituality,
but thus far and no further.”
Again “so long as you cannot conceive of abstract
as abstract, of the ideal as ideal, you will have to
grapple through these forms, these material images,
either inside or outside the brain, it matters not. You
are all born idolators, and idolatory is good, because it
is in the constitution of the human nature. Who can
go beyond it ? Only the perfect man, the God-man.
The rest are all idolators. So long as you see the
universe before you, with its forms and shapes you are
all idolators. Do you get shapes in the brain? You
 N. 24.] CONSECRATION 121

get just a little sensation somewhere in the brain. Why

do you imagine this universe with all these colours and
forms and shapes, this immense symbolical universe ?
This is a gigantic idol you are worshipping. He who
says he is the body, is a born idolator. You are all
spirits, spirits that have no form or shape, spirits that
are infinite, and not matter. Therefore, anyone who
thinks of himself as the body, as material, who cannot
grasp the abstract, cannot think of himself as he is
except in and through matter, is an idolator. And yet
how these people begin to fight with each other, each,
calling the other an idolator; that is to say, each says
his idoi is all right and the other’s is all wrono-.”1
This then is the justification for idol worship
among the Hindus and it is in ignorance of its reason
d etre that other religionists who are themselves idol-
ators, more or less, have pointed the finger of scorn on
them.
The following directions of Varaha Mihira as to
the manner of setting up the image is interesting.
“When the image has been bathed, clad in a new
garment, smartly adorned and honoured with flowers
and perfumes, let the person, whose function it is to set
it up, put it on a nicely-spread bed,
“After the sleeping image had been consecrated
with wakes, dancing, and song, they have to proceed to
its setting up at a period indicated by the astrologers-
“Let the image worshipped with flowers and
unguents, amid the sounds of horns and musical instru¬
ments, be led with all precaution, round the shrine, in
such a manner that the latter is always kept in the
right side.

“Thereupon, make copious oblations to treat

Brahmans and fashionable people; and, after a piece of
1. Pp. 426 to 428.
I22 LETTERS FROM MALABAR LL* 23*

gold has been deposited in the cavity of a seat, let the

image be placed upon the base*

“By particularly honouring the setter up, astrolo¬

ger, Brahmans, fashionable people, and carpenter, one
shall inherit good things in this world, and heaven in
the next”.
The books of ritual refer to another ceremony
which too is important. They direct that, before
removing the image into the temple, the building itself
should be formally given to the god for whom it was
intended. It is termed the Utsarga. The Utsarga in
the case under consideration is the relinquishment of
the donor’s right, and the gift is completed by the
acceptance corporeally made by the donee the image
—which is made to take bodily possession of the pre¬
mises. The gift as in the case of other gifts has to be
made by the donor taking in his hands water, sesamum,
the sacred Kusa grass and the like. The Sankatpa or
formula of resolve, makes the deity himself the recipient
of the gift and the corporeal acceptance completes the
gift.

After the installation of the image in the temple,

the rituals prescribe the performance of the
Arati, or lustration ceremony, and a feast to the
Brahmans whose number according to the Matsya
Purana range from one thousand to twenty thousand
according to the means of the worshipper. The cere*
mony, concludes, with gifts to the poor, a general
festival of dancing and music.1
25. Pollution of temples. A temple polluted,
by the happening of certain events specified in the
Sastras has to be purified before worship is resumed-
As to what events would cause pollution and what
purificatory ceremonies are prescribed we would do
well to quote here the learned observations of

1, Hindu Law of Endowments by Mr. P. N. Saraswathi is one

of the works consulted here.
 N# *$*] PURIFICATION Ii3

Mr. Justice M.K. Ramachandra Row, B.A.,B. L., the

Travancore Special Commissioner, from his elaborate
Report on Purificatory Ceremonies *—

. c <<The. s?Preme he}ng is described as light. Light

in Sanskrit is symbolical of wisdom and power. We
are not endowed with the power to bear the light of
God. Even Arjuna could not bear the sight of such
effulgence. Krishna invested him with the necessary
power of vision and what he saw with such power of
vision was so magnificent and transcended his concep¬
tion so much that he shivered from a sense of deep awe.
All that we can now perceive is his reflected light. Light
is the effect of vibrations, and Manthras also produce
vibrations. Vibrations in Akas or ether are affected by
counter vibrations set up by external objects or natural
events or Manthras. These latter set of vibrations may
either completely destroy the power of the image to
reflect the Divine light or enfeeble its power to do so
in varying degrees. These unfavourable circumstances
are known as Nimithoms requiring purificatory or
expiatory rites. There are other Nimithoms which
call for expiatory rites on the ground that they forebode
evil to the worshipper, or the proprietor, or the country
and the ruler. All these Nimithoms are known as
pollutions or Asuddhy. The Thanthra Sara compares
these idols with Vithanagni and declares that, if expia¬
tory rites are not immediately performed, the Devathas
feel provoked, that they should not be touched before
such rites are performed and that, if their performance
be delayed,the Devathas cease to reside in those images*
‘‘The Nimithoms which call for expiatory rites
are either those that destroy the capacity of the image
for reflecting the Divine presence or those which fore¬
bode evil* 1 he Thanthra Sara says that, even in cases
where total obscurity is not the immediate result of the
Nimithom, delay in performance of the prescribed rites
of expiation will cause the Devatha to cease to reside
in the image and will give full scope for the play of the
 i $4 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 23.

mischievous spirits which have their abode in the image,

causing thereby the spread of disease and disaster in
the country*
“2. What are the events which are attended with
such fearful results, if neglected? The Thanthra Sara
enumerates the following:—
If the idol drops down or shakes or is muti¬
lated, or if it should perspire, laugh, or cry, or
if it be wrenched or carried away by a thief, or if there
should be a mutilation of the weapons, ornaments or of
subsidiary images, or damage to the pedestal or the
Sreekovil by fire or force, or if mushrooms, ant-hills,
worms or insects and the like should appear in these
parts, or if a dog, thief, Pashandy or Vrathya, or
Devaia should enter, or if the Archana or Pooja should
be performed by one who does not know the appropri¬
ate Manthras or who is devoted to some other Devatha,
or who is uninitiated, or if wicked Manthras or those
appropriate to different Devathas are chanted, or if the
images should be time-wore or bent, or if Poojas were
offered with stale, faded or proscribed materials, or if
Poojas were omitted in the absence of Nimithoms, or if
from neglect the regular periods of Poojas be trans¬
gressed, or if strife, death or birth should occur, or if
blood, sputum or tears should drop, these and others
are portents threatening manifold disasters. * * *
*‘2. B. The Thanthra Sara by Ananda Thirtha
disposes of the whole in one brief sloka:—In the event
of entry by dogs, thieves, Chandalas, Pathithas, women
in their periods, etc., or of pollution by corpses and the
like, and also if there should occur default in Pooja,
expiation is ordained in the manner laid down for
Snapanamy i.e., halasabhishekom * * *
“2. F. The Thanthra Prayaschithom, a Malabar
Granthom, declares as follows:—“The dropping of or
daubing with human blood or flesh and the like is alone
objectionable and that only when the event occurs in
the Madhyahara or Anther Mandalom or the five
 N- 25*] PURIFICATION Jit

Prasadoms. The Vivarana includes also blood and

the like of beasts (Pasus). But only the blood, flesh
and seminal fluid of Pasus (beasts) are objectionable
and nought else. Tears, ear-wax, excrement, perspi¬
ration and sputum of all animals are objectionable. The
gravity of the contact with these substances varies in
proportion to their quantity and with reference to the
regions affected or the caste of the person from whom
the exudations arose. The entrance into the Haras
Anther Mandalam and the Prasadas of Pathithas, i.e.,
of persons guilty of the five great sins of murdering a
Brahmin, drinking intoxicating liquor, stealing gold,
and knowing carnally the preceptor’s wife, or of persons
affected with pollution (funeral or birth) of Pashandas
or barbers, of husband men who sow seeds, of Mlecchas,
or washermen, weavers and others who are outside
the pale of caste, of women recently delivered or in
their periods, of a mechanic, or of a Chandala, is objec¬
tionable in an ascending order of magnitude. The
entrance of owls, bears, hawks, dogs, donkeys, crows,
camels, rat-snakes, hogs, dark-blue pigeons, Chathaka
(a bird said to subsist on rain drops), Thittari (Fran¬
coline partridge), Chakora (a bird said to feed on moon
beams), Balaka (crane) and the bird Kapinjala into
the Garbhagrahom, in small or large numbers, is
objectionable. If these creatures abound largely in the
country, their entrance calls for ordinary rites, but in
the case of their being rare, such entry calls for treat¬
ment as in the case of Albhoothas or portents. The
generation of insects and worms in the Prasada or the
Hara, the growth of mushrooms, ant-hills, and honey¬
combs, the striking of Go pur am and Vimana by
lightning, the fad of Oolkas or meteors and earthquakes,
are portents in a duly ascending order of gravity”,i
Besides the above, several other texts are also
cited and it is pointed out that none of them attempts
an elaborate and exhaustive enumeration of all the
i. Pages 19—22,
126 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

events which call for the performance of propitiatory

or expiatory rites. Further, in many cases, the u&age
of the temple in the past would be the guide to follow:
for, according to Manu, custom is transcendental law
and it is allowed to supercede the express texts. The
description of the general character of the events that
cause pollution makes it clear that contacts, which
are considered to be objectionable to caste persons are
equally objectionable in the case of temples and their
images. It is mentioned as a general proposition that
the mischief of any Nimithom (event) increases in
magnitude in proportion to the proximity of the place
of happening to the idol and that there are certain
events which call for only sanitary remedies unless
they happen in some of the interior portions of the
Pagoda.
Coming to remedial measures to be observed for
removing the impurity and avoiding its mischievous
consequences, the learned Special Commissioner says:
“In the case of Nimithoms of the owo classes of
the major head, viz., those affecting the idol and those
affecting the local divisions, the practice of the Than-
tharies has introduced a ceremonial which is preliminary
to the elaborate rites performed leisurely according to
convenience. That ceremony is called Pasuddana
Puny ah om. The Sastras forbid the offering of Poojas
to images before the mischief caused by a Nimithom is
wiped away. The ceremony of Pasuddana Punyahom
which is a very simple one costing a few fanams is
performed immediately after the happening of a
Nimithom. Its efficiency is not adequate to remove
the mischief caused by the Nimithom. It is just sufficien
to meet the ordinance that no Poojas should be
performed before Niskkrithy or Prayaschithom is
performed. It is only in formal compliance with the
letter of the law that this right is performed. It might
occur to inquire why the effect of this rite should be
treated as merely formal* The reason is that the effect
 N. 25.I PURIFICATION 127

of Nimithoms generally can be washed away only by

Snapanom or Kalasabhishekom.
3* The other purificatory rites observed are:—
(a) Daily Punyahom during the progress of
maramath works;
(b) Sthanasuddhy or Khananady\
(*") Prasada Suddhy and Bimbo, Suddhy as
preliminary to and closing with Pancha*
kom\
(d) Navakom or Ottakalasom\
(e) Suddha Jala Kalasom preceded by Pancha-
kom\

(f) Dr any a Kalasom without Homams\ and

(§) Dravya Kaiasom with Homams beginning
with Prokthom and closing with Thath-
vam*
. 4* I shall next proceed to notice these several
rites briefly. The rite of daily Punyahom is carried
out to wash away the pollution caused by the entrance
of proscribed people like carpenters, etc. The cost is
very small, it being generally only 3 chakrams. The
ceremony called Khananady consists of certain
formalities in imitation of scraping, digging and
washing, etc., with the object of purifying the locality
defiled by contact with offensive substances. Of
course the first thing is to remove the substance,
and these various Manthric rites are performed in
analogy to sanitary practices for disinfection. The word
Khananady shows that the ceremony is a combination of
several rites. They are (1) Khananom (diggino-) (2)
Haranom (removal of the soil), (3) Dahanom (burning
with fire), (4) Pooranom (filling with new soil), (5) Go-
nivasanoir. (the stalling of cows and feeding of them)
(6) Viprocchishtom (feeding Brahmins on the affected
ground) and (7) Gavyom (sprinkling with the five-fold
products of the cow). The materials required for these
rites consist of Kusa and earth from river-beds, fields,
I28 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

ant-hills, cowpens, Agnikoondas and lake beds and the

five products of the cow. These rites commence with
the purification of the Acharya who is.required as a
first step to put on new cloths. He then purifies the
materials by the Manthric processes of Soshanom,
Dahanom, Plavanom, etc*, and worships Ganesha* The
affected part should be dug up to a certain depth which
varies with the nature of the pollution. The pit is
next burnt with Kusa grass and the ashes removed and
Gavyom sprinkled. Brahmans are next propitiated by
washing their feet and feeding and presenting them
with Dakshina, and the pit is sprinkled with the water
with which the Brahmans’ feet were washed. The pit
is then filled up with the earth previously collected and
the ground is rammed down. The cows are caused to
walk over the ground and are fed with grass. Then
the place is cleaned and in a shed built over or near it,
Brahmans are fed and afterwards a Padmam of 8 petals
is drawn and Poojas are performed to it and the whole
ceremony is brought to a close by imagining that the
Deva worshipped in the Padmom has filled the whole
of the area affected. If the pollution should affect a
stone-pavement, etc., the process of burning and filling
up are carried cut figuratively, if the pollution affects
the Prasadom, the feeding of Brahmans is carried out
elsewhere and the table-refuse is scattered over the
affected portion.
5. The next item is Prasada Suddhy. Prasadom
chiefly means the Garbhagrahom. It also signifies as
stated elsewhere the Agra Mantapom, the kitchen, the
dancing hall and the Dhwaja Mantapom or Bali Man¬
tapom. The whole of the temple is regarded as the
gross body of the Devatha which is installed therein.
It is therefore a principle of Thanthra Sasthrathat any
Nimithom which externally affects any portion of these
Prasadas and the Ankanom is also communicated to the
Devatha worshipped in the temple. It is thus obvious
that Prasdda Suddhy and Bimba Suddhy rites have
N. 26.] PURIFICATION 129

to be carried out even when the infection occurs out¬

side the main Prasadom.

“6. The Prasada Suddhy rites consist of various

ceremonies, the first of which is the propitiation of
Garish. The next step is to arrange the mite rials
required, namely, a cord made of cotton and Kusa, the
products of the cow, perfumed water and brushes, and
to purify these by incantations. The Guru should next
conceive the spirit in him as identical with the Devaja
worshipped in the pagoda, and by gazing on the Prasa-
dom and sprinkling water on the same, he should expel
all evil spirits. The other processes are (1) entwining
the building with the consecrated cord of Kusa and
cotton, (2) sprinkling the five-fold products of the cow
and a preparation of perfumed water on the building,
(3) scattering mustards, rice, grains, flowers, etc., (4)
cleaning with brushes made of certain specified materials
and making Poojas to the Prasadom which is to be
fancied as representing the Devatha itself. The next
step is called Rakska Kalasa Pooja* This Pooja is
offered to a Kalasom which represents the prowess or
weapons of the Devatha. This is performed before
Pooja to the Prasadom. Afterwards a homam called
Raksha Homam is performed with some twigs, ghee
and cooked rice each being offered 108 times. The
ashes, etc., of this sacrifice are sprinkled over all the
regions of the Prasadom after making some japoms.
This Homam is believed to have the effect of complete¬
ly keeping out all evil spirits from entering into the
pagoda. This Homam is followed by another called
Vasihu Homam which is ushered in by the offering of
strmiths or twigs and the consecration of 2 Ralasamsy
one dedicated to the Devatha concerned and the other
to the Goddess Santhy. Finally the principal Humam
which consists of about 250 oblations of ghee and about
108 oblations of each of the following materials, viz,,
twigs of semi and boiled rice balls and Doorva dipped
in Panchagavyom, is performed* Vasthu Homam is
,3d LETTERS FROM MAtABAR [L. 23.

followed by Vasthu Bah which consists of drawing a

diagram of 81 squares representing Vasthu Purusha as
lying on his back and investing each square with a
certain Devatha by Avahanam and making Poojas to all
those Devatha,s and offering rice oblations to them.
After this a Punyahom is performed by sprinkling con¬
secrated w'ater on the Prasadom, etc. We have now
closed the rite known as Prasada Suddhy.

*‘7. The next step is Bimba Suddhy. The processes

of this purification in their order are :—(1) Kshalanam
(washing), (2) Plavanom (flooding), (3) Snanom (bath-
ing), (4) Marjanom (sprinkling), (5) Dhara (streaming),
(6) Abhishekom with Panchagavyom and Ashta Gan-
dhom or Avagahom or immersion in Panchagavyom>
and (7) Sekom or Abhishekom with five pots of conse¬
crated water. The first four steps combined are known
as Chathu Suddhy. They require four pots of water.
Each pot contains different materials in addition. One
pot contains Kusa, earth and barks of the four milky
trees. Another pot should contain Akshathom or a
fewr grains of paddy and rice together, with flowers. The
third pot should contain Akshathom, Ashta Gandhom,
flowers, gold, fruits and Kusa and the fourth should
also contain similar substances. These pots should
be decorated and, after invoking certain Devathas to
occupy them, Poojas including Nivedyom should be per¬
formed. Afterwards the Poojas to the image in the temple
up to bath are performed, and the image is bathed with
the contents of these pots, each pot being only applied
after repeating the Pooja to the image commencing
from Peeta Pooja and closing with the rites up to
Abhishekom. In the case of serious mischief, the pro¬
cess of Marjana or sprinkling is carried out with some
elaborations which consist of the introduction of two
additional pots containing respectively Gavyom and
grains and their consecration and Pooja. The contents
of these two pots are then sprinkled and scattered over
the idol and the infected parts.
N. 26.] PURIFICATION 131

“8. The first four rites alone are ordinarily per¬

formed for Chathu Suddhy. But when the Nimithom
is very serious an additional ceremony called Malta-
Chathu Suddhy is also performed. This consists of
the consecration of four pots filled with water and other
substances. The idol is treated separately three times
with the contents of each of these pots and finally bath¬
ed with the water contained in them. The application
of the contents of the first three pots containing Kusa
brushes, earth and milky twigs is preceded and followed
by the usual Pooja to the Deity in the pagoda. The
fourth pot which contains paddy, grain flower, gold,
fruit, etc., is applied finally after bringing up the usual
Poojas to the Deity in the temple up to bath, and is
closed by the usual Nivedyom.

“9. After Chathu Suddhy comes Dhara which

consists in causing a stream of liquid which may be pure
water or perfumed water or milk or ghee to flow on the
head of the idol for the space of three hours. This pro¬
cess may close on the first day or be continued for three
successive days, the interval occupied each day being
only three hours. During the interval Japoms and vedic
recitations are ordained. In the case of minor Nimithoms,
Dhara is performed on one day only. It is repeated
for two additional days in the case of serious mischief.

“10. The penultimate rite in Bimba Suddhy is

known as Avagahom or immersion in Panchagavyam.
This is done in four ways. The usual way is to prepare
Panchagavyom in a pot, to make Poojas to it and pour
the contents over the idol. This operation is not
technically called Avagahom, but it is ordinarily sub¬
stituted for it. The regular Avagahom may take place
in three ways. Each of the five products of the cow
may be filled in a tub and the idol immersed in each
tub separately. In this case the idol is immersed in
one substance every day. It is finally immersed in the
mixture of the five products. This process which
 LETTERS FROM MALAR A R [L. 23.
132

requires 6 days to complete is carried out only in cases

when the Nimithom is very serious. Ordinarily, the im¬
mersion is into the Pancha gavyam mixture alone, and
then the ceremony can be gone through in a few hours
The third method consists in performing the above Ava-
gahom and following it up with immersions in the four
following liquids, viz., Ashtagandhom, water infusion of
barks, pure water and water of sacred Theerthas. This
third process w'hich is resorted to in cases of pollution
of the idol by actual contact with dogs, etc., requires
two days for its performance. In the case of a Avagahom,
Japoms and vedic recitation during the immersion are
also enjoined.

“n. The last rite of Bimba Suddhy consists of

Abhishekom with five pots filled with consecrated
water. There are of course Poojas to the pots separately
and jointly. Each of these pots represents one of the
five principles peculiar to each Devatha.

“12. In the case of serious Aimithorns, Panehakom

is preceded by a rite called Samadhi Suddhy This
consists of a process of Bhootha Samharomy etc., in the
idol similar to those mentioned as items 1 to 16 in the
Deha Suddhy rites. After purifying the idol in this
manner, the Divine Principle in the idol which at the
preliminary stage was transferred into the body of the
worshipper is re-transferred to the idol. After these
processes, Pooja is performed to the idol and it is
bathed with the contents of the five pots mentioned
above*

“13. In Nimithoms of considerable gravity, a rite

called Mahapanchakom is also performed in addition to
the above. This also requires five pots of consecrated
water mixed with Ashtagandhom and they should con¬
tain pieces of gold and silver as also precious stones.
The pots areas usual to be duly purified by the rites of
Soshanom, etc* They should be invested with the
N. 26.] PURIFICATION i33

principle of Sakthy and Pooja should be rendered to

them jointly. They are afterwards invested with the
principles known as Thrikala which represent the
spiritual force of the sun, the moon and the fire. These
Ghatas are again invested with the principle of Room-
bha Devathas and the Acharya after filling them with
cosmic waters by a mental process proceeds to do so
with actual water kept in reserve after the poojas. The
Acharya next invokes by appropriate manthras
the Deity of the temple to shed His Grace into the
kumbhoms. Then after some further process the pots
are conceived as transformed into Moola manthra•
These pots are next worshipped( separately and after¬
wards the principles of all these pots are made to unite)
and another Avahanom takes place with Lipi Thathva,
Manthra and Anga Nyasom and then a full Pooja is
performed to the Divinity in the pots. Finally the
contents of the pots are poured over the image in the
temp le.

“14- The books refer to another rite of sprinkling

called Samprokshanam which is prescribed in succes¬
sion to Panchakom under grave situations. The rite
is very simple in the case of all Devathas. The cere¬
monial consists in filling four pots with pure water,
perfumed water, Gavyom and Rajiakshathom• They
are duly consecrated and worshipped with a simple
Pooja and the contents are afterwards sprayed on the
temple buildings and idols. In the case of Vishnu,
Siva and Subramania an additional rite of a very elabor¬
ate character including komams, Japoms and Vedic
recitations involving the employment of a few persons
in addition to the Thanthry according to the nature of
the Nimithoms and the means available is also per¬
formed. It is called Maha Kumbha Prokshanam.

“15. We may next take up Ralasoms. They are

of two classes. The first class is known as Suddha Jala
Kalasom. The second class which is costly is known
1 34 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

as Dravya Kalasonu In the case of Suddha Jala

Kalasoms there are three sorts according to the num¬
ber of Kalasom or pots that are called into use; which
may be 1, 9 or 25. The Suddha Jala Kalasom with 25
pots is usually performed after Bimba Suddhy. In
special cases Navakom or Suddhy with 9 pots is
carried out after Bimba Suddhy. The Suddhy with a
single Kalasom is performed only in the case of subor¬
dinate Devathas in a pagoda. These Kalasoms may
suffice to counteract the effect of any kind of pollution
if the means available are extremely meagre.

16.
The next class of Kalasoms is what is known
as Dravya Kalasom. It may be performed with 17 or
25 Drayas according to the Devatha to be treated.
Each Dravyom fills a special pot. The central pot is
called Malta Brahma Kalasom and the other pots are
called Khanda Brahma Kalasoms. The maximum
number of pots may go up to 1000 in the cases of
Vishnu and Siva. In the case of Subramania and San¬
kara Narayana the maximum number of pots is 500 and
347 lespectively. The pots referred to by the names
of Maha Brahma and Khanda Brahma are filled with
various substances* The other pots are filled with
water only* Some of the substances required for these
pots are valuable. They are the products of the cow,
precious stones, models made in precious metals of the
weapons, vehicles, etc., of the particular Devathas, also
golden and silver tortoises and fishes, Pachakarpooram^
Kumkumapoo and others including metals* Generally
it is considered expensive and troublesome to perform
the Dravya Kalasom with 17 pots for Vishnu or 25 pots
for Siva. In the case of 25 pots for Siva, one of the
substances required is the flower called Sougandhi-
kom. The common belief is that this flower which
belongs to a class of aquatic vegetation is met with only
in a certain locality near Pattamby in Malabar. The
flower may be plucked for use only by a man who has
observed due vigils. In a certain statement of
N. 26.] PURIFICATION i35

purificatory ceremonies prescribed by Koovakara Potti,

he appears to have gone in for this method of Kalasom
and charged 300 fanams for a couple of flowers, though,
according to some including Thazhamon Potti, Sasthra
allows the substitution of Karaveera or Arali for this
costly flower. In the case of Vishnu, Kalasom with 17
pots of Dravyas is on account of its costliness rarely
restored to.

“17. In Dravya Kalasoms, the processes of Ava-

hanom are many and varied. The consecration and
Pooja of the chief pot or Maha Brahma Kalasom in¬
volves rites the performance of which would take not
less than seven hours, The consecration and Pooja of
the Khdnda Brahma Kalasom requires much less time.
Generally the Thanthry performs the rites connected
with Maha Brahma Kalasom and he engages assistants
to officiate in respect of the minor Brahma Kalasoms,
eight of which would ordinarily occupy the time of one
individual. There are as already mentioned numerous
fresh w?ater pots called Panikalasoms arranged round
the Brahma Kalasoms and their number may be taken
up to above 900. These Kalasoms are grouped in
certain order and numbers around the Brahma Kalasom
and the celebration of the Pooja rendered to them is
so simple that the assistant of the Thanthry engaged
to consecrate the Khanda Brahma Kalasom is also able
to simultaneously get through the work of offering
Poojas to the Suddha Jala Kalasoms.

“18. The Dravya pots represent the Brahma and

the Thathvas. According to one method the number
of Thathvas is 25 and according to another method it
dwindles into 17. The 17 Thathvas are Jiva, Manas,
the five senses of perception, the five objects of percep¬
tion and the five elements. The category of 25
Thathvas includes Purusha, Prakrithi, Buddhi, Manas,
Ahankara, the five Thanmathras, the five organs of
action, the five organs of perception and the five
 136 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

elements. After adoring all these pots w ith a flower, the

worshipper has to repeat the adoration in the inverse
order. The offering of flowers has the effect of in¬
vesting the subsidiary pots each with a separate
Thatkvam of the Devatha who is invoked into the chief
pot or Maha Brahma Kalasom, and by an appropriate
mental process the worshipper has to realise the
identity of the Devatha in each of the Khanda
Brahma Kalasoms with that in the Maha Brahma
Kalasom which again should be conceived and realised
as infinite and perfect. Many Avahanoms and
Nyasoms representing the Sastric principles of cosmic
evolution are performed and Poojas are offered. The
effect of these processes is believed to be to increase
the store of Divine energy in the worshipper which is
finally transferred to the pots and by the contact of
their contents to the idol.

“19. In the case of these Kalasoms it is usual to

perform the rite of seed sprouting. It is generally
observed only where the number of pots consecrated
exceeds 49* in which case it is usual to perform various
homams also* In the case of Dravya Kalasom accom¬
panied with this rite, the whole course will take not
less than five days to go through* But without this
rite the ceremony can be closed on the noon of the
fourth day or even in three days* The rite of seed
sprouting cannot be dispensed with in the case of
Dravya Kalasoms with Homoms. I have referred to
this rite though it is only a subsidiary rite as it is an
expensive element.

20. This Kalasom ceremony may be carried up

to a period of 12 days. The number of days would
increase in proportion to the - development of the
various rites referred to under the heads of Bimba
Suddhy, and no Kalasom ceremony is generally
performed without going through the preliminary
process o£ Prasad* and Bimba Suddhies. The
N. 26.] PURIFICATION 137

performance of expiatory Homams may also tend to

protract the course of the ceremony”1 .
Only certain classes of Hindus are allowed to
enter Malabar temples. Of these, only a few are
permitted to officiate as priests there. Among those
who are thus connected with temples in Kerala, the
number of those who know anything about the nature
of the architecture2 of the structures and of the images

1. Pp- 33-37*
[Apart from the housing of idols, and without any reference
to the efficacy of prayers, it has to be remembered that most of
the large Kerala temples stand for the administration of charity,
the dissemination of education, the encouragement of fine arts
and the employment of a great number of people. Some of the
ancient temples here exhibit the wonderful development Kerala
has reached in architecture, and sculpture and iconology. The.
paintings on the walls and panelled ceilings are marvels of art.
Temples are also centres of festive gatherings. During the time
of these festivals, there will be processions, dancing and drum¬
ming, music and piping, drama, Kuthu, Patakam, and sports
of various sorts. The songs that accompany the sports and
dances, the dramatic literature and the hymnology which are the
outcome of the existence of these temples are of a high order.
Many of these are rightly ranked as classics. They bespeak of
the excellent culture that prevailed in Kerala from ancient days.
P. 274 of the Progress of Cochin, Government Press.]
2. Kerala religious architecture, till a few decades back, was
based essentially on wood, and the aim has been to reproduce
exactly what existed thousands of years ago. A study of ancient
Kerala structures, even though few of them can be dated back
beyond the 12th century A. D., would give sure indications of
what were typical wooden structures at the time of the advent of
Buddha, or even earlier. Fergusson, deplored that “One single
example of a Hindu temple dating before the Christian era may
show the transition of Indian ar:hitecture from wood to stone”.
In my opinion the ancient temples of Kerala can show this tran¬
sition.
Yet Kerala temples have received scant publicity till now,
because they are generally taboo to the foreigner. Fergusson,
Havell or Acharya have made only casual references to Kerala.
It is therefore interesting that the Manasara perhaps the ear¬
liest extant treatise on Indian architecture, gives great prominence
138 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

housed in them is very limited. It is therefore no

wonder that there is considerable misunderstanding
about the use of temples and images among Hindus and
those who stand outside the pale of Hinduism. Apart
from this aspect, symbolism is a difficult subject. It is a
meaningless superstition to those who cannot understand
it, and there is the argument of the proud but low mind
that what it cannot understand can have no sense in it*
That is why it is stated that ‘veda fears the man of
little knowledge since injury may be received from

to Kerala architecture. The ten best types of buildings in India

are assigned to Panchala, Diavida,Madhya Kanta, Kalinga Varata
Kerala, Vamsa, Magadha, Jana and Spu (Gujerat). (Cf. Manasara
XXX). Arranged in the order of size and importance, Kerala
comes tl^ird, while Dravida is specifically mentioned as the
smallest type and comes last. In the “Wood Age” thisisquite pos¬
sible since the supply of wood was as is now much more plentiful
on the West coast than on the East coast of South India. “Kerala
Kan taka”, a particular type of “Twelve storeyed”* building, one
prevailing in the ancient country of Kerala, is discussed at length
in the above chapter of the work. ‘‘The twelfth rtorey should
possess a big central hall, two side* halls, bay-windows, corridors,
eight rooms, a central portico and no less than sixteen windows.”*
Professor K. R. Pisharoti, Mr. A. Govinda Warrierand others
hold that some of the Pallava structures at Kanchipuram and
Mamallapuram were designed by Keraia architects. The strange
similarity that exists between the plans and decorations of the
Vaikuntanatha Perumal temple at Kanchi and the Karthyayani
temple, Lalur, or between the Chandika shrine in'lricHur and the
Draupati’s Rath, or between the Thinnaiuel Appan’s temple,
Peruvanam, Cochin State, and the Dharmaraja’s Rath, Mamalla¬
puram, lend support to this view. A detailed discussion is beyond
the scope of this note.
Circular and square structures.—The two simplest and per¬
haps earliest architectural forms cjnciived by man, were the
“sphere and the cube”. It may be suggested in general that the
artistic urge in man has been towards the plastic ciicle; the
rationalising trend towards the linear square. Havell has
shown how a happy blending of these opposing principles
were effected in the characteristic Indian dome, which, springing
from a square base, merges into polygons, eight and sixteen-sided,
and so into the circle. The Vedic Yajna-salas had circular
N. 26.1 KERALA ARCHITECTURE i39

him. It is of him that Bhartruhari speaks as ‘the

inexpert of little knowledge* whom it is impossible for
even Brahma to instruct. But to the discerning minds
let me say “Hold to your dear native land and to its
precious possessions; for there lies the strong roots of
your strength.” When old and even modern civili¬
sations have tottered and fallen, how is it that India
thatched roofs, models of which, according to Professor Jouveau-
Dubreuil, are to be seen in the “Vedic eaves'’ at Meenapuram,
Bagula Motta, Kakkad ai:d other hilly tracts of Kerala.
Early Buddhist architecture was also essentially circular. The
various forms of domed and barrel-vaulted-roofs, gabled windows
and roof-ends are developed from woodon prototypes; and the
striking resemblance of the barrel-vaulted, gable-ended eaves
at Bedsa, or Karli to the “Valavara” of the Malabar boat—a
vaulting awning made of bent bamboo splits attached to two
parallel rows of short stumps fixed to the edges of the boat—or
to the Toda hut, is quite obvious. (Greater India Society
Journal Vq1.2, Pt. r, pp. 41-2.)
Professor Gangoii in his Indian Architecture has shown
that the stnpa one of the three typical Buddhist structures, the
other two being the chaitya and Vtharci—-evolves from a simple
hemispherical mould to a square cell terminating in a corbelled
domical roof. The typical "Garbha-Griha” of Kerala, examples
of which may be seen at Oorakam, Triprayar, Ernakulam, in the
Cochin State, and other places in Kerala conforms to this shape
but they are marked from the sight of the casual observer by the
concentric Vimana or Srikoil towering above them.

The second characteristic Buddhist structure is the “Chaitya”.

The word (from chita, a funeral pile) denotes anything connected
with a funeral pile, but it generally used to indicate a place of
worship. Ihe c shaped chaitya halls, intended for congregational
worship, consists of a nave and side-aisles terminating in an
apse or semi-dome with the stupa at the apsidal end. In later Hindu
models, a tower of sikhara is built to mark the position of the
stupa outside, which becomes the base of a circular Vimana or
Srikovil, while the nave contracts to a square “Mandapa” in
front thus: O Q. Many specimens of the apsidal temples are to
be seen in Kerala (cf. Sasta’s shrine, Trichur) and it is signifi¬
cant that most of them are dedicated to Sasta. Circular Srikovils
with square mandapams in front are very common in Cochin
State and North Travancore, where the later Dravidian influence
was least felt.
 140 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 23.

alone with its oldest culture stands steadfast to-day ?

It is, among other reasons, because of its temples, its
religion and its spirituality. The ancient seers took
so much care to expound not only the ethical and
metaphysical sides of religion but also its symbolical
aspect. They paid special attention to the construction
of temples, to the installation, consecration and
The “Sankara-Narayana,; Srikovil at Matilakam, Trichur, is
characteristic of this type. The basement consists of two con¬
centric circular walls, the inner one being extended upwards to
form what appears like a second storey. The basement is of
granite plainty-chiselled, the walls of laterite, while the projection
of the inner wall above the eaves is of wood. The pilasters,
lorantS) tnadhya-nasikas, panjarast kutas and Khana-dwaras
follow the instructions laid down in Tantra-Samuchayam, the
oldest Kerala treatise on architecture. The inter-spaces are covered
with mural paintings, perhaps the oldest surviving in Kerala.
The Cymer Reversa shape of the roof and eaves, so beautifully
worked out in wood, must have formed the model for the deep
overhanging cornices of Tamilian temples- This is a structural
necessity in countries like Kerala, Nepal or Southern China,
where there is a very heavy rainfall in one season and glaring
sunshine in other seasons. The roofs have therefore to be steep to
carry off the water and projecting well out to keep off the sun
and are therefore curved out into almost horizontal eaves.
The Srikovils at Ernakulam, Irinjalakkuda (Cochin), or the
temples round Tiruvalla (Travancore) have wooden walls most
elaborately and exquisitively carved.
Fergusson believed that the square Vimana evolved out of the
circular one. The point is very debatable. Anyway, we know
that the Manasara and other Indian treatises on Architecture
(supposed to have been compiled about the 7th century A. D.)
give unmistakable prominence to square and polygonal plans. All
the later temples in South India are linear descendants of
structures like the ‘Shore Temple’ at Mamallapuram or the early
Pallava structures at Kanchi, where the central shrine towers
above the rest. The plan®, and decorative devices of the Pallava
structures reveal a close similarity to the square Vimanas in
Kerala (cf. The Srikovils at Lalur, Guruvayoor or Tiruvanchi-
kulam); but the Kerala structures are evidently copies of its old
wooden prototypes and possess parts constructed of wood. The
Vyalis (lions) to take but ore instance, are characteristic of both
architecture. Rampant * Vyalis' attached to pilasters, appear on
N. 26.] KERALA ARCHITECTURE 141

purification of images and to the daily poojas. Kerala

leads, so to say, in this respect. There the famous
temples, which are architectural beauties, are the
abodes of godliness and cleanliness. There are several
classical treatises on Kerala architecture and on the
Agama Sastras. But into these entrancing subjects,
it is not possible to enter here.
the vimana of the Vaikunta-natha-Perumal temple at Kanchi,
while the outer enclosures contain clumsy squatting specimens
of supporting pillars. In Kerala architectures, rampant vyalies
(often 6 to 8 feet long) springing from the crowns of couchant
elephants (both being made of wood) are used as wide-sprung
supports for the overhanging eaves, a much more appropriate
method than using them as pillar-supports. I am of opinion that
the vyali figure was originally used as struts, and when the need
for them vanished during the transition into stone, the vyali, so
dear co the Pallava, was used by him to adorn and support the
pillars. These and various other points give support to the view
that the semi-lithic structures of Kerala are truer copies
of the ancient Dravidian wood architecture than the Pallava
structures.
Viharas—The third typical form of Buddhist architecture is
the vikarat intended as a sort of dormitory and college for the
student-monks. It must have originally consisted of a court or
hall surrounded with rooms. A stone relief at Bharhut contains a
characteristic vihara with barrel shaped roof, *chaitya* windows,
and a row of kalasas, on top. It is possible that Bhima’s Rath
at Mamallapuram and the few ancient gopurams still existing in
Kerala are representations of one type of vihara, The western
gopuram, Trippunittura, is an extremely important structure.
Without entering into details, I may add that its plan and
arrangement reveal a thoroughly utilitarian purpose (unlike the
gopurams in Tamil land). It is also significant that while its
plinth is of granite and walls of laterite, the porch is built entirely
of wood.
There are various other features of Kerala architecture that
would repay careful investigation. The wooden pillars inside the
gopurams and majidapams with their characteristic rampant
vyalies are perhaps the oldest of their type in South India. (V. K.
R. Menon, M, A,, M, Sc., from his University Extension Lecture
on Kerala Architecture.)
 LETTER XXIV.

1. New house: consecration. The ceremony

is called Pjlu-kjchhal, or the boiling of cow’s milk, as
this forms one of the important items in the consecration
and house-warming ceremony.
2. The evil eye. The potency of the evil eye to
work mischief is a well recognised belief in Malabar,
and, to avert its baneful influence, many kinds of charms
are used* At every step, from one end of the country
to the other, evidence of this attracts the eye of the
observer. When a new building is being put up, one
will see near it in a conspicuous position a hideous
figure made of wood or straw set up to avert the evil
eye. A kitchen garden with a fine growth of vegetables
lies by the roadside. To avert the evil eye of the passer¬
by, which may injure the growth, a bogey of some
sort is set up, generally a pot covered with cabalistic
signs made in chu^nam and charcoal, or more often a
branch of the prickly cactus The evil eye is supposed
to affect human beings as well as cattle also, and there
are both preventives and curatives prescribed against
it* Amongst preventives are certain jewels, tigers’
claws set in silver, Yentrams or cabalistic figures drawn
on metal plates, or cadjan leaves, on which Mantrams
are inscribed. They are worn round the neck or the
arms or the waist, rolled up into small tubes. These
are not peculiar to Malayali Hindus alone. The
Mahomedans also suspend charms on their persons as
also from the ceiling of their houses. The Jews too
plage figures on their houses. The Native Christian
does not hesitate to resort to charms against the evil
eye, however vehemently he may protest openly that it
is against his religion. Why should he not do so when
his more enlightened co-religionists in civilised Europe
N. 2.] EVIL EYE i43

are not slow to believe in the maleficent effects of the

evil eye and to use charms to avert it?
“The fantasy of tfie evil eye is prevalent in many
parts of Europe at this date. It is rife in certain High¬
land and Irish districts. The Italians are undoubted
believers in the potency of the evil eye to do mischief
and have designed means to ward it off.”1
“Superstitious people would on no account even
mention the name of one who is unfortunate enough to
be suspected to possess the so-called evil eye”.1
The following extract taken from the tenth volume
of the Theosophist attempts to give a rational explana¬
tion for the belief in the potency of the evil eye.
“Recent research into mesmeric laws and pheno¬
mena has thrown much light upon the nature of that
maleficent magnetic glance of the human eye, whose
direful effects have been known in all countries since the
remotest antiquity. If the Hindu mother suspends
around the child’s neck an amulet to protect it from the
evil eye, and similarly the Indian cultivator guards his
thriving field or orchard or his new house, by setting
up some uncouth image or painting, a Svastika or some
other sign of power, to arrest the first envious glance, so
also do the simple folk of other countries adopt the like
expedients.
“The human eye is in fact a reservoir of tremen¬
dous psychic power, and the world’s literature teems
with expressions to indicate the potency of its light, its
lightning, and its blandishments. Some of the most
romantic stories extant are based upon the fact of ocular
fascination* The benevolent healer cures the sick by
his kindly glances, and animals and lunatics are alike
subjugated by the spell of the fixed gaze. The posses¬
sor of evil eye is often unconscious of his gruesome gift
and is disposed to ascribe to mere coincidence the
tragedies of which he seems to others the perhaps un¬
witting and horrified cause.”
1. The London Magazine for October 1903, pp. 134—-13$.
144 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

The cures prescribed are many and curious. In

the case of cattle afflicted with the evil eye, shells strung
together on a black coloured cord are tied round the
neck or the horns of the animal* It is fed with grass,
fruits, etc., on which Mantrams have been uttered, or is
bathed in charmed water. What is known as Karin-
kannituka (casting the black eye) is very much
feared. It is thought that, if those so endowed cast
their eye on anything or make remarks comparing one
thing with another and note the excellence of the one
over the other, the good one will at once be destroyed.
This is ascribed to the karinak or evil tongue. The
pernicious eye and tongue would even injure human
beings. Those who fall under the influence of the evil
eye and tongue are said to become ill, and unless some
speedy remedy is resorted to soon, they pine away and
die. Under the same category of belief comes the
absolute faith in the power of spells.
Unless the effects of the evil eye are very serious,
easy remedies are adopted. There are those who pre¬
tend to be adepts well versed in the art of removing
such injuries as are caused by the evil eye or even by
ordinary spells. These mutter mantrams over the
afflicted and sometimes these mantrams are wrhispered
over water or oil which is rubbed on the body of the
patient. A most popular method adopted is to get one
of these adepts to mutter his mantrams over some salt
and pepper which are afterwards put into the fire. If
the injury is caused by the evil eye, the adept declares
that, in the process of muttering his mantrams, he
yawns, his mouth waters and tears flow out of his eyes.
This is said to afford a sure test as to whether it is a
real case of the effect of the evil eye or not.
The methods adopted in serious cases are very
elaborate. The Malayan or one of the Hill tribes
is often the mantram man who undertakes to cure
the effects of the evil eye. The account that one of
N. a.] EVIL EYE H5
them, an adept in the art, Chatu by name, gave to
Mr. Fawcett is curious. “In effect, he said: certain
persons have the evil eye by nature, Pottakannu, 1 blind
eye, it is called. A person having the evil eye
may, while thinking evil, infect man, woman
or child by simply looking at them. Those who have
the evil-eye are generally woman; men rarely. The
cause is in the eye itself* No evil spirit is in any way
connected with it. A woman may affect her own child.
A person having the evil eye, looking at a beautiful or
healthy child, will affect it without intending to do so.
The injury done through the eye is often unintentional.
The power of the eye to do mischief is altogether beyond
the volition of its possessor; but it is excessively virulent
when mischief is really intended: Colour of the eye
matters nothing. Nor is possession of the evil eye con¬
fined to any caste. He knew a Nambutiri who had it*
The effect of it on a child is that it becomes lean*
feverish, loses its well favoured appearance, and cries
in its sleep. Men and women suffer from headaches
and pains in the limbs. Animals are disposed to lassi¬
tude and eat little. Cows will not give milk*
“The Malayan drives away all these unpleasant
ailments by invoking an evil spirit Vudikandan by
name: male having no wife* By means of magic, he
forces Vudikandan to do what he requires of him. But
how? The process he would not tell. It is secret.
That is all; but the drumming ! No one outside the
Malayan caste may be initiated into the fearsome
mysteries. The spirit Vudikandan is used for no other
rite. The Malayan also drives out evil spirits.
“Chatu presented me with a Mantram, a magic
verse, written with a style on acadjan leaf, the common
stationery of Malabar, and told me that whenever any
part of my person becomes affected by the evil eye, I
should whisper the Mantram over a piece of string
and tie the string round my leg or other limb or part
of the body which suffers, and cure will take place
instantaneously.
1, Pottakanuu means also bad eye. Karinkannu black eye
is another popular term. Ed.
146 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

“He works by day; never by night. A whole day

is occupied in driving away injury through the evil eye
in a bad case. He need not be starving; in fact eats a
good deal before he begins. The generous Chatu pre¬
sented me also with a couple of Mantrams such as could
cure an easy case of harm through the evil eye, and ex¬
plained their use.
(/) i{Om Namo Bhagavathom, Sri Parameswara-
nuni Sri Parvathiyum Palliveta Bl ay a tinned Ezhunel-
lumpoU Sri Parvatikku kanneru-dosham undai. Sri
Parameswaran Sri Parvatiute kanneru dosham Tirtata
pole Tirnupoka• Svami en guruvinand\
(“/ prostrate myself to Bhagavathi. When Sri
Parameswaran and Sri Parvati went huntings Sri Par-
zrati was under the influence of the evil eye\ Sri Para¬
meswaran then put away this influence. N I swear by my
guru.)

(2)
“Om Peputi Vorrupoti Yerrika. Swaha yen
Guruvinand'. (Mantrams 1 and 2 are in Malayalam.
While No. 1 invokes Puranic deities, No. 2 invokes the
aid of the adept’s guru or preceptor who, Mr. Fawcett
explains, is ‘the deity’, an entirely abstract idea without
reference to any incarnated forms, such as Parvati or
Parameswara, as in No. 1.)
“The meaning of this” i.e., No. 2, says Mr. Fawcett,
“is not clear.” “Om-I.“Yerrika”=burnt “Swaha” (used
as a verb)-devour “Guruvinana -by the Guru or teacher.
But in Mantrams the word Guru invariably means
the deity.”1
uMantram{i) is whispered on sixteen grains 6f
rice: on each grain separately, not on all together. As

1. As a rule, mantrams are never given out off-hand by one who

has learnt them from a teacher to another; never to a person of a
caste different from that of the person who knows them. So that,
I do not think what are given above are real mantrams. Not to
displease a high European Police Officer, the man may have
given some scraps that may form trappings of certain mantrams.
Ed.
N. 2.] HOUSE BUILDING 147

the Tkhzntram is whispered on each grain, the grain is

placed in oil? When the sixteen grains have been
placed thus in Sie. oil, it is stirred while the Mantram
(2) is repeated sixteen times. The magician then hands
this oil in silence to the person who has been injured
by the evil £ye. The person receives it also in silence
and rubs it*over his head. No word is spoken until he
has finished.’* 1
3. Building house. In para 1 of the last
letter, our author, speaking of temples, has remarked,
“All the architectural talents of the heathen have been
devoted to the erection of these edifices: their dwellings
on the other hand are wretched.'* In the present para,
he gives us an account of the manner in which the
building of a house is commenced. But he nowhere gives
one an idea of the habitations of the Malabar people.2
1. (P. 308-9).
2. Domestic Architecture of Kerala.—A proper study of the
Art and Architecture of ancient India is n°t possible without a
sympathetic understanding of the intensely religious atmosphere
that produced them. Like the ancient tribes of Israel, the Indian
••Silpies*' or “Master-builders”, believed in a personal and jealous
God presiding over their destinies. The “Silpa Sastras” therefore
abound in frequent references to this imminent deity, while even
the simplest of architectural laws are expressed in so abstruse and
religious a language that they appear, on rational grounds, to be
as inexplicable as the religious sections of Puranic India.
Astrology naturally played a large part—perhaps an unneces¬
sary part—in Indian architecture. The house, for instance, is
compared to the bride-groom and the building-site to the bride,
about to be united together in holy wedlock; the perimeter of the
stucture playing the same p<irt as the horoscopes of human
beings. But when we realise that horology was considered to
have many scientific attributes by men like Francis Bacon and
Johanuss Kepler, we are led to sympathise with the Indian builder.
To take just one example, the dimensions of houses constructed
on orthodox lines are based on the “Shadvarga formulae” by
means of which, the Yoni, Aya, Vyaya, Thithi, Nakshatra and
age of a house are calculated from its perimeter. The first one
has a purely scientific basis and deals with orientation. (Cf. R. V,
R, 1. Bulletin No. 3), while the others, as the author expressly
states, are based on astrology.
P. T. O.
i48 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

The Malayalees do not live in streets as the people

on the East Coast do. Their habitations are situated in
enclosed gardens, distant from each other, and this
peculiarity has been remarked from early days* Ibn
Batuta, writing early in the fourteenth century, observes,
“And in all this space of two months’journey there
is not a span free from cultivation. For everybody has
here a garden and his house is placed in the middle of
it, and round the whole of this is a fence of wood, up to

(con id,)
“cr>e0baj(2)oe',l gg)tg(3)jo e8^JO(a)'1^o^^)O0^(§^g^aJ'l«s>6rroQQ^o,,
(Manuskyalaya Mahachandrika CH. III. S. 31); yet state¬
ments like “®0Q>ocr/l8 'g-josmo” or ‘‘eQQJooo'l cuonoo isaiono”
show that the author was conscious of the outstanding importance
of the first formula. This tendency to deliberately mix up wheat
with chaff, truth with fiction, is unfortunately characteristic of
the genius of ancient India.
The domestic architecture of Kerala never attained the
dazzling brilliance of the palaces and pavilions of Ayodhya or
Lanka or the lithic grandeur of Mogul and Vijayanagara
structures. But then, luxury and ostentatious display go hand
in hand with despotism and monarchy, while Kerala has all along
been democratic in spirit. Archeologically, however, Kerala houses
are important, because there is every likelihood of their plan,
structure, and decorative devices being very similar to the secular
architecture of the third millenium B. C.
Ireatises on Architecture.

It is understood that there existed no less than 12,00,000

granthas, or stanzas, each containing 32 letters in Anushtup
rhyme on Indian architecture, part of which at least, was devoted
to house construction. Professor Acharya mentions that there
exists even now fragments of 300 treatises, mostly in manuscript.
There is unmistakable evidence that the more important among
these, Maya-Mata% Manasarat Silpi-rat?iat Kasyapeya% etc., were
available in Kerala a hundred years back. It is therefore regret¬
table that the orthodox domestic architecture of Kerala is now
based on one single treatise called Ma?iu shy alay a-Mahachandrika
which, in spite of its long title, contains only 235 verses, of
which at least half are not strictly relevant to architecture proper.
The book is however interesting in that it happens to be one of
the few treatises devoted^exclusively to domestic architecture.
P. T. O.
 $.**?£&***
TYPICAL ARISTOCRATIC NAVAR HOUSE.
.

-
N. 3,] HOUSE BUILDING 149

which the ground of each inhabitant comss.” 1 Barbos?

says, that “these Nayars live outside the towns, separate
from the people, on their estates which are fenced in”.
The Italian traveller, Della Vella, in the 17th century,
describes, Calicut “to consist of plots beset with abund¬
ance of high trees, and amongst the boughs whereof, a
great many of wild monkies; and within these close
groves, stand the houses, for the most part at a distance

(1) Pages 166—167.

(contd.)
Only one type of house is dealt with, namely the Nalukettu or
Chaturasra Sala from which we are led to conclude that a hund¬
red years back all the lar ger buildings in Kerala were Nalukettus.
The Nalukettu consists essentically of a rectangular structure com¬
prising a central courtyard; the structure being divided into four
main rooms and four corner rooms, the courtyard being connected
to the outside by four corridors arranged in Swastiki fashion. The
Chandrtka lays down nine different plans, but they vary only
in minor details. Kerala temples also conform to this plan, the
Sri-hovil or Vimana occupying the position of the Thulasi-Tara
at the centre of the courtyard. We knew that the temples and
relic shrines of Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Judea, Maya (Mexico)
and China, reveal that their planning and lay-out are very similar
to that of Kerala temples. It is curious that this close similarity
is even more evident in domestic architecture.

Almost all ancient Asiatic structures were raised on high

bases, the superstructure being of wood, while the windows and
doors opening out were small, solid and well protected, as a
precaution against nocturnal raids. The interior depended on
light and ventilation on the central courtyard whose dimensions
and decorations depended on the wealth of the owner.

The Persian palaces generally consist of a number of pavi¬

lions and detached halls grouped round a central courtyard. The
Persian caravansaries, states Fergusson, “have the usual form of
a square court-yard surrounded by a range of arcades generally
two storeys in height”. The Egyptians lived in storeyed
mansions situated in gardens laid out in a quaint formal style
with pavilions, ponds and all other accompaniments of gardens
in the East. The Wuswus ruin at vVurka (cf. Loftus Chaldea and
Babylonea) reveals an Assyrian palace 246 ft. by 173 ft-- and
like almost every building in the Euphrates valley in those
ancient times, the centre was occupied by a court. The palaces
ISO LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 24.

from the common ways or streets” 1 . In the 18th

century, Forbes observes, “the houses of the Nayars,
and better sort of Malabars, are neat and clean; generally
situated in a garden, with a few cocoanut and jack trees,
betel plants, indegenous roots and vegetables; and a
small grove of areca, or a shady tamarind, and a wail
within the enclosure, furnish a Malabar habitation”*2
(1) Page 181.
(2) P. 252.
(contd.)
at Nimroud, Koyunjik and Khorsabad, and the numerous ancient
mansions in China, conform to this plan.
The houses of Pompeii had the principal apartments on the
ground floor facing inwards. They were lighted from courtyards
and had few openings outside; for, “with a people who had not
glass with which to glaze their windows, it was impossible to
enjoy privacy or security without at the same time excluding light
and air, otherwise than by lighting theirrooms from the interior5 ’.
The smallerliouses with their miniature courtyards look so like a
small Malayalee Nalukettu that it has even been alleged that
Kerala borrowed its secular architecture from Rome. It may be
the other way.
Rvolutioti of Nalukeltus. The Palace at Mattancheri (circa
1560) is built according to orthodox architectural canons where
the exterior stone staircase, deep-seated windows and arched
soffits alone reveal Portuguese and Dutch influence. It is a two
storeyed building built round a central courtyard which is about'"
icfo ft. by 50 ft. and contains a shrine dedicated to the family
deity cf the Cochin Royal Family.
The next stage in the evolution of the Nalukettu is seen in
Saktin Tampuran’s palace at Trichur, where the western wing
constitute the palace proper, while the ‘Tulasi Tara5 carries a
few idols. Tlie spacious rooms, wide staircase, massive pillars
and magnificent porch, all reveal Dutch influence. Thereafter
many buildings were erected where the western or southern wing
is built as a two or three-storeyed mansions while the other wings
hmg on to it as a sort of unnecessary appendage. In certain
lecently reconstructed, aristocratic residences, 4II the wings are
two-storeys in height, but exigencies of modern requirements
have reduced the couityard to 12 ft. by 8 ft. though the building
site covers an area of about 85 ft. by 55 ft.
In conclusion, a brief reference may be made to the various
superstitions connected with domestic architecture* A large
P. T. O.
N. 3-1 HOUSE BUILDING IS*

The Malayalees still live in separate garden houses

nestling amidst the feathery palms whose leafy foliage
afford shelter from the scorching rays of a tropical sun.
Their gardens are still fenced round so well as to elicit
from Sir Grant Duff, a late Governor of Madras, the
remark that it looked as if the great Vauban was in
Malabar fortifying these Malayalee habitations from
external attacks though not of human beings.
Early in the 15th century, the Chinese traveller
Ma Huan found the houses in Cochin “built of the
wood of the cocoanut tree and thatched with its leaves
which render them perfectly water-tight*’-1 At the
advent of the Portuguese, according to Astley, “the
houses (of Calicut) were made of hurdles; the King’s
Palace and the Temples, which were the cr\ly .buildings
of lime and stone; for none else, by their laws, were
permitted to be raised with those materials”-2 Describing
the town of Calicut, Varthemaobserves:— “Thehouses

(1) J. R. A. S. 1869, page 342,

(2) Page 2Q.
(contd.)
majority of these seem to serve no useful purpose, but there are
others of definite practical utility.
Thus, speaking about compound sites, Chandrika emphasises
that they should slope from the south or west towards the north
or east. All this is most quaintly worded and wrapped up in
superstitious sanctums; yet they agree with those of Vitruvius,
the architect of Augustus Caesar, that, “A city on the sea-side,
r.xposed to the south or west will be insalubrious.” Similarly, the
taboo against house construction in the Vayu and Agni Konus
(South-east and North-west quadrants) is an effective check on
the growth of slums; since, if a large plot is split up into a
number of building sites, at least half the area, cannot be built
upon, with the result that overcrowding is impossible. Numerous
other injunctions tend to show that the ancient Aryan was as
anxious to maintain the purity of the race as the modern Hitlerite
and adopted equally ruthless methods for suppressing the
individuality of the non-Aryans. (F. AT. R. Menon% M. A.t M. Sc,
From his University Extension Lecture.) (The Editor is indebted
to his friend for his two valuable notes.)
152 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

are very poor* The walls are about as high as a man

on horse-back, and the greater part are covered with
leaves and without an upper room. The reason is this,
that, when they dig down four or five spans, water is
found, and therefore they cannot build large houses.
However, the house of a merchant is worth fifteen to
twenty ducats. Those of the common people are worth
half a ducat each or one or two ducats at the most”.
A century, later Della Vella visiting Calicut says of the
houses he found there. “They appear but little, few
of their outsides being seen, besides the low walls made
of black stone surrounding these plots (i. e., the
gardens wherein the houses are situated) and dividing
them from the streets, which are much better than those
of the Bazaar, but without any ornament of widows; so
that he that walks through the city, may think that
he is rather in the midst of uninhabited gardens, than
of an inhabited city. Nevertheless, it is well peopled,
and hath many inhabitants, whose being content with
narrow buildings is the cause that it appears small”.1
Before Della Vella, Linchoten had remarked that “in
their houses they are not verie curious” and Ralph
Fitch, that “all the inhabitants here have very little
houses covered with the leaves of the cocoanut trees”.
According to Nieuhoff, “they had most excellent car¬
vings in wood with all sorts of images in their houses”.
Among the marshes he observed many ruins of old
houses which appeared to have been built many years
ago-

Bishop Medlycott observes in his S/. Thomas and

India that it was extremely unlikely that stone houses
existed in Southern India when the Portuguese came,
though there may have been stone-built temples, even
in Malabar. Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese on
the Malabar Coast, the houses of the superior classes
were built of teak-wood, and used to last upwards of
400 years when kept well tarred on the outside. In
(1) Page 181.
N. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING 153
support of his statement the Bishop quotes Jarric,1
and gives part of a letter by James Fenicio, a Jesuit
Missionary in the Zamorin’s territory. “This letter”
says the Bishop “is our earliest authority; as quoted
above, it has no date, but evidently belongs to the period
between 1600 and 1067. The Missionary had obtained
permission to erect four Churches in the Zamorin’s
territory; ‘I devoted all the remaining available time
to the erection of these Churches, and to the Christian
inhabitants of this village (Palur). I used to give them
instructions as I chanced to meet them. As the Church
of Palur dedicated to Saint Cyriac (Syr. Quriaqus),
which was the oldest {primus) among all the Churches
in Malabar, renowned for favours and graces obtained,
and for this reason much frequented, I devoted myself
more especially to it. The stone Church which I began
two years ago (enclosing, apparently, within it the pri¬
mitive building) had risen to the height of the windows.
At this stage no one would dare to pull down the old
wooden building, fearing to be struck down by sudden
death, it stood surrounded by the walls of the new erec¬
tion, but after I had prayed and removed their timidity,
the old structure was pulled down, and the new building
stood out in such fine proportions that the Hindus, the
Mahomedans, and the Jews flocked to see it’. This
is one of the seven churches traditionally assigned to
the time when Saint Thomas preached in Malabar.
The wooden structure must undoubtedly have been
very old, and constructed no doubt of teak, which
formerly grew all over the country, even in compara¬
tively recent times: At that early age the supply must
have been very plentiful.
Coming to more modern days, Fra Bartolomeo in
the latter part of the 18th century supplies us with a
fair account of the habitations of the Malayalis, both
rich and poor, prince and peasant. “The houses of

(/) Indicarum Reruns tom, III, lib II, Chapter V, Pages

50—51*
 154 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

the nobility”, says he, “and opulent persons consist of

two storeys. Before the lowest there is generally a
small hall, supported by thin pillars of teak-wood,
which is of a yellow colour, and exceedingly hard.
This hall is called varanda> and supplies the place of a
parlour. The upper storey is called maliga, and in
this the Indians are accustomed to sleep, to study or
to perform any business in which they do not wish to
be interrupted. A building, which consists of seven
storeys, is called elammaliga (more correctly eIu
fiila mslika) that is a tower; and is considered as a
habitation which none but a king or reigning prince
dare inhabit. The huts of the poor people are con¬
structed of the branches of the cocoanut tree
interwoven through each other and are covered with its
leaves, or with rushes or straw. The entrance into
these huts is low and the interior part of them is
dark”. *
Of the materials with which the houses of the rich
are built, he makes the following observations: “The
greater part of the houses in Malabar are built of teak-
wood, which is much harder and heavier than oak, and
which withstands corruption for a very great length of
time. I have seen several houses more than 400 years
old, which during that period had suffered little or no
decay. The palm-leaves with which they are covered,
and the above wood, have the property of attracting the
moisture, and of suffering it again to escape, as soon
as a breath of air begins to stir, or the sun to shine.
Hence it happens, that these houses are much healthier
than those of stone and lime; which, if not allowed to
dry properly, evaporate, for a long time after they are
built, a great many calcareous and highly pernicious
particles”. *
We have in Logan’s Malabar a fine description of
a Malayali house built in the orthodox style. “The
Hindu Malayali is not a lover of towns and villages.
His austere habits of caste purity and impurity made
him in former days flee from places where pollution in
i. Page 155,
Pa2CJSy*
N. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING *55
the shape of men and women of low caste met him at
every corner, and even now the feeling is strong upon
him and he loves not to dwell in cities.
“On the margin of a fertile valley or ravine, upon
bright green fields of rice in front of his door, he lies
to select the site of his dwelling. The stream coming
down the valley or ravine is skilfully turned aside to
right and left high up in its course where the first of
the rice-fields is terraced out of the steep hill-side.
This device serves several purposes, for first of all the
divided stream is carried along the sides of the valley
at a higher level than the middle of it and thus irriga¬
tion is easy; then, again, the channels serve as catch-
drains for the streamlets coming down at intervals along
the hill sides; and, finally the water serves many
domestic purposes as it flows close past the outer gate¬
way of the house.
“This outer gateway is the first thing that catches
one’s eye as the dwelling is approached: it is quaintly
placed, quaintly constructed, and quaintly neat and
tidy in all its surroundings. It is essential that a stair
or a ladder should lead up to it from the bank of the
green level paddy flat, reminding one in its construc¬
tion of the days when security of life and limb and
property depended on one’s ability to laugh a siege to
scorn; when a Nair’s house was his castle; and when
here, at the gateway, were posted the retainers to keep
watch and ward against enemies. Seats for them to
rest on to right and left, both outside and in, a quaintly
and solidly carved door and lintel; a room above
approached by a ladder from inside, with a window or
openings whence deadly shots are even now-a*days
sometimes discharged on lawless intruders and, finally3
a thatched roof, complete the characteristic of the gate¬
house. The Malayali is scrupulously particular about
the tidiness and cleanliness of his house and its
surroundings and nowhere perhaps is this more com
spicuous than at the gateway of his dwelling.
,56 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

“But a gate-house without flanking defences

would be of little use, and the attention is next drawn
to the massive bank of earth which hems in the
spacious orchard in which the dwelling is placed. A
neat interlaced and most serviceable fence of dry
prickly bamboo thorns now generally tops the massive
bank of earth and takes the place of the dense
mass of living bamboo thorns which in former times
used to be relied on for keeping out enemies. The
house was evidently never meant to stand a long siege
in former times, and the defences were intended merely
to ward off a sudden raid and give time for the occu¬
pant’s friends and retainers to rally round him as was
their wont.
“On entering at the gateway the most prominent
feature is the expanse of cool shade thrown by the un>
brageous trees that surround the dwelling. The cocoa-
nut, the jack with its dark glossy leaves and massive
shade, the slender arecanut and the broad-leafed plan¬
tain, all contribute to this effect. The earth around is
cooled, and an agreeable freshness is preceptible even
in the hottest and most scorching days in April and
May.
“A broad smooth path of hard baked clay, with
raised banks a few inches high on either side, leads to
a square, flat, open yard, where at mid-day the sun
shines dazzlingly and scorchingly down on the stores of
paddy and other grains laid out to dry. The floor of
this yard is well rammed and made smooth by cow-
dung mixed with charcoal dustt often renewed in the
hot weather, and the same bank of smooth clay hems in
this yard on the open side.
“The neatness, tidiness, and cleanliness of the
approaches are not belied on closer acquaintance with
the dwelling itself, and speak volumes for the house¬
wifely qualities of the ladies who inhabit the main dwel¬
ling ranged round three sides, or sometimes all four
sides, of the open yard just described.
N. 3-1 HOUSE BUILDING 157
“The main-building must face the rising sqn—the
east—and yet rather inconsistently it is called the
padinjattapura or western dwelling. The reason of
this is explained that the building opposite to the rising
sun and the padinjattamuri—the central chamber, the
honoured guest chamber in the house, the sanctuary of
the ancestors of its occupants—must be placed so as to
admit of entrance through its doorway of the sun’s
earliest rays. Another way of looking at it is that it is
called the “western dwelling”, because there cannot be
any portion of the house to the west of it again. It in
fact hems in as it were the dwelling on the western
side. On either side of it, forming two sides of the
square, are the vatakkini and tekkini the northern and
southern rooms—the former used for cooking and the
latter for ordinary purposes of the household. These
three are the main rooms of the dwelling, but the fourth
side of the square is sometimes occupied by another
room called the kilakkim or eastern room, and behind
one or more of the chambers is sometimes placed another
called the chaypu or lean—to, forming an enclosed
verandah room.
“In selecting the exact spot for his dwellings
Malayali is guided by a very simple rule. The garden
in which it is to be placed must be intersected into as
far as possible equal portions by lines running due north
and south and due east and west. Four divisions are
thus formed and the exact spot where the padinjattapura
is to be placed is in the north-east division, and in the
inner corner or south-west angle of that division. The
reason for the selection of this spot is explained to be
that a Malay ali tries to be as far as possible away from
the polluting caste people who may approach the bouse
as far as the fence, but may not enter the garden.
“However high a man’s position may be, and how¬
ever numerous may be his dependents, his house must,
if he attends to the customs of his ancestors, be a suc¬
cession of dwellings made in the above style; but upper
i58 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

storeys are often added, verandahs generally find a place

both upstairs and down, and are made both open and
enclosed. Long, cool, comfortable quarters are to be
found in these enclosed verandahs, which, by an arrange¬
ment common on the west Coast, are screened from
outside observation by a pent-house roof with a massive
carved wooden reverse slope to the eaves filled in with
horizontal bars*
“The wood-work of the dwelling is solid and sub¬
stantial and is often beautifully carved- The walls are
generally of laterite bricks set in mud, for lime is ex¬
pensive and scarce, and till recent years the roof was
invariably of thatch. This custom of the country was
very strictly observed, and it was not till after the
Honourable East India Company had had settlements
on the Coast for nearly a century that they were at last
permitted, as a special favour, in 1759, to put tiles on
their factory at Calicut. Palaces and temples alone were
tiled in former days.
“Of the surroundings of the dwelling there is
generally a cattle shed, and sometimes an excavated
tank for bathing purposes, often full of fish and water-
lilies; a well of water at the rear of the cooking room,
so arranged as to admit of water being taken direct
from the well into the cook-room, is generally present.
A chapel of the household deity is found in all consider¬
able houses, and there is sometimes a separate dwelling
(Madam) for Brahman travellers and Brahman
visitors.
“ The house of the poor classes, though smaller,
are built on the same lines as rule, and are usually kept
as neat and tidy, and clean as those of their superiors*\ 1
A Namputiri’s house has certain distinctive pecu¬
liarities of its own. The Namputiri generally chooses
sites the most secluded compatible with living in touch
with the outside world. He never builds his house on
the plains. He likes to live on the banks of rivers, in
the /alleys of hills, amidst forests scenery and
(i, Pp« 82 -4)-
TYPICAL ARISTOCRATIC NAYAR HOUSE.
N. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING 159
surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. Intensely religious,
his vocation lies far from “the madding crowd’s ignoble
strife”. The very idea of “herding with the vulgar
multitude’’ is abhorrent to him. Some of the Namputiri
houses are immense structures, almost palatial.
These have invariably a temple attached to them where
the inmates of the houses worship. Their women are
strictly ghosha and therefore the Namputiris are obliged
to provide themselves with places of worship not far
removed from their houses. The entrance to the com«
pound in the centre of which the house is situated is
through a small but substantially built gate-house
situated on the eastern side of the garden. The gate¬
houses attached to the larger mansions generally have
a second storey with rooms for the use of guests. From
the gateway to the house is a raised wall of earth or
hardened mud. The yard in front faces the east and
is kept scrupulously clean being swept twice or thrice
a day, smeared with cow-dung and beaten well.
Mr. Fawcett gives the following description of an
ordinary Namputiri house:
The Namputiri’s house is quadrangular, and is
arranged thus.—
N

Room 1. is for studying the Vedas.

Do 2. is for storing wealth.
Do 3. is for storing grain.
Do 4. is for performing ceremonies to the dead.
Do 5. is for the kitchen,.
Do 6, is for household gods.
160 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Do 7. is for performing sacrifices;

sacrifices of no living thing;
offerings merely.
Do 8. is for receiving guests.
Do 9. is the court-yard.
Usually there are outer verandahs and rooms up¬
stairs, The building is, as a rule, erected with blocks
—like large bricks, of laterite cemented with mud—
mortar is rarely used (not so at the present day. Those
who can afford the luxury invariably use mortar and
even Portland Cement). Doorways and windows are
sometimes well carved. To the north-east is the cow-
pen (gosSla), To the south, the tekkenisala or pathaya-
pura for receiving Brahman guests. There may be
a room in the north-eastern corner of room 3 called
pachakasala for banquets. To the north-west, may be
at a little distance from the house, is the ellupashala a
grain store. There is a tank in the north-east or south¬
west of the compound.
Looking at the ground plan of the house given
above, the reader will be tempted to ask where does
the Namputiri and his family live unless all their houses
have a second floor? Every room is appropriated to
some use or other and the family is shut out—a curious
predicament indeed! The fact is that the appropriation
of the rooms for the purposes mentioned is more
theoritical and conventional than practical. Rooms 1, 4,
6, 7 and 8 are all available for other use. The ground
plan given above seems to have omitted passages
between the rooms, etc.
Mr. Fawcett describes a Nayar house thus.—
“A house may face east or west; never north or
south. As a rule the Nayar’s house faces the east.
Evey garden is enclosed by a bank, a hedge,
or a fencing of some kind, and entrance is to be
made at one point only, the east, where there is a
gate-house, or, as in the case of the poorest
houses, a small portico, or open doorway roofed
 N- 3.] HOUSE BUILDING 161

over. One never walks straight through this; there

is always a kind of stile to surmount. It is the same
everywhere in Malabar, and not only amongst the
Nayars. The following is a plan of a nalupura or
four-sided house, which may be taken as representative
of the houses of the rich:

Verandah all round

Kitchen
store room Dining hall Kitchen
-— 1

8 1

A 2
7 Court yard

6 5 4 3

Numbers 6 and 7 are rooms which are used

generally for storing grain.
“At A is a staircase leading to the room of the
upper storey occupied by the female members of the
family. At B is a staircase to the rooms of the upper
storey occupied by the male members. There is no
connection betveen the portion allotted to the men
and that to the women. No. 8 is for the family gods.
The Karanavans and old women of the family are
perpetuated in images of gold or silver, or, more
commonly, brass. Poor people, who. cannot afford
to make these images, substitute simply a stone.
Offerings are made to these images (or to the stones)
at every0full moon. The throat of a fowl will be cut
outside, and the bird is then taken inside and offered.
s6a LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L* 34«

The entrance is at C.
N

E E E E
* * * , *
E * *! E
W E
*
E E
Upper storey

Tekkine. A large hall occupied by the men.

* *

Windows at the places marked thus— *

E=™Rooms occupied by women and children.
“The Nalupura, or four sided house, is the
proper one, for in this alone can all ceremonial be
observed in orthodox fashion. But it is not the ordi¬
nary Nayar’s house that one sees all over Malabar.
The ordinary house is, roughly, of the shape here
indicated. Invariably there is an upper storey There
N

are no doors, but only a few tiny windows opening to

the west Men sleep in one end, women in the other,
each having their own staircase. Around the house
there is always shade from the many trees and palms.
Every house is in its own seclusion”** 1
i. Pp. 303—4-
N. 3.1 HOUSEBUILDING 163

It would be interesting to know something of the

habitations of the Christians of Malabar® By far the
majority of the richer classes belong to the Syrian
Christian community whether of the Syrian or of the
Latin rite- The Rev* Richard Collins has given us a
fair description of a Syrian Christian house of the
better classes at Tiruvella in Travancore, one of the
finest he had seen in that part of India* “I insert*1
says he “a ground plan of it, as nearly as I can
remember it

-_II Ik 11- II -II

Verandah
8
[•] to to t- ] ©
£
O
J ©
Open Court

to to to t- ]
Verandah
Verandah
to to to
“The rooms are ranged, as will be seen, round a
small court; and the whole, except the verandahs9
which are built of stone, and well chunnamed, is of
wood, and in many places prettily carved, according
to the established designs of the country. In many
of the houses, and the churches in particular, the
beams, and other portions of the wood work, are
most elegantly carved—are often, in fact, quite works
of art. No expense had been spared on his house.
The entrance is, as in all cases, by a verandah about
two yards in width, and through a wooden screen,
which separates the outer from an inner verandah of
the same width. This inner verandah runs round the
court, and is raised about two feet from the ground.
At the ends it is very wide, and is the reception-room,
sitting-room, and bed-room in fine weather, for, I be¬
lieve, the greater part of the family. A very handsome
i64 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

cot, on which the master of the house takes his rest,

stood in one corner of the verandah, while we were
there. The legs were of turned wood, coloured with
blue, green, yellow, and red, very pretty in effect.
This colouring is done on the turning-lathe, with
sealing-wax of the different colours, w'hich they make
by beating vermilion orpiment, and other colours
with lac. It is then polished wdth a piece of teak. The
rooms of the house are chiefly used as store-rooms,
though some of them are also used as sleeping rooms,
This is the style of the better houses, I believe, through¬
out India; The smaller houses consist of one, two or
three rooms, without a court, and surrounded by a
verandah, parts of which also are frequently divided
into rooms, the main rooms being generally used for
keeping household stuffs, rice and so forth.*'1
In spite of the conservatism ingrained in the very
constitution of the Malayali community, the advan¬
cing tide of progress has caught even that community
in its [[rapid flow, and we see the Malayalis on the high,
way to reform. Though they still prefer to live in
detached gardens and not in rows of houses touching
one another in streets, the improvement of towns and
cities on lines of modern development has brought their
garden houses to lie on either side of broad metalled
roads thus forming streets of garden houses though not
streets of houses by themselves. They still recognise
the advantage of having some ground round their
houses planted with fruit-trees and vegetables. They
still value privacy in their domestic life. They have
not been slow, however, to realise the necessities and
requirements of progressive society and suit themselves
to the circumstances of the age. They were originally
colonists in the country being in a position to occupy
and cultivate large areas of virgin soil. Thus they
acquired the habit of living separate in detached gar dens
cultivating the grounds appropriated by them whereon

1 T • 203*
N- 3-] HOUSEBUILDING j6s

stood their habitations. As time advanced, their num¬

bers increased and the area of cultivable land became
narrower and narrower with the result that they had to
be satisfied with small gardens instead of the vast
expanses they had originally appropriated. The pro¬
cess is still going on. In the towns and cities, available
ground is becoming scarce and scarce every day and
large compounds are being continuously parcelled oat,
so that, in the long run, even the conservative Malayali
will nave to finally succumb to the influence of time
and content himself to live in houses lining the streets.
The orthodox style of building habitations is still ob¬
served to a large extent. The Nvluket or Nalupura is
still the fashion speci illy among the country folk. But
those who live in towns prefer to have large houses
furnished in western fashion. But they do not eschew
the Naluket• More often than not, they have a Nalu-
ket attached to their bunglows which are invariably two
storied. Even those who content themselves with the
Aaluket alone make it more attractive in appearance.
Formerly the houses used to be built of wood and much
ornamentation and carve-work was indulged in- But
in this more prosaic age there is little room for luxury
of the kind. An enlightened Government, pressed to
find the ways and means of progressive administration,
has reserved the right of felling timber in the forests,
has made a monopoly of the more prominent kinds of
wood generally used for house building and has brought
the forests of the country under a rigid system of con¬
servancy which has made it difficult for ordinary people
to procure building timber. Houses in Malabar are
now built of red laterite stones which are cut in small
thick oblong pieces and cemented together with mortar.
Burnt bricks too are coming into fashion. Most of the
houses are still thatched with cocoanut leaves though
tiles are steadily coming into use. The small tiles of
a hand broad referred to by Nieuhoff are being dis¬
placed by what are known as ‘Mangalore tiles’ which
are broader, longer, and more durable.
 166 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

The palaces in which the Malabar Rajas lived

resembled the houses of the better classes—only they
were on a larger scale and more substantial. We
have more than one description of the Zamorin’s Palace
at Calicut supplied us by the Portuguese. On the first
visit of Vasco De Gama to Calicut he was taken to the
Zamorin’s Palace where he had an audience with the
King. “Though built with earth, it was very large
and made a handsome appearance, being surrounded
with a variety of trees and accommodated with delight¬
ful gardens adorned with fountains. * * * Before the
Palace they found several Kaimals and other noble men
who came to receive the General. They passed
through five gates, each attended by ten Porters ***
Being come to the Palace Gate there met him the
King’s chief Brahman and High Priest a little old man
who embraced De Gama and conducted them all in.
The Palace within was set round with seats one above
another, like a theatre. The floor covered with green
velvet, and the walls hung round with silks of several
colours”. 1
Camoens gives the following description of the
Zamorin’s Palace in the Lusiadi
“And now the train with solemn state and slow,
Approach the royal gate, through many a row
Of fragrant wood—walks, and of balmy bowers,
Radiant with fruitage, ever gay with flowers.
Spacious the dome its pillar’d grandeur spread,
Nor to the burning day high tower’d the head;
The citron groves around the windows glow’d,
And branching pal ms their grateful shade bestow’d
A mellow light a pleasing radiance cast;
The marble walls Dadalian sculpture grac’d
* * * *
They saw the chief o’er prostrate India rear
The glittering terrors of his awful spear.
1. Astley, p, 30,
N.S .1 HOUSEBUILDING 167

But, swift behind these wint’ry days of woe®

A spring of joy arose in liveliest glow,
Such gentle manners, leagued with wisdom reign’d
In the dread victors, and their rage restrain’d.
Beneath their sway majestic, wise, and mild,
Proud of her victor’s laws, thrice happier India
smil’d.
So, to the prophets of the Brahman train
“The visions rose, that never rose in vain.’*
The regent ceas’d, and now, with solemn pace,
The chiefs approach the regal hall of grace
The tap’ stried wall with gold were pictur’d o’er,
And flow’ry velvet spread the marble floor.
In all the grandeur of the Indian State.
High on a blazing couch, the monarch sat,
With starry gems the purple curtains shin’d,
And ruby flowers and golden foliage twin’d
Around the silver pillars: high o’er head
The golden canopy its radiance shed”.1
A few years later, Varthema observes that “the
Palace of the King (of Calicut) is about a mile in
circumference- The walls are low, with very beautiful
divisions of wood, with devils carved in relief The floor
of the house is all adorned with cow-dung. • The
said house is worth 20u ducats or thereabouts.”2
Later still, the Italian Della Vella in giving an
account of his visit to the Zamorin in the company of
some Portuguese who had been sent by the Governor-
General with a message to the King, in December 1623,
has supplied us with a more elaborate description of
the King’s Palace at Calicut —
“The first and principal gate of the Palace opens
upon a little Piazza, which is best with certain, very
x. Mickle’s translation*
1\ TS*.
168 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 24.

great trees, affording a delightful shado w. I saw no

guard before it, was great and open, but before it, was
a row of balisters, about 4 or 5 feet from the ground,
which served to keep out not only horses and other
animals, but also men upon occasion. In the middle
was a little pair of stairs without the gate leading into
it, and another within on the other side, yet, I believe,
both the stairs and the balisters are moveable, because
it is likely, that when the King comes forth, the Gate
is clearly open, otherwise it would not be handsome,
but this is only my conjecture. We entered this gate,
ascending the stairs upon the rails where we were met
by the messenger whom the abovesaid person had sent
to the King, and who again invited us into the Palace
by the King’s order. Within the gate we found a
great court, of along form, without any just and propor¬
tionate figure of architecture; on the sides, were many
lodgings in several places; and in the middle, were
planted divers, great trees for shadow. The king’s chief
apartment, and (as I believe, by what I shall mention
hereafter) where his women were, was at the end of the
court, opposite to the left side of the entrance. The
edifice in comparison of ours, was of little consideration;
but according to their mode, both for greatness and
appearance, capable of a Royal Family. It had a
covered porch in that form, as all their structures have,
and within that was a door of no great largeness lead¬
ing into the house. * Nor was it long
before order came from the King for us to enter, and
accordingly we were introduced into that second Gate;
and passing by a close room like a chamber (in which
I saw the image of Brahma upon his peacock, and
other idolets), we entered into a little open court,
surrounded with 2 rows of narrow and low cloisters,
to wit, one level with the ground, and the other some¬
what higher. The pavement of the porch was also
something raised above the plane of the court, so much
as might serve for a man to sit after our manner”.
N .3-] HOUSE BUILDING

Della Vella then proceeds to give “a rough and

unmeasured Platform of the Samorin s Palace and the
place where he gave us an audience .

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“i. The little Piazza without the ist Gate of the

Palace.
2. The ist Gate guarded with Balisters.
3. A great court within the ist Gate, which
should be longer in proportion to the breadth, but is
drawn thus in regard of the scantiness of the paper, it
hath lodgings about it in several places.
4. The King’s house and the Apartment of his
women.
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

5. The Porch of the said house*

6. The second gate.
7. A dark room locked up.
8. A door leading into the little court
9* Several lodgings.
10. The little court
11. The place whence the wild swine was
brought.
12. The King denoted in several places, accord¬
ing as he moved, whilst he was speaking.
13. The King’s 2 nieces.
J4* A great man 6f the King’s, who served for
interpreter*
15. The Queen in the higher cloister*
16. Our company, with a greater number of
courtiers on each side of us, than the places allow to
be here denoted.
17. Our Captain in the close of the audience, and
when he received the Lague\'
We have but a poor account of the Cochin Raja’s
Palace given by the first Portuguese visitors of Mala¬
bar* On Cabral reaching Cochin, “the King sent the
Registrar of the city, and several nobles to receive
the Factor and bring him to court. Here they
found nothing of that State which they met at
Calicut. The Prince was but meanly clad, and his
court had nothing but bare walls, with certain seats
round them, railed or boxed in, like a theatre, in one of
which Tirumumpara sat’V The early understanding
between the Raja and the Portuguese ripened before-
long into steadfast friendship and the latter soon be¬
came the acknowledged protector of the former. The
Portuguese lost no time in supplying their protegee with
a residence befitting his position .as the ruler of the
country. They built for the Raja a Palace at Mattan-
cheri and made a present of it to him.
Page 182 et seq.
2 • Astley p. ,47,
N. 3.] HOUSEBUILDING tyi

In the year 1664, the Dutch Captain Nieuhoff

visited the Raja of Porakad or Ambalapuzha at his new
residence at Kodamaiur and gives the following account
of it. “The King of Porka was at this time rebuilding
his palace, in which they say, he had already bestowed
twenty years; it was but an old fashioned piece of
structure, surrounded with walls and a dry ditch.
** This palace of the King is a four-square structure
of about 40 paces in the square in the midst of which
the apartments (of which there is a great number) are
built; they are all four-square their chief ornaments
within being the carving of leaves and other work in
all sorts of fine wood; in some of these lodgings you
see fine cisterns for the conveniency of bathing; you
ascend (descend ? ) to them by certain broad stone
steps like our grave stone. In some of these lodgings
is a very large basin surrounded with such stones,
which are about 20 feet broad and a foot and a half
thick, which have been brought thither with incredible
pains and charges, a great way out of the country. The
palace itself is covered with small tiles of a hand broad
the windows being made either of twisted canes or shells
which transmits the light’\1
Captain Alexander Hamilton gives us a descrip*
tion of the Palace of Onitteri, Raja of Kururabernad,
whom he visited.
The reigning Princes of the present day live in
palaces built on the western model, but so adapted as
to suit oriental ideas of living. A portion of the build¬
ing is furnished in European style for receiving visitors
and transacting business, while the apartments set apart
for purely household purposes still retain the old order
of things. These palaces are conveniently situated
within large enclosures and possess more or less archim
tectural beauty.
In Malabar, houses of different castes and classes
received different designations® A few of these are
out of common use now.
JU John Nieuhoff s Voyagcv and ImiyM (1653—1670)
p. 222—
 I?2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24*
J/<7«j=Namputiripad’s house.
///^ssNambutiri’s house. These two names are indifferent¬
ly used to denote the house of both classes,
Kovilakam 'j
or v =The Raja’s house or Palace.
Kottaram )
Idom or Kuttala \
or J.=Local chieftain’s (Naduvazhee’s) house.
Bhavanam J
P/du=Naya.r house.
Poomathamy Pushpak, •. =Houses of Ambalavasies or temple-
Pisharam or Variyam ) servants expressive of their caste.
Matham—Houses of Chakkiyar and Nambiyar, also of
Tampans and Tirumulpads.
AW/==Houses cf Chaliars, or weavers, the Artizan and other
classes.
Pidika=Houses of Mappillas—both Christian and Muham¬
madan.
Pura~Houses of Ezhuvars or Chogans or Thiyyas.
Chala=.The house of Pulayars, Vettuvars, Mukkuvas, etc.
Pura or Ckala—The house of a blacksmith, goldsmith, silver
smith, carpenter, brazier, etc.
In commencing a building, the site is of course
iirst chosen. The rules regulating the choice have
already been referred to in connection with the building
of temples.
As regards the nature of the ground chosen, the
following rules are laia down. A house constructed
on ground sloping to the east will bring on prosperity,
while poverty will ensue if constructed on ground
sloping westwards. If the ground slopes towards the
south-east and the house is situated on the north-west,
there will be loss of wealth. An edifice on a ground
sloping to the. south, will cause early death to the
members thereof; while in the reverse direction increase
of corn will be had. A house built on the north-east
side of a slope will be productive of everything in
abundance. A house built on the left, and behind a
Vishnu temple, on the right of a Siva or Durga temple,
or by the right side of a Sastha temple will cause
calamity to the occupants; but if built on the opposite
N. 3.] HOUSEBUILDING ill

side that will bring on prosperity. Houses should not

be constructed near temples, paddy fields, hermitages,
the sea ©r ocean, hills or cowsheds. If constructed
near temples, they should be lower in height to the
religious edifice. Houses built on ground with an
elevation to the north-west, will last for 18 years; if on
ground with an elevation towards the east, south and
south-east they will last for ioo years. If, however,
they are built on ground with elevation to the north¬
east, west and north, they will last for a 1,000, 500, 12
and 8 years respectively. Houses built on ground
sloping, to the north with Atti (Ficus Racemosa) near
them, those sloping to the east with Arayal (Ficus
Religiosa) growing thereon, and ground with Itti (Ficus
Venosa) are fit for the occupation of the members of
the four castes.
The following trees, viz,,Elanji (Mimisopo Elangi),
Peral (Ficus Inched)*, growing on the eastern side of the
house, Atti (Ficus Racemosa), Puli (Tamarindus
Indicus) on the southern side, Arayal (licus Religiosa),
Pala (the milk plant or Asclepias Annlaris) on the west,
Naga tree (Trico Santhus Anguina) and Itti (Ficus
Venosa) on the north, will bring on prosperity to the
occupants. The jack and the mango trees, the
cocoanut and areca palms may grow on all sides sur¬
rounding a house. Arayal (licus Religiosa) growing
on the eastern side of a house will cause fear from
enemies, Atti on the northern side will cause abdominal
complaints in the occupants, Aswastka (Ficus Reli¬
giosa) growing near a house should be cut off, but may
be allewedTo grow, should the distance between the
house and the tree be twice the height of the latter. A
cowshed may be erected either to the east or to the
west of the main building. A shed for bullocks and
buffaloes to the south of it.
Having determined upon the site, an Asari
Panikkan, i. e a carpenter who is a master, builder, or
one well versed in the rules of architecture is consulted.
The dimensions of the building have first to be settled.
174 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [W24.

The rules of architecture prescribe certain dimensions

and one has to conform to them. There are special
directions as to the circumambit of the whole building
as well as the dimensions of the rooms into which it is
partitioned.
The dimensions of buildings with regard to their
size are as follows:—
A Kole=z2% English feet or 30 inches
A Viral=ii inches.
5 Koles and 16 Virals—all round.
6 Do «» £ do
7 Do
7 Do ti 16 do
S Do ,♦ 8 do
9 Do »* 16 do
10 Do »» 8 do
ii Do
ji Do ,» 16 do
12 Do f» 8 do
13 Do 1,
13 Do i» 16 d©
14 Do , 1 8 do
^5 Do
IS Do »» 16 do
16 Do ,* 8 do

A building of 17 to 19 koles circumambit should

be avoided, as the inmates will die soon on account of
Mritha Yogam. Then in the above manner up to
25 koles it is all right. 26 koles is undesirable. Up to
33 koles 16 virals it is all right. From there up to 37-16,
it is undesirable. From 37 koles 16 virals up to 50
koles it is all right. But between 50 and 54 koles
it is better not to build. From 54-8 to 67 it is all right.
Not so between 67 and 71. From 71 to 84 it is all
right, not so between 84 and 88 and so on.
The dimensions of the building would of course
be settled with regard to the extent of the land on
which it is built. As we have already observed, a
Malayali always builds his house in the centre of a
garden. To give an example, let us take a garden
 N.3.] HOUSE BUILDING i75
me asuring 16 dandus (a dandu is 4 holes)* East to
West x 16 aandus north to south, i> e. a square piece
of ground measuring 256 square dandoos. In this
garden a building of 40 holes and 8 virals circumambit
can be built to which may be attached out-houses. The
carpenter divides this piece of ground into four equal
squares and draws two lines from corner to corner
crossing each other in the middle. The main building
is put up in the north-eastern section or ko^u, i. e.
easantha konu and measures 40 holes and 8 virals round.
At the north-eastern corner of the main building is
built the kitchen which is 23 koles and 16 virals round.
To the kitchen is attached a well to supply drinking
water* To the north-east of the well is dug a tank to
enable the family to have their ceremonial plunge-baths
every day. In front and a little further to the east of
the main building is the gate-house which affords
entrance to the garden and the house. The gate-house
is 24 koles and 8 virals round. The south-eastern
portion is divided into two sections diagonally and in
the northern half of it stretching towards the east from
the south-eastern end of the main building comes the
Thekkini, or southern building, usually occupied by
the male members of the house leaving the main
building itself for the use of the females. The southern
half, i. e, the portion lying to the south of the diagonal
line is used as the cremation ground where dead bodies
of the members of the family are cremated. Unlike the
practice in other places of taking the corpse to be
burnt at the common cremation ground, in Malabar
there is a part of the garden in which the family resi¬
dence is situated, which is specially reserved for the
purpose. In no case will a Mahyali house-holder allow
the dead body of an inmate of the house to be cremated
outside his compound. No building of any kind is
allowed to be put up on the ground so reserved. The
western half of the compound will also be seen to be
divided into two squares and each square into two
halves diagonally. In the northern square, /. e.
i76 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 24.

north-western portion of the garden and to the west of

the main building in a line with its north-western end
but removed further to the south is the Orappura which
is 29 holes 6 virals all round. This is a small building
used mainly for having the paddy unhusked and turned
into rice as also for sundry other purposes. The other
portion lying on the other side of the diagonal line is
known as Vayu Khandam and it is undesirable to have
any buildings on it. In the southern halt of the western
portion are three buildings, viz., Thekkini or the
southern building 23 holes round, the Thozhuthu or
cow-shed 24 holes and 8 virals and the Marappura or
privy 16 koles 6 virals.
The above description gives us a fair idea of a
medium-sized Malayali household with all necessary
accessories. 1 The main building is what is called an
Ottappura or single block building as opposed to a
Naluket or Nalupura, a quadrangular building, much
in vogue with the higher classes.
There are auspicious times prescribed for building
houses. If a man erects a house in the month of Medam
(April—May) he gets disease; in Edavam (May—June)
he gets money and jewels; in Mithunani (June—July)
death; in Karkadagam (July—August) servants and
jewels, but no animals; in Chingam (August—Septem¬
ber) friends; in Kanni (September—October) loss of
friends; in Thulam (October—November) death of wife;
in Vrischigam (November—December) money and
crops; in Dhanu (December—January) he would be¬
come a devotee. In Dhanu there will be fear from
enemies and thieves; but he will know of profits from
many devotions, and fire can be looked for in Makaram
January—February); gold in Kumbham (February—
March) and sd on.
The following asterisms are auspicious in com¬
mencing a building: Aswati (1st) Rohini (4th) Moolam
(19th) Choti (15th) Atham (13th).
1. See illustration in outline on next page, p. 176 A.
N 176 A

s
u
N, 3.) HOUSE BUILDING ill

As to weejc days: All days of the week excepting

Sunday and Tuesday are auspicious.
All conjunctions except the following are auspi¬
cious:— Vajrat Vyghata, Soola, l/yateepata] Atigandha%
Vishkambhcty Ganday and Parigraha.
The building of a house should be commenced on
the following parts of the day, known as Muhoortas> viz.,
Seva/a, Miira, Mahendrat Gandharva> Bhima and also
Raja and Savilra. Pillars should be put up at aus¬
picious lagnas or moments when the position of the sun
and moon in the firmanent are favourable, other
moments should be avoided.
Buildings should never be commenced in the rainy
season; nor at the end of the third part of the dark
fortnight, and in the first and second part of the bright
fortnight. Of the T/iithies (i e. of the days of the
waxing and waning moon), the 4'’, 9’" and 14” should
be avoided. Tuesdays should be avoided for fear of
bringing injury and bad luck. Days on which there are
dangers arising from the earth, such as earthquake, the
sky, such as storms with thunder, and the heavenly
bodies, such as eclipses, as also days on which calami¬
ties such as the death of a relative or friend, ominous
days such as Saturday should be avoided. Work should
be commenced when the moon and the stars are favour¬
able.
In commencing to build, the foundation stone has
to be laid at an auspicious moment. This is attended
with many ceremonies. The foundation has to be dug
of a point of the compass which represents the loth
sign of the Zodiac counting from the sign which indi¬
cates the month in which the auspicious moment falls.
A lighted lamp has to be placed to the right of the spot
so dug. The God Ganapati is then invoked to place
himself in front of the lamp. Fried rice, beaten rice,
molasses, plantain fruits, etc. are offered to the God—
also an offering of money which goes to the presid¬
ing carpenter, Fhe God is wreathed with flowers
and incense offered to him, and the carpenter performs
iy8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR \h' z\.

Msnasa Puja or worship by contemplation. The stone

to be laid as the foundation-stone is well washed in
water, a bit of gold is placed on it in the hope that the
store itself will or may turn into gold, and then it is
adorned with flowers, etc. The carpenter’s measuring
rod and chisel are also bathed in water and adorned
with flowers and sandal paste, and are placed before
Ga^apati. The owner or proprietor who builds the
house is then called up, and he stands close to the stone
praying that God may in His infinite beneficence
vouchsafe to him all prosperity and happiness in the
house of which the foundation is being laid. The
carpenter then lays the stone standing face eastwards
making the same prayer. Placing the stone in its posi¬
tion, he turns towards the right and walks on and then
proceeds to break a cocoanut into two halves. This he
does after prostrating himself before Ga^apaji and
praying that the process of divination he is going to
undertake by means of the cocoanut may end in fore¬
casting good results. Breaking the cocoanut into two
by means of a large knife, he fills the twro halves with
the water which it had contained and puts into each a
flower. He then carefully examines the direction in
which the flowTer floats and foretells, as our author
observes, whether the house will be lucky or unlucky,
whether it will stand for a long time and so on. This
process has to be repeated when the basement is built
up and when the door posts and the beams which
support the lower roof, are also placed in position.
After the building is completed, comes on the cere-
money of Vastu Bali or Kutffi Puja. Preliminary to the
Kutftfi puja a ceremony called Sarpa Bali is performed
to propitiate the serpants.
One entire plantain leaf with its point is placed in
the middle with the half of another on each side, to the
north and south of the entire one. The leaves of the
jack tree are placed on the plantain leaves and libations
of water are made. In this way the serpants are pro¬
pitiated.
h s>T>

2
N >79 A

ra

s
N. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING 179

The Vsstu Bali follows the Sarpa Bali. It is a

sacrifice or Puja offered to Vastu, the God of the
builders, who is supposed to indicate the qualities of
each site and direct the workmen. He is said to sleep
on the ground, his head towards the southwest and his
feet to the northeast. His figure thus lying down is
drawn on the ground in a room in the new building on
the northeastern side of it, the ground being prepared
according to the figure annexed hereto. 1 It occupies
the whole ground and is divided into 53 parts. Each
part is marked off by a different colour as representing
a separate Ipevata or spirit whose name is traced on the
respective parts. A seat is placed for the God Gapapati,
who is invoked to be present, and a lamp lit towards
thewestofit. Puja is performed to Ganapati. Incense,
flowers, etc. are offered to him and, by way of food, the
following articles are placed before him for him to par¬
take :—Fried rice, beaten rice, molasses, plantain fruits,
different kinds of cakes, cocoanuts, peas, pulses of sorts,
sesamum, etc. Another seat is placed for the Goddess
Bhagavati who also has to be invoked to be present. A
washed cloth covers the seat upon which a curved sword
is placed to represent *he Goddess. The spirit of the
deity is infused into it by means of Mantrams. To the
north of this seat a lotus-like figure is drawn in different
colours. After this the Goddess is worshipped with
many Mantrams and Tantrams. The various Vjstu
^)evatas are also propitiated. To each an offering is
separately made by placing some rice and a burning
wick on a piece of plantain leaf. To each a pot filled
with mixed rice and paddy, the mouth being covered
with a cocoanut, is offered. In the middle of these
pots is placed a larger one for the Vsstu Devan or the
Vsspi God himself. Into this pot the figure of a fish
and a tortoise made of gold or silver is put. The pot
is adorned with the leaves of the pipal, the mango and
other trees, as also with the sacred darbha (Poa•
cynosuroides) grass* It is then covered over with a
i. See p. 179 A.
tSo LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L a*.

a red coloured cloth and man^rams repeated over

the same. This pot is supposed to represent the
God Vssfu. Then follows Ga$apa$i Htfmam or
sacrifice to Ga$apa$i. Cocoanut, cakes, and pulses
of various sorts are offered to the God and the
sacrificial fire is fed with ghee and sweet smelling
articles, incense, etc. .After the H$mam is finished
the carpenters proceed to expel the evil spirits haunt¬
ing the building. It is believed that the evil spirits
that had haunted the forests and trees which supplied
timber for the building must have come away along
with the timber, and unless these are expelled they
will still haunt the house and cause annoyance and
injury to the inmates. For this purpose, the carpenters
go into every room in the house with a burning torch
in hand and throw upon it some sifted resin which
causes the flame to rise up and blaze. They do the
same outside the house also; in every part of it. The
evil spirits are supposed to go upwards with the flames
raised by the resin. The guardians of the 8 points of
the compass are propitiated by the offer of some
rice and a lighted wick placed on a piece of plantain
leaf. These are Indra (King of Gods), Agni (God of
fire), Yama (God of death), Nirurti (guardian of the
southwest) Varuna (God of water—Neptune), Vayu
(God of wind), Kubera (God of wealth), and Rudra
(Sivan).1
In front of the main door, a figure is drawn with
ashes obtained by burning the stem of the plantain tree
in honour of Bhadra Kali. This is divided into 9 equal
parts. In the middle of it a plantain tree with its
bunch of fruits is planted along with a twig of a milk
tree called Pala (Asclepias Annularia). The whole
plot is decorated with the tender leaves of the cocoanut
tree. The carpenter, standing to the south of this
I* §Q«(0O qjactcIs. ojl^ojoj/h
ar>1gaj>*l Qjancierr.o <zs<033J>°
snjfD gQ©003 OJCCD02I3
«9»<2
o^cyoe'InDOo ej'lcoo©
K. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING iSt

with his face towards the north, places a plantain leaf,

entire with its point, and traces the mystic syllable
Hflm on it and then proceeds to sacrifice a cock or
a goat and offer the blood to Rak{5$wari (the Goddess
of blood). After this, the carpenters in a body go to a
place outside the compound in which the new building
is situated called Purakkalam„ sacrifice goats, cocks
etc. and offer Guruji, a mixture of red turmeric and
chunam, representing blood. All the while these
ceremonies are performed, from start to finish, they
will be chanting weird songs and Manprams. Here the
ceremony of Vasju Bali ends. It need only be added
that it is performed in the night, the sacrifice of goats
and cocks being made at dead of night.
This ceremony is followed by another known as
Tachuta or Tachelppu. This takes place the next day-
after Vsstu Bali and consists in the builders taking
upon themselves or upon one among them, the faults
of the new erection. As already pointed out, it is
popularly believed that the spirits that had haunted the
trees that supplied timber for the building had come
away to haunt the house and these have to be propiti¬
ated and sent away. For this some one of the builders
is selected and he undertakes to take them away with
him. The process by which this is accomplished is as
follows: The person selected is given a sumptuous
meal, after an oil-bath and is clothed in new garments,
a garland of red flowers is placed round his neck; he is
then sewn up in new clothes, as if he was dead and his
body was being prepared for cremation, he is laid down
with his head towards the south in the central room of
the house; the doors are closed. The whole body
of builders engaged in the building of the house
assemble in front of the room. Each one is given a
cocoanut and some money. In front of the d6or
of the room, one para or measure of rice and
paddy are placed and a lighted lamp to the right and
left r>f these. The God Gatiapafi is invoked and placed
*8* LETTERS T KO M ' NIA LA BA R [I,. 24.

in front of the lamp on the right side. He is offered

pujas as already explained. The master carpenter
takes in his hand a brass vessel to receive the Tachum
Poolam i.e, chips of wood on which perhaps the spirits
are borne out of the building. The vessel is covered
with a piece of new cloth and is waved by the master
carpenter along with twro lighted wicks. As the waving
goes on, the builders assembled shout and hurrah and,
as the vessel is placed on the ground, the man lying
in the room is asked thrice , “ Have you taken upon
yourself the TachV(Tachu Ettfuvo ?). meaning
have you taken upon yourself all the evil spirits
haunting the new erection ? He answers thrice,
“yes, I have”. After this, the door is opened and the
man set upon his legs. He is given some money and
a cock is thrust into his hands. He is then made to
run out of the house, as fast as he could pursued by
a number of men, and after he has left the compound
in which the building is situated, the path trodden
by him is purified by the sprinkling of water mixed
with cow-dung. Having thus driven away all the
evil spirits, the master carpenter and smith proceed to
break cocoanuts and divine the future as already
explained.
Before the carpenters, smiths and those who
have in any way contributed towards the building of
the house are dismissed^ they are given a sumptuous
feast. Flesh of various animals, arrack and toddy are
freely indulged in, and by the time the feast is over,
every one gets more or less drunk. In this tipsy condi¬
tion they toddle on into the presence of the owner of
the new building who gives them presents according
to their degree. The master carpenter and most of
the head men of the various section of builders get
bracelets, finger rings or ear rings of gold, while all
are presented with new clothes. After the presents
are given away, the builders obtain their dismissal from
service.
 N. 3.] HOUSE BUILDING 183

The last ceremcny in the series is the Kutipukal

i.e. the first entering into the new house. It is also
known as Grha pravesam and palukschchu (milk
boiling). Before this ceremony, the house is purified by
the PunnySham and homams performed by Brahmans.
An auspicious moment is selected for the members of
the family to make their entrance into the new house.
As they approach, preparations are made at the gate
to receive them: two paras or measures, one filled with
rice and the other with paddy, are placed in front of the
main door. A lady of the family stands near these with
her upper garment worn in a peculiar style (uttarlyam
ketti) with a plate in her hand containing A§htaman-
galiam or the eight auspicious things, a light, some rice,
a looking glass, a bleached cloth, a book (grandha), a
small round box of saffron, a case containing eyesalve
and an arrow. As those who are to occupy the new
house approach, holding some rice and flowers in their
hands, they are welcomed and received at the gate by
the lady standing there with the plate. The party pro¬
ceed to the central room or Ara and the carpenters
sing a song in praise of ViSwakarma the heavenly
Architect and invoke God to confer all prosperity,
wealth, peace and happiness to the inmates of the
house. At the close of the song, the master carpenter
throws into the Ara some rice saying Vi$wakafm£v5
Namah, i. e., prostrations to Viswakarma. Then the
members of the house also do the same and pass on
turning to the right.

By this time the Elayatu or the Purohit of the

NSyars would have purified the house by Punnyaham
and prepared for the boiling of milk in the kitchen. A
brass vessel well cleaned and burnished is placed on
the oven and a small quantity of milk is boiled therein.
The boiled milk is served to the members of the family,
their relatives and friends. This is generally followed
by a sumptuous feast to all who have been invited for
the occasion and the poor and the needy are also not
forgotten.
184 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR [L. 24.

4, Sacred Tree.—Tree and plant worship has

developed itself almost into a religious cult in Malabar
and is encouraged by the Brahmans and the SSstras.
•'Tree worship may well be the earliest form of sacred ritu¬
al, and has it banyan roots among all the primitive races of the
world. All ancient peoples seem to have worshipped some tree or
other as the haunt of spirits good or evil, as the abode of a demon
or a deity, or as the beloved of some God who must be worshipped
with its leaves, flowers, fruits or branches. The Gods of ancient
Greece had each a tree of his own; so had the Goddesses. To
Zeus belonged the oak, to Apollo the laurel, to Dionysius the vine,
to Hera the willow, to Aphrodite the myrtle, and to Athene the
olive. In many other lands, tree worship was associated with
ancestor worship and offerings to the dead were laid at the foot
of trees. The Sradha ceremony in India is generally performed
under the banyan or the bo tree, and if done elsewhere the
shades of the dead are besought to consider the rites as if done
under the banyan. Tree worship survives above all in India,
which is as rich in sacred trees as in sacred rivers and hills. The
banyan gives shade and shelter to sages, pilgrims and to all and
sundry, in a land where shade is a boon. Elders meet and dispense
justice under the banyan tree. After the all destroying flood,
Bala-Mukunda floats asleep on the banyan leaf. Savitri received
her husband back from Yama under a banyan tree. It is a tree of
benediction. “Let your family grow as the plantain and take
root as the branches of the banyan.” rIhe aswatha (peepul or
bo tree) has many claims to the worship of the Hindus and the
Buddhists. “Of trees I am the aswatha” says Sri Krishna in the
Gita. And it was by the root of that tree that Gautama grew
calm of heart and discovered the Path to Freedom from Rebirth.
Circumambulations under it often no doubt brirg beneficial result
to the devotee, ^eem tree is sacred to the Goddess of cholera and
small-pox, and whose leaves have medicinal value. Asoka
•sorrowiess tree’ is the tree under which Sita sat during the years
of her captivity, It is also called ‘the tree of modesty*. The
Bilva with its trident-shaped leaf is dearly loved by Siva. The
auspicious mango, the exquisite Bakula, the beautiful Parijata,
and the sweet scented sandal are other sacred trees. But the
crown of holiness must be given to the Tulsi, beloved of Vishnu.
Of flowers there is the Lotus, red, white-and blue. Lakshmi is
the Lotus born. Vishnu and Bhagavati hold lotus in their hands.
Brahma sits throned on the lotus. Last of all, since the first
shall be the last, is the cofcoanut palm which alone of the palms is
sacred. It is called tne “Kalpataru” or the Heavenly Tree.
Every part cf it serves human use. (Several parts are used for
 N. 4.] SACRED TREE 185

As observed by Professor Monier Williams, “the

adoratiorTof trees, shrubs and plants in virtue of the
supernatural qualities of divine essence supposed to be
inherent in them, is almost as universally diffused over
the globe as the worship of animals and that both
forms of religion are of the greatest antiquity.” Numer¬
ous examples of „such worship are given by Sir John
Lubbock, Mr. Taylor, and Mr- Fergusson. Tree-
worship, we are told, was once common in Greece,
France, Poland, Assyria, and many other countries. It
has continually prevailed among uncultivated tribes in
Africa, America and Polynesia. So also in Persia.
The prophetic oak of Dodona, the myrtle of Venus, the
poplar sacred to Hercules, the oaks of the British
Druids and the sacred groves of Germany men¬
tioned by Tacitus, attest to the practice of Tree-
worship in ancient Europe. Even at the present
time or at any rate till but recently, the practice
exists or has existed in Europe. Monier Williams
points out that “every one does not know that there
existed quite recently a particular oak*copse in the
island of Skye which the inhabitants held quite sacred,
and that here and there in remote parts of Europe
simple-minded peasants are to be found who still pay
homage to certain trees, still hang offerings on their
branches, and still believe in willows that bleed, and in
trees that speak when about to be cut down/’ 1 In his
work on Buddhism, the same learned writer
observes:— “Nor can we really condemn, as either
unnatural or unreasonable, the feeling of veneration
with which trees are generally regarded, bearing in
mind the grateful shade and shelter which they afford,
the beauty of their foliage, their importance as purifiers
purposes of divine worship.) In most places in Kerala, a
jungle of these sacred trees stretches as far as the eye can see and
to these sacred groves, no doubt, this most favoured land owes its
happiness’’—Mrs. Stan Harding in the Illustrated Weekly of
India, p. 18 of 1935 Nov. 24th issue.
1 Religious 7houghts and Life in India p. 330.
i86 LETTERS FROM MALABAR (L. 24.

of the atmosphere, and the hundreds of useful pur¬

poses to which their wood, leaves and fruit are
applicable.’*
Tree worship is closely connected with serpent
worship, demon worship and Siva worship. Demons
are supposed to be fond of occupying trees, and pos¬
sessing or taking the shape of serpents, and Siva is
lord of demons, of serpents, and of plants.
Amongst the trees that form objects of worship
the ASwatha (Mai. Arayal), the Kuvaiam or Vilva and
the Tuiasi deserve prominent mention.
In the Gobhila Grihya Sutra the ASwatha is
described as a tree presided over by Aditya This
divinity is identified by Yak§ha with Vi§bnu. Ash-
watha therefore came to be treated latterly as a tree
specially sacred to Vi§b$u, and Kj-§bna, an incarnation
of Vishnu, describes himself in the Bhagavat Gilat “the
Song Celestial'’, to be “the Ashwatha amongst all
trees.” It is also said to be occupied by the essence
of the god Brahma. To plant an Aswatha tree is
considered an act of great piety, and to destroy one a
great sin* There is no temple in Malabar, whether
of Vishnu, Siva, or Bbagavati or of any minor
deities, that has not an A§watha tree in front of it.
Usually a stone platform is raised round it not only
for people to rest, but also to enable them to take their
pradak§hi$a or devotional rounds around the tree, an
act of great merit with the Hindus. These rounds are
regularly gone through chiefly on Saturdays by
women, as it is believed that it will ensure the birth
of children. Such perambulations are also performed
by all for averting the baneful influence of Sani
(Saturn) under which every one is said to suffer for 7£
years during the course of his life, the period varying
according to the star of his birth.. The twigs of the
tree are indispensible in all ySgams or sacrifices to the
gods. Similarly*, the buds of the Persl, another tree
of the same species, are an indispensible element in the
N. 4.] SACRED TREE 187

Mjrtyunjaya homam or sacrifice performed to win

over the god of death. Lamps are lighted at the front
of the tree and Pujas offered regularly. It is also
closely connected with serpent worship, and we see
images of hooded serpents cut in stone placed at the
foot of the tree for worship. In the Malayalam language,
it is known as Arayal (Ficus Religiosa\ while another
kind of the fig tree of the same species is known as
P^rSl [Ficus Indica). Both are popularly termed as
the Al. The description of our author would seem
to indicate that he is referring to the Pgrsl (Pipal).
He calls the tree as Ealu. This is not correct. The
class to which the tree belongs goes in the Malayalam
language by the name of Aalu and not Kalu. The
Baniyan tree, the Vata or Petal, has been the theme
of many a poet, and travellers have never missed
giving glowing descriptions of it. Ben Jonson, Milton,
and Southey have sung about it.
“The fig-tree, not that kind for fruit renown’d,
But such as at this day, to Indians known,
In Malabar or Decan spreads her arms
Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother-tree, a pillar’d shade
High over-arch’d and echoeing walks between. 1
Southey in his Curse of Kekama has the following
verses on the Baniyan tree,
“In the midst an aged Banian grew
It was a goodly sight to see
That venerable tree,
For o’er the lawn, irregularly spread,
Fifty straight columns prop its lofty head;
And many a long depending shoot,
Seeking to strike its root,
Straight like a plummet grew towards the ground,
Some on the lower boughs which cost their way,
Fixing their bearded fibres, round and round,
j. Paradise Lost, Book IX.
i88 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

"With many a ring and wild contortion wound,

Some to the passing wind at times, with sway
Of gentle motion swing;
Others of younger growth, unmoved, were hung,
Like stone-drops from the caverns’ fretted
height” 1
One more extract from a Poem on the Baniyan
tree by an anonymous author may be given.
“****Its pendent branches, rooting in the air,
Yearn to the parent earth and grappling fast,
Grow up huge stems again, which shooting forth
In massy branches, these again despatch
Their drooping heralds, till a labyrinth
Of root and stem and branch commingling
A great cathedral, aisled and choired in word.”
Among descriptions in prose, we may quote what
Pliny says in his Natural History about the Baniyan,
as also Bishop Heber’s account of the tree he saw:—
Pliny (A. D. 70) says, “First and foremost, there
is a Fig-tree (in India) which v^eareth very small and
slender figges. The propertie of this Tree, is to plant
and set itself without man’s help. For it spreadeth
out with mighty arms; and the lowest water-boughes
underneath, do bend so downward to the very earth,
that they touch it again, and lie upon it whereby,
within one year’s space they will take fast foot in the
ground, and put forth a new spring round about the
Mother-tree. So as these braunches, thus growing,
seeme like a trail or border of arbours most curiously
and artificially made” etc. 2
Says Bishop Heber:—“Near this village was the
finest Baniyan tree which I had ever seen, literally a
grove rising from the single. primary stem whose
massive secondary trunks, with their straightness,
orderly arrangement, and evident connection with the
parent stock, gave the general effect of a vast vegetable
organ. The first impression which I felt on coming
1. XIII—51.
2. Pliny s Natural ffis/orye, Philemon Holland, i, 360.
N. 4-] SACRED TREE 189

under its shade was, “What a noble place of worship.” 1

No wonder then that the “untutored Indian” (Hindu)
deems it not simply “a noble place of worship” but in
his infantine simplicity identifies it with Nature and
worships it looking from Nature up to Nature’s God
In fact what is worshipped is not the tree as such but
the creative Power of that Almighty being materialised
into the form of the tree.
In “the mysterious rustling of its tremulous leaves,
which resembles those of the poplar,” Mr. Monier
Williams discovers “one cause of the superstitious awe
with which this tree is regarded”. “It is remarkable”
says he “that no native would venture to tell an untruth
or deviate from the strictest rectitude of conduct while
standing under a pipal tree”.2
The Vilva tree ( A eagle Marmelos or wood-apple)
or Malayalam Kuvaiam is sacred to Siva. Its leaf is
of a triple form with three leaflets and is probably on
that account consecrated to Siva with his triple func¬
tions. It is styled the Srlvrksha, a name whereby,
as Pandit Prannath Saraswati observes, hangs the tale
of its origin. The legend, says the Pandit, is thus given
in the Yogine Tantra. “Of the two wives of Vishnu,
namely Sri (Lakshmi) and Saraswati, the god was
particularly fond of Saraswati and neglected her rival.
Weighed with this sorrow, the neglected consort went
to the temple of Siva in Spssilam and practised severe
austerities in solitude. When this did not effect the
propitiation of Siva, the goddess transformed herself
into a tree and continuously worshipped the emblem of
1. Hebers Journal, Vol. 2, p. 93.
2. P* 336, Religious Life and Tnought in India,
The *ree is worshipped with the following prayer:—
^ejscoo^ajoii^ajoasojeo®o Qj1g^@cuIssm
(BTOOJ)Q_10 Q-JcBiM(0 0 £8 0 00X2 (tf) OOOiS

Moolatho Bramha Rupaya madhyatho Vishnu Rupine

Agratha Siva Rupaya Vriksha Rajaya te Namah.—At the root the
form of Brahma, in the middle the form of Vishnu, at the
top the form of Siva. J worship thee O! King of Trees.
 190 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Siva with the leaves, flowers, and fruit produced there¬

from. Such assiduity for a crore of years procured her
the favour of Siva, whereby she became the favourite
of Vishnu. For this reason the goddess always wor¬
ships Siva assuming the shape of that tree; and hence
the tree is called Sri-Vriksha and its products in every
shape highly acceptable”. 1
The Devi Purana threatens dire consequences for
those who cut down the sacred tree. In Malabar the
pulp within the fruit of this tree is removed and the
shell is used by the people as a receptacle for the ashes
sacred to Siva which every Malayaii rubs on his fore¬
head, chest and shoulders at least once a day, generally,
soon after his bath. Barbosa refers to the practice thus:—
“And on their breasts, shoulders and foreheads, they
make marks of threes with ashes, which they wear in
accordance with the custom of their sect, saying that
they do it to remind themselves that they have to turn
to ashes; for when they die they burn their bodies, and
so this ceremony continues among them. And many
use it mixed with sandalwood, saffron, aloeswood,
and rosewater; all this ground up.” 2 It is not
necessary to go into the raison de eiere of the practice
here. It would be sufficient to indicate the reason why
not only Malayalies but Hindus of the Smsrjha sect
constantly wear ashes on their bodies. Apart from the
idea expressed by the wording of the Christian burial
service ‘dust Unto dust and ashes to ashes’, an idea not
altogether foreign to the Hindu, the practice may be
supported on hygienic and religious grounds.
The following quotation from the eleventh volume
of the Theosophist, gives us a fair idea as to how the
philosophical Hindu views these three horizontal lines
made with ashes of cow dung.
“The third caste mark is three horizontal white
lines, and in this a whole and complete Philosophy of
evolution and involution, of the way how to obtain
1. P. 243.
2. P. 104.
N. 4.] SACRED TREE 191

Moksha, and of what that Nirvanic state is like, is

scientifically examined. Let us explain the esoteric
significance of this under the heads of (1) the substance
of which, and the way it is prepared, (2) the way in
which it is worn and (3) the meaning of the mark
considered as a whole.
“Cow’s dung is taken and balls are made of it and
these balls are exposed to the sun’s heat and, when
thoroughly dried, thrown into the blazing fire with
oblation of ghee accompanied by mantras, and if, when
properly burnt, the balls are found to have become
pure white without the admixture of any other color,
they form the substance of the caste mark- Cow in
Sanskrit means Pasu or animal and this Pasu is applied
in the Upanishads to all the souls who are enwrapped
in Pasuthwam or Jadathwam> ignorance or animalism,
and hence Eswara is called Pasupathit i. e., the lord of
Pasus or Jivatmas (Individual souls), and the dung of
the cow is therefore the animal part of man, which
is in short his ignorance or Anjanam itself. The
dung balls represent then so many individual souls*
and their exposure to the heat of the sun symbolises
the calcining of the ignorance of the individual
souls is the sun of wisdom or Gnanam. In the
next stage, these cow dung balls are thrown into
fire with oblation of ghee, and this points out that all
the Jivas should throw themselves heart and soul puri¬
fied into the bosom of the universal fire of Para Brah-
mam if they wanted redemption from “Animalism,,,and
the balls becoming entirely white without any dif¬
ferentiation of colors, suggests that, when once the
individual souls merge themselves into the universal
soul, all their Karmic, Agnamic affinities are burnt upr
isolated individualisation ceases, and everything be¬
comes part and parcel of Para Brahma pure and spot¬
less and the color white therefore symbolises this. To
sum up the first head, all individual souls or animals
must be dried in wisdom or Gnanam and then merge
and throw themselves into the bosom of Brahma, and
 i92 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

when once they do so, they become completely extri¬

cated from the coils of Agnanam and become part and
parcel of Para Brohmic essence. This highest philoso¬
phical theory is explained in this head.
“(2) The way in which it is worn:—The wearer
is enjoined to take the white powder, and keeping it in
the palm of the left hand to magnetise it by uttering
mantras having the meaning that it (the powder) is
Akasa, VayUi Agni, Prithvi Mind, Buddhi and every¬
thing in fact. Then he is to apply this magnitised
powder to the body by rubbing it from head to foot,
and after this he mixes the powder with water and
daubs the whole body with it, and finally the three
horizontal stripes are drawn all over the body. The
rubbing of the powder from head to foot conveys the
idea that Para Brahma in Sarva—Vyapakam (Omni¬
present) and the daubing of the powder with water
signifies, that Brahma joined with Prakriti or Saktiior
evolution, and no sooner did it do so than at once
all the Thruputies i. e., manifestation by triads came into
existence in the phenomenal plane. Thus at the very
sight of this caste mark, we are perfectly initiated into
(1) the philosophy of existence, (2) the way how to get
ourselves rid of animalism, (3) the nature of Para
Brahmanh (4) the nature of the individual soul, (5) the
state of the individual soul at the time of Moksha, (6)
the combination of Purusha and Prakritii (7) the
evolution into triads in the phenominal plane. It is
surely in advance of the other two and expresses
occult knowledge in a most masterly and exhaustive
symbology.
“The Upanishads describe the three horizontal
lines as:—
(1) The three Saklis-—Kriyasaktiy Itchasakti and
Gnanasakti•
(2) The three fires—the terrestrial, the astral and
the spiritual.
(3) The three gods— Maheswaray Sadasivay and
Siva.
 N, 4.] SACRED TREES 193

(4) The three Gunas—Satwd, Rajasa, and Tamas.

(5) The three worlds—the higher, the middle and
the nether worlds.
(6) The three times—morning, noon and evening.
(7) The three Vedas—Rig, Yajur and Sama” 1
The Tulasi (Ocymum Sanctum) or holy Basil
plant is an invariable concomitant of a Malayali house.
It is sacred to Vi§h$u. It is believed to be pervaded
by the essence of the deity itself and is therefore wor¬
shipped as a deity and prayed to accordingly. Through¬
out Malabar it will be difficult to find a single Mala¬
yali house without a raised stone basement in the front
courtyard on which is reared this plant so sacred to
Vi§h^u. Every evening a lamp is lighted before the
Tulasi plant and the inmates of the house worship
there and make circumambulations round it. It is
constantly watered and kept fresh. Old ones are
removed and fresh plants take their place. The stem
of the aged plant is not however thrown away.
They are cut into small beads and strung together,
sometimes mounted in gold or silver, and worn round
the neck of both men and women- These beads are
also used for counting prayers as a help to calculation.
They are also preserved to be thrown into the funeral
pyre when the dead body is being cremated. Pandit
PrSnnSth points out that GopSlbhatta quotes many
Slokas from the Skanda Pur ana, Narada and Agastya
Samhitas regarding the sanctity attached to the plant¬
ing and worship of Tulasi trees. The plucking of the
Tulasi leaves is prohibited on the 12th day of the
moon, Dwadasi, and a text from Rarthikeya Mahatmya
is quoted by Gopalbhatta to authorise the plucking 2 of
its leaves on other days for the purposes of the wor¬
ship of the gods. He also alludes to a ceremony
known as the marriage of Tulasi with Vishnu an act of
1. Esoteric Hinduism, pp. 109 to 111.
2. For religious offerings too, only the spikes with the two
adjacent leaves on each of their sides should be plucked.
194 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24;

great religious merit to the Vaishnavas. On the 12th

day of the waxing or waning moon, the devout Malayali
breaks his previous Eksdasi (nth) day’s fast by
watering the plant after bath and drinking a few drops
that drip from its leaves. The sand from the soil ir
which it is planted is used to make a mark on the
forehead* The prayer generally addressed to the
'J'uJasi is as follows:— “I adore that Tujasi in whose
roots are all the sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose
centre are all the deities and in whose upper branches
are all the Vedas.”
Yan mnlay sarva—tirthani
Yan—mad/iye sarva—devatah.
Yad—agre sarva vedas cha
Tulasim tam namamy ah am.
Mr. Monier Williams remarks, “Possibly its sani¬
tary properties may have been the original cause of
the homage it receives. Its leaves are believed to heal
the sick, and to be a remedy against the poison of
serpents. He adds in a note “Col: Yule informs me
that the Basil is also venerated .in Sicily for its sanitary
properties. The inhabitants keep it in the windows of
their houses.”1
5* Legend. There is no trace of any such
legend at present. If it had ever existed, it had no
bold on the mind of the people and it is now lost.
6. Transmigration. The Malayalees are
strong believers in the immortality of the soul and, in
common with other Hindus, most of them have also
faith in the theory of the transmigration of souls. But
it is idle to gather together, as our author seems to
have done, the floatsam and jetsam of ignorant popular
beliefs and superstitions and argue therefrom that the
“most intelligent” of the nation hold childish ideas of
the future. In the latter portion of this paragraph, our
author tells us, “ what the majority and the most
intelligent of these heathens believe with respect to the
1. P. 333.
N. 6.] TRANSMIGRATION I9S

soul after death.** He does not vouchsafe to us whence

he got his information. It is not likely that he could
have had any chance of consulting the learned or the
most intelligent It is probable that those with whom
he came in contact in his capacity as Chaplain to the
Dutch in Cochin, gave him their version of the man¬
ners, customs and beliefs of the people, which he took
on trust and placed on record for the information of
his countrymen in Europe. Fra Bartolomeo has told
us that in his time the high roads in the interior part
of Malabar were not open for all people, that “the
Europeans dare not use them, lest the Brahmans
should be polluted by them.” “For this reason” says
he, “the Europeans must pass along the sea-coast,
which is inhabited only by fishermen, the people of the
lowest castes. Hence it happens that few Europeans
have the least knowledge respecting the interior part
of the country, though they talk a great deal of their
travels in India*”1
The above observation affords us a sufficient
explanation as to how European travellers who profess
to give accurate descriptions of native life, manners,
customs, and beliefs in India are often gulled into
believing as correct idle stories retailed to them
by those who are least capable to form an opinion
regarding what they say.
Our author tells us that the natives believed “that
in the beginning the deity created a number of souls
which inhabit sometimes human and sometimes brute
bodies but that on quitting human bodies the souls
repose for a century under the refreshing shade of the
baniyan after which they transmigrate into other
bodies either of men or of beasts/ This then is the
origin of transmigrations according to our author.
Dr. Day dealing with the same question gives a differ¬
ent story. “The origin of transmigrations” says Dr.
Day, “is said to have been, that, when some of the
angels rebelled against the supreme God, he condemned
i. P. 148.
iq6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

them to eternal torments. After a time, at the

intercession of the faithful angels, they were released,
on promising amendment, and admitted to a state of
probation. Worlds were created, and mortal bodies
prepared for these apostate spirits. First animated in
the bodies of lower animals, after a varying number
of transmigration, that of human beings was attained,
when, if the spirit failed to reform, it again had to
pass backwards through the lower grades.”i If we
turn from this to any other writer who attempts to
record the popular beliefs of the country, perchance
we may get a version altogether different from the
above two.
The Malayali Hindu has a strong belief in the
soul’s continued existence in a life after death. He
believes the soul to be not only immortal but also
eternal. He has faith both in the theory of the trans¬
migration of souls and of the independent existence of
the personal soul, after the death of the body, in a
future life. The theory of transmigration has been
an article of faith in all races cf mankind from the
earliest stages of their history and may be traced from
the lower races in its progressive development to its
present position among the more civilized- Both
Brahmanism and Buddhism recognise it and build a
theory of rewards and punishments by means of it. It
never became one of the great doctrines of Christen¬
dom, thoughnotjunknown in mediaeval times to certain
sects of Christians such as the Manicheans, the Druses
of Mount Hermon, etc. Within the limits of modern
Christian Europe, the Bulgarians still hold the doctrine
of metempsychosis. The fact that Christian Europe
has refused to believe in the doctrine is however no
argument to class the theory as one without scientific
or philosophical bases or to treat it with scorn.
Discussing the vedantic doctrine of the future
life, Mr. Sitanath Tattvabhooshan observes in the
!• pP« *94—5.
N. 7.] CONDUCT IN PAST LIFE 197

Indian Review, “The law of evolution in the physical

and physiological world points as we have seen, to a
similar law in the spiritual world. Does not the same
law, we may now ask, testify to the reasonableness of
the vedantic view that the animating principles of all
creatures are substantially of the same nature and the
transmigration of these principles from one species to
another is quite possible ? If man’s body is linked to,
and is the development of the bodies of the lower
animals, where is the unreasonableness of thinking
that his soul also has passed through a similar process
of gradual development, having animated lower
organisms in the more remote periods of its pre¬
existence, gaining in intelligence and moral strength
as it migrated into higher and higher organisms and
at last attaining humanity both physically and
spiritually’5?1

“One of the most notable points about the theory of

transmigration” observes Mr. Tylor in his well known
work on Primitive Culture “is its close bearing upon
a thought which lies very deep in the history of
philosophy, the development-theory of organic life in
successive stages. An elevation from the vegetable
to the lower animal life and thence onward through
the higher animals to man, to say nothing of super¬
human beings, does not here require even a succession
of distinct individuals, but is brought by the theory
of metempsychosis within the compass of the successive
vegetable animal lives of a single being.”2
7* Conduct in past life. This is according to
the law of Karma accepted by both Hindus and Bud¬
dhists. “The Bhuddhist theory of Karma or action”
says Tylor, “which controls the destiny of all sentient
beings, not by judicial rewards and punishments, but
by the inflexible result of cause into effect wherein the
present is ever determined by the past in an unbroken
S' Vol. 4, p. 686.
2. Vol. 2, p. 18— 2nd edition.
ig8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

line of causation, is indeed, one of the world’s most

remarkable developments of ethical speculation.”1 Of
the Hindu Vedantic doctrine of Karma, Mr. Tattva-
bhooshan observes, that it is “the doctrine that every
action must be followed by its proper effect. This
doctrine is sometimes stated in such an abstract shade
as to appear like a law of mechanical causality, but
really, in its application to rational beings, it has an
ethical aspect also. As an ethical law, it lays down,
when stated in its broadest form, that every moral
action must have a moral effect. In its popular form,
it prescribes happiness as the result of every virtuous
act and suffering of every vicious act. But thus stated,
in looks very much like the Christian doctrine of
justice,—the doctrine that every virtuous act deserves
happiness as its reward and every vicious act necessitates
suffering, as its punishment. Reward and punishment are
personal acts,—the awards of a personal judge, and the
Christian doctrine of justice is necessarily connected
with that of such a judge. Hindu thinkers, on the
other hand, distinctly deny the personal character of the
law of Karma. In the 34th “aphorism of the first pada,
second chapter of the Brahmasutras, as well as in the
commentary thereon, the result of the moral actions of
rational beings are described as irrespective of Divine
activity and as dependent on the free activity of indivi¬
dual agents. The Bhagavadgita also says, in the 14th
verse of its 5th chapter ; ‘The Lord creates neither
people’s actions ; nor their agency nor the fruits of their
actions in this matter nature takes its course’. 2
The theory of rewards and punishments is closely
connected with that of continued personality through
successive rebirth. A man’s life in former existences
is the cause of his now being what he is, while in his
present life he is accumulating merit or demerit whose
result will determine his fate in future lives. The
popular idea in Malabar is that there is a recording
1. p. 12.
2. The Indian Review, vol. 4, p. 601—2.
N. 70 CONDUCT IN PAST LIFE igg

angel known as Chitraguptan near the judgment seat

whose duty it is to take account of all our actions
which find reward or punishment at our death and in
after life. The eternal judge sends his angel of Death,
Kalaih to bring away his victim when his allotted span
of life is over and this grim and ghastly messenger
deals with him according as he had lived a good or
bad life in this world. If his career on earth was un¬
spotted, death to him is altogether a pleasing incident,
his path upwards to heaven lies through verdant fields
and pleasant pastures. He is taken in procession in a
celestial chariot beautifully decorated and is accom¬
panied by heavenly beings. If his merits were of a
superior order, he is not born again on this earth but
lives in the presence of God, holds communion with
the spirits of his departed friends and relatives who
have been allowed to enter those regions on account
of their meritorious actions.
Bad souls are dealt with in a different manner.
These part with their tenements of clay with great
pain. The sinful man’s exit from this world and his
subsequent career has been thus described. “Even
on his death-bed huge monstrous looking figures sur¬
round him at all times and especially towards the
closing moments of his earthly career. These make
mouths at him, threaten him, terrify him, informing
him that the horrors to which he is being subjected are
but the mild precursors of those which await him in
the nether regions* These beings are visible to him
alone, none of those who stand by being able to see
these terrible monsters. According to the predestined
period of his life, the man may have to exist in this
wretched state for days and days together. After his
death, he is taken care of by a monster called Kalan.
This monster is furnished with a long rope and an
iron pestle; and with the aid of his grisly-looking at¬
tendants he strings up the dead man on his pestle and
carries him off into the upper regions. There he is
taken before God, when the celestial recorder, called
200 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Chitraguptan, brings forth his books and reads out a

full and correct account of all the man’s actions. His
sins are to be expiated by horrible punishments inflict¬
ed then and there, followed by similar and more lasting
ones to be undergone later. A large copper vessel is
brought and placed over a burning oven. When the
fire burns intensely underneath, so that the vessel is
practically white hot, it is half filled with sand. When
the sand begins to burn, the sinner is placed in the
vessel and by means of a large rod with a spread-out
tip, he is moved to and fro along with the burning
sand. He dies again, is forthwith restored to life, and
the process is continued time after time. Afterwards
he is taken out and sent to the hellish regions to suffer
the pains and torments, incidental to life there. Some
believe that he is kept there for ever. But, according
to others, when by the continued misery of his existence
in hell, he has sufficiently well atoned for his past sins,
he is released in order to be born back again into this
world and so on ad infinitum. It ought to be stated
that the conveyance in which men are taken to the
upper regions to stand their trial before God threatens
every moment to collapse and let them fall. According
to some, they are compelled to ascend into the upper
regions on a rope-ladder of slender construction which
also every now and then threatens to give way under
the weight of its human passengers. Their destruction
or escape in either of these cases depends upon the
good or evil nature of their worldly actions.”1

The origin of all ills which human flesh is heir to

is also traced back to the bad actions of men in their
previous generation and it is thought, specially in seri¬
ous cases, that unless amends are made for bad conduct
in the past no medicine will have effect on the health
of the patient. Astrology is the means by which what
has transpired in the previous life is ascertained, and the
Karmavipaka Prayaschita, or ‘prescriptions of penalties
1. Malabar and its Folky pp. i93-"“5»
N. 8.] VISIT OF SOULS 201

for the expiation of sins committed in the previous

existence,’' come to one’s aid in getting absolution
from them. The classification of sins and the prescrip¬
tion of penalties are both elaborate and specific and
afford considerable scope at every turn for the priest
and the magician to enrich themselves at the expense
of a credulous patient and his anxious relatives.
8. Visit of. souls. The practice referred to is
not in vogue at present. If ever it was observed by the
higher classes, it has been silently dropped. In the
interior and among the lower aboriginal races it may
be still lingering. The idea of the departed souls
visiting their friends is common to many races of dif¬
ferent degrees of civilization T. Many of the races in¬
habiting North America believed that the souls of the
dead actually came to partake of victuals prepared for
them by their relatives. So they are set out in some pro¬
per place, especially near the tombs or in the dwelling
houses, and there the souls of the dead come and satisfy
themselves. In Madagascar, as observed by Tylor,
the elegant little upper chamber in King Radamas
musoleum was furnished with a table and two chairs,

i. Spiritualism has, thanksTo the testimony of great men like

Mr. F. W. Myers, Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir Canon Doyle, Sir William
Crookes and others, outgrown its bad reputation. It is no more
“old women’s twaddle” but a subject worthy of serious study
and investigation. “Things hitherto held impossible do actually
occur” says Sir Oliver Lodge. He says in another place “The
Higher Towers seem to be constantly employing fresh methods of
arousing our attention”. “They have the effect of opening our
eyes to another phase of existence, another world of which at
piesent we cannot imagine the scope and possibilities,” “For
m3 self, I do not believe that physics and psychics are entirely
detached. I think there is a link between them; neither is com¬
plete without the other.” “The evolution of knowledge always
takes time; it has to be carried on at first by a few pioneers in
the face of opposition”. Past ytars by Sir Oliver Lodge, Chapts.
22 to 2 4 and 28. See also Chapt. V of Life Beyond Death by
Babu Mrinal Kanti Gosh where he treats of Obsession cases and
their treatment .Ed.
202 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

and a bottle of wine, a bottle of water, and two tumblers

were placed there conformably with the ideas enter¬
tained by most of the natives, that the ghost of the
departed monarch might occasionally visit the resting
place of his body, meet with the spirit of his father and
partake of what he was known to be fond of in his
life time. Most of the African tribes also entertain
a like belief as also rude Asiatic tribes such as the Bodo
of North-East India, the Naga tribs of Assam, the
Koles of Chotta Nagpur etc. The Chinese summon
ancestral souls with prayer and beat of drum to feed
on meat and drink set out on special days when they
are thought to return home. The belief and the
observances consequent on it may be traced from the
level of rude races far upward in civilisation. The
Hindu offers to the dead the funeral cakes; oblations
of balls of rice and libations of water for a whole yeai:
after the death of father or mother; and offer of the
same once a year on the Sradha day is a prominent
feature in Hindu life. In the classic world such rites
were represented by funeral feasts and oblations of
food. To quote Tylor, “In Christian times there
manifests itself that interesting kind of survival which,
keeping up the old ceremony in form, has adapted its
motive to new thoughts and feelings. The classic funeral
oblations became Christian, the silicermum was succeed¬
ed by the feast held at the Martyr’s tomb. Faustus
inveighs against the Christians for carrying on the
ancient rights. “Their ^sacrifices indeed ye have
turned into love-feasts, their idols into martyrs whom
with like vows ye worship, ye appease the shades of
the dead with wine and meals, ye celebrate the Gentiles*
days with them, such as calends and solstices,—of their
life certainly ye have changed not, and so forth.** * The
practice of setting food and drink to be sanctified by
the sepulchre of a Christian saint is relic of the custom
of laying food on the tomb of the manes. In France ac¬
cording to Saint-Foix cited by Tylor, “on the death of
1, Vol. 2, p. 34—5.
 Ng.j FEAST OF SOULS 203

a King his wax effigy lay in state for 40 days before

funeral. They continued to serve him at meal-times,
as though still alive, the officers laid the table, and
brought the dishes, the maitre d* hotel handed the
napkin to the highest lord present, to be presented to
the King, a prelate blessed the table, the basins of
water were handed to the armchair, the cup was
served in its due course, and grace was said in the
accustomed manner, save that there was added to it
the De Profundis.1 ” ‘Tn Spain and Russia the ancient
rite is still observed. The custom of setting empty
seats at the St. John’s Eve feast, for the departed souls
of Kinsfolk is said to have lasted on in Europe to the
17th century. Spring is the season of the time-
honoured Slavonic rite of laying food on the graves of
the dead. The Bulgarians hold a feast in the cemetery
on Palm Sunday, and after much eating and drinking,
leave the remains upon the graves of their friends, who
they are persuaded, will eat them during night. In
Russia such scenes may still be watched on the two
appointed days called Parents’ Days. The higher
classes have let the rite sink to prayer at the graves of
lost relatives, and giving alms to beggars who flock to
the cemeteries. But the people still “howl” for the
dead, and set out on their graves a handkerchief for
a table-cloth, with ginger-bread, eggs, curd-tarts,
and even Vodka, on it; when the weeping is over, they
eat up the food, especially commemorating the dead
in Russian manner by partaking of his favourite
dainty, and if he were fond of a glass, the vodka is
sipped with the ejaculation. The Kingdom of Heaven
be his. He loved a drink, the deceased”.2
9. Feast of souls. The new moon day
in the month of Karkadagam (July) known as
Karkadaka Amavasy is considered sacred to the
spirits of the dead. On that day, oblations of rice
and libations of water are offered to the manes of
1. P. 35*
2. P. 37<
 204 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 24.

ancestors. It corresponds to the All Souls’ Day of the

Christians. “When Odilo, Abbot of Clumy, at the
end of the 10th century, instituted the celebration of
All Souls”, says Tylor, “he set on foot one of those
revivals which has so often given the past a ne ,v lease of
life. The western Church at large took up the practice,
and round it, on the second of November, there natural¬
ly gathered surviving remnants of the primitive rite
of banquets to the dead. The accusation against the
early Christians, that they appeased the shades of the
dead with feasts like the Gentiles, would not be beside
the mark now, fifteen hundred years later. All Souls’
Day keeps up, within the limits of Christendom a com¬
memoration of the dead which combines some touches
of pathetic imagination with relics of savage animism
scarcely to be surpassed in Africa or the South Sea
Islands”.1 In Malabar, people, if possible, resort to
sacred rivers on the day for a bath and to have the
Sradha for the manes to be performed on their banks.
Many take a seabath and perform the ceremony on the
seashore. It is held to be most meritorious if one
can go to Rameswaram, bathe in the Rama Setu and
perform the Sradha there. The Sradha performed on
this day is not to propitiate the spirit of any particular
diseased, but is designed to propitiate the manes of all
ancestors*
10. Witchcraft. Malabar is pre-eminently the
land of magic and sorcery. There every one believes
in the efficacy of the art whether for good or for evil.
It is not altogether correct to attribute the belief to
mere ignorance and superstition. It is not the ignorant
villager or the credulous rustic alone who places impli¬
cit faith in the potency of the art. As observed by
Mr. Fawcett, “I feel perfectly safe in saying that every
Nayar believes in magic through and through. No
matter what his collegiate course has been, no matter
how full of knowledge such as the west can give him,
no matter how thrilled he may be by the higher
1. P, 37—s
N. 10.] WITCHCRAFT 205

Hinduism which condemns it altogether, he believes

in magic as the cause ot ills and he believes in
magic for the removal of these”.1 He thinks
with Hamlet that there are more things in heaven
and earth than are dreamt in your philosophy. The
Malayalees do not of course stand by themselves in
their faith in the black art. It lies deep in human
nature and as remarked by Mr. Fawcett, “belief in
magic and witchcraft, symbolic hurts and cures and the
like are very deep in human nature; reason and culture
do not efface it* It is one of the earliest heirlooms of
the human family, and it will, in all probability, persist
to the end. We cannot think of man as being without
it”. Twenty centuries of Christian civilization has not
banished it altogether from England. The publications
of the London Folklore Society furnish ample evidence
to the persistence of the belief in parts of England
even now.
Magic in Malabar may be divided into two broad
classes with regard to its use; it is used either for bene¬
ficent or malificent purposes. The first class concerns
itself with cure of snake-bites and diseases such as
epilepsy and the like which defy ordinary treatment; while
the .second class is resorted to for evil purposes,
such as for satisfying one’s hate or revenge. No
medicine is said to be used in the cure of snake-bite by
those versed in the art. The cure is claimed to be
effected by means of incantations—Mantrams2 —alone.
1. Madras Museum Bulletin, vol. 3.
2. A Mantra is a sequence of sounds arranged in a particular
order which, when recited, produce definite forms ensouled by
divine energy in subtle matter.
According to Mantra Sastra, the creative impulse or divine
energy which brings about the universe is conceived as sound
(J\ada)t not sound as is ordinarily understood, but a higher aspect
of it. (The sound that we hear, Vaikhari Vak, is said to be the
grossest aspect of Nada, while its three subtle aspects are Para
Pasya?ithi, and Mad/iya?na are inaudible.)
Every manifested object, visible or invisible, is, therefore, a
Vehicle of Nada, and the natural name of an object is the nearest
expression in human language to the subtle natural note of that
 206 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

It is said that the process consists in extracting

the poison by some psychic means or more
rarely by getting the snake that inflicted the
wound to return and repeat the bite and withdraw the
poison. Of the method adopted in the cure of epilepsy
object. Thus Rum (so) in Sanskrit is the nearest onametopoetic
expression to the subtle note produced by fire. This is therefore
called its Bija Mantra. Thus when the natural note of an object
or entity is sounded, it puts tl e utterer in tune with the object or
entity concerned. It even has the power to create that object.
So the Mantra of a Devata (denizen of a higher world) creates
the form of that Devata and puts the person who chants it in tune
with Him or Her. The Vedic text that Brahma created the
Earth with the word Bhu% the intermediate world with Bhuva
and the heaven world with Suvah is explained on the basis of
this principle. The Biblical statement, that God said, “Let
there be light and there was Light” can also be interpreted in
this way.
Though to a non-beliver, a Mantra may seem but a string of
letters bearing on their face a particular meaning or, as in the
case of Bija Mantras, apparently no meaning at all, to an initiate
it is a very mass radiant energy. A Mantra is really the Devata
Himself or Herself in a sound body. In a Mantra it is the intona¬
tion and not the meaning that is the main factor. A saying or
prayer convey an idea, whilst a Mantra awakens super-human
power or divine energy.
A Mantra therefore cannot be translated.
The Mantra of a Devata reveals the Devata to the conscious¬
ness of the initiate when it is intoned in the proper way.
The practice of a Mantra consists in its constant repetition
with concentration of mind on the figure of the Devata. A Devata%
however, according to Mantra Sastra, is only a vehicle of divine
energy or Sakthi. Thus, through the help of a Devata, the initi¬
ate can get into union with the source of that divine energy.
“When the Sakthi or power with attribute resident in or as
the Mantra is by dint of practice awakened, then, she opens the
gate of monistic truth revealing the true nature and essence of the
universe”. This is the way of realisation through Mantra—
Mantra Yoga.
Special injunctions are given in the Sastras regarding the
purity of body and character of persons who desire to take initi¬
ations in certain Mantras lest their potency should adversely
affect the initiate, it his body and emotions have not got the
 K. 10.] WITCHCRAFT 207

and other like diseases we shall have to say something

later on.
The Reralolpathy says that, after the reclamation
of Kerala from the sea and the colonisation of it by the
Nambudiri Brahmans of the 64 gramas, the hero—
saint Parasu Rama assigned various professions to his
tenacity to stand the powerful influence of the Mantra and of the
Devata invoked.
Mantras are, as the world gees in these days, also largely used
in Black Magic. There, the deities invoked are of a low order
and their influence are generally demoralising. The use and
effect of these Mantras are given in the Sastras as those of
poisons in a system of medicine; but a strict warning against their
ruinous results is also sounded at the same time.
For this Note, I am indebted to Mr. V. Karunakaran Nayar,
Secretary of the Kerala Theosophical Federation. From an Intro¬
duction to the Mantra Sastra by Mr. S.E. Gopalacbariu, I glean a
few further points. The potency of sound has been spoken of in very
high terms by writers of antiquity, and by Patanjali in particular
in his Mahabhashaya, the commentary to the grammatical rules of
Panini. Mantra is from Man, Manana, to think. Mantras being
a combination of sounds, may be either cf one syllable or a
thousand syllables. Mantras are either masculine, feminine, or
neuter, according to the nature of the deity addressed to, and of
the actions occasioned by them. Those addressed to a female
deity are also called Vidyas. The exact number of Mantras that
exist in the Sanskrit language is 67, ic8, 863. The objects of the
Mantras of the Black Magic seem to be subjection (Vasya),
attraction (akarshana), fascination (mohana), deadening the facul¬
ties (sthambhana), creating enmity (vidveshana), death (marana),
ruining (uchhatana), soothing (apyayana). The fundamental
idea involved in the working of the Mantras is that different
sounds produce different sorts of disturbance in the Akasat The
Tantras or Agamas, the store-house of mantras are of three kinds:
Sakthagamas, those which deal with the worship of Sakthi, Saiva-
gamast those that deal with that of Siva and Pancharatragamas,
those of Vishnu. These are so called, because they teach of five
kinds of knowledge (ratra)—of the great realities, of the way to
reach the highest goal, of the way to serve the God in Vaikumtha%
of that which will secure the eight Sidhis, of the means to obtain
wealth, children, in short;, temporal felicities. An Agama is a
work which deals with the creation and destruction of the
universe, the nature and use of the mantras, and the nature and
20r LETTERS FROM MALABAR *|L. 24.

colonists. He is said to have chosen 12 families of

Nambudiri Brahmans to practise Mantra Vadam or
magic. Six of these were instructed in Dur-Man trams
or Mantrams designed to wrard off the incursions of
evil spirits through the mountains of the ghauts, while
the remaining six were tought Sat-Mantrams, to win
over the the beneficent water-spirits coming from the
seaside. They were also instructed in the methods
of obtaining ascendency over spirits of both kinds,
good and evil.
The profession is hereditary in the families
selected by Parasu Rama, but at present there are
numerous others who practise it, while most of the
families originally selected have given it up, or have
become extinct with the noteworthy exception of
Kallukat alias Kallur and Ksttumatam. These two
families, one in South Malabar and the other in the
Native State of Cochin, still practise the profession and
retain an unrivalled celebrity for it. It should how¬
ever be noted that these eschew with disdain the low
diabolical practices that are usually associated with
black magic. Their process is exclusively the per¬
formance according to Sastras of Pujas to their
peculiar household divinities who are supposed to
hasten to their aid in accomplishing the objects for
which the Pujas are performed. Besides these, there
are other Nambudiries who study and practise magic,
such as Punchaman Potti and Talaman Potti in
Travancore. In South Malabar, there is a class of
Nambudiries, known as Chela Nambudiries, who are
descendants of those who were forcibly converted to
Mahomadanism during the turbulent period of
Tippu’s invasion, but who returned to their religion
almost at once. Notwithstanding this, some stigma
still attaches to them, and they are looked down as
worship of the dcvcis, while 3. Tatitra treats of these as well as
twenty other topics, such as the nature of the Brahman, the nature
of herbs, yantras, four castes, holy rivers, chakras, yugas astro¬
nomy, elements and so on,—Ed.
N. 10.J WITCHCRAFT 209

lowcaste and are tabooed from pure Nambudiri Society.

Among this class of Nambudiries there are families in
which the business of magician and sorcerer is here¬
ditary. But there is one real high class Nambudiri
family in Travancore of the Kslati 111am, which is
alleged to have come to possess the art in a rather
peculiar manner. The tradition is interesting.
Far back in the early centuries of the Christian
Era, when Malabar was under the sway of the Perumsls*
a Nambudiri was travelling with his friend, and the two
were belated in the Yaks hi Paramba or haunted garden
near Trichur.1 No human habitation was visible
within the ken of mortal eye, it was dreary all round.
While looking out anxiously for some place of rest for
the night, the travellers were suddenly accosted, by
two lovely damsels with light in their hands who invited
them to pass the night under their hospitable roof*
The unsuspecting travellers readily accepted the
welcome invitation and were taken to a sumptuous
house where they were lodged in separate rooms. As
the night advanced, one of them noticed the noise of
munching and crunching from the adjoining room.
He suspected foul play and turning round was horrified
to see the lovely maiden who had accosted him and
who was really a demon in disguise resume her demo¬
niacal form. The affrighted traveller realised the
situation at once. His friend was being eaten inch by
inch by the other demon. His immunity he owed to
the possession of a grandha, (or book) the Devi Mahat-
myam, sacred to Bhagavati, which he had on his person.
The demon could not touch him so long as he had it
with him. Before he realised the plight in which
he was placed, his female accoster had more than
once requested, with increasing persistence, to
part with the grandha. But fortunately for him he
clung to it tenaciously and was thus saved from the
grim jaws of the evil one. I he morning dawned and
1. For a similar occurrence, see Lalitopahciram by Pandit
K. P. Karuppan, Ernakulam. Ed.
2io LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L» 24
he found himself perched on the top of a palmyra tree
underneath which lay the bones of his companion.
Sometime after this strange occurrence, the widow
of the deceased Nambutiri gave birth to a posthumous
son to whom, when he attained his eleventh year, the
mother confided the peculiar circumstances under
which his father had lost his life* The boy swore
vengeance on the Yakshis and set himself to accomplish
this by propitiating Surya, the Sun-god. After hav¬
ing studied the Vedas and mastered all the sacred lore,
he retired to the jungle and engaged himself in solitary
meditation and prayer for a period of seven years.
The Sun-god was pleased at his devotion and present¬
ed himself before his votary in human form and hand¬
ed him a grandha which to this day is said to be in the
possession of the family and is considered the greatest
work on magic in existence. The family still has the
name of the Sun-god (Surya) prefixed to its own and is
known as “Surya Kaladu'
Having got possession of the grandha, the young
man proceeded to study it and find the means of
punishing that Yakshu He made preparations as per
prescriptions set forth in the grandha to perform a
great sacrifice whereat by the force of his Mantras
the Yakshi who devoured his father was compelled to
appear before him. The demon was consigned to the
sacrificial flames. She pleaded hard for mercy offering
to serve him faithfully it spared. But he was inexo¬
rable and she was consumed. Then her partner ?
Ghandharva turned up and cursed the Brahman to
suffer death on the 41st day following. The Brahman
begged for absolution and the Ghandharva, seemingly
more compassionate than the relentless Brahman, pro¬
mised absolution if he would on the 41st day following,
in expiration of his sin, worship the great God Siva in
his temple at Tiruvalur. Now there are two Tiruva-
lurs and a temple of Siva in each of these places. The
one on the East Coast was out of the reach of the victim
of the curse within the short span of life left to him,
N. iOtJ WITCHCRAFT 211

while the other temple situated at Tiruvalur in the

Alangsd District, Travancore, was but at a compara¬
tively short distance. He hastened to accomplish his
worship in the latter temple, reached the place and pro¬
ceeded at once to the temple-tank to bathe and perform
his ablutions preparatory to worship. These over, he
entered the temple but felt that he wanted to answer
the calls of nature and returned towards the tank.
Again and again he had to do this and at last when he
was going up the steps that lead from the tank to the
temple he was suddenly seized with delerium and
raved like a maniac biting the wooden beams of Lthe
bathing shed. He died after enduring frightful
agonies. The marks of his teeth, it is said, were to be
seen on the beams for a long time after. From the
moment of the Brahman’s death the temple was doomed.
His spirit, Brahma Rakshas, haunted the building, and
the Brahman’s ghost more powerful than the God Siva
himself, brought the temple to rack and ruin. Centu¬
ries and centuries passed on, the temple had crumbled
away. Siva’s votaries had deserted him and all was
waste and ruin. After a thousand years had gone by,
the Sri Mulam Tirunal Maha Raja of Travancore has,
after propitiating the Rakshas, restored the temple, at
a cost of more than a hundred thousand rupees. The
descendants of the Brahman still live near Kottayam
in Travancore and are still known as Surya Kaladi
Bhattatiris. Before the renovation of the temple, the
Maha Raja had the Brahma Rakshas removed by the
descendants of the Nambutiri to their house at
Kottayam where His Highness had a temple built for
it with sufficient funds for the performance of daily puja.
The practice of Black magic is almost the monopoly
of the lower races. As observed by Mr. Fawcett, it is
always the man of inferier race who is superior in black
magic. In Malabar the Parayan, the Psnan, the Velan,
and other like classes practi e it to a large extent. A
few Nairs also practise it but only as a means of getting
a living. There are even Mohammadans who dabble
212 LEETTRS FROM MALABAR (L. 24.

in it. Near Palghat there was a famous magician by

name UsanS Rawuthan who belonged to a class of
Tamil Mohammadans similar to the Mopillas of Malabar.
He is said to have obtained a Grandha of magic from
a Rishi from the Kalladi Kode hills, a favourite abode
of the demons, which he put to such good use that he
died a very wealthy man. Numerous stories are related
of his extraordinary powers*
Magic as already observed is practised with a view
to bring about either good or evil results. For the
latter purpose evil spirits are invariably invoked, good
ones seldom. For the former it is the aid of spiritual
beings that is sought and in this way magic comes to
be connected with religion. He who wants to be a
magician has to subdue or to bring to his service the
evil as well as beneficent spirits* The high class
Nambutiries, such as Chennos Nambutiripad, Kallur
Nambutiripadand others, confine themselves to the pro¬
pitiation of the gods Subramanya, Vettakkorumakan
or Sastha, the goddess Bhadrakali, not in her gross
form, etc., and through the intervention of these deities
profess to attain the objects they have in view.
Mr. Fawcett has given us an interesting account of
spirits evil and beneficent and the way in which they
are professed to be subdued. His account is based on
information supplied to him by the late Mr* U.
Balakrishnan Nair.
The most important among the evil spirits (Dur
Murti) are: Karikkuttiy Kuttichathan, Maranakkutti,
Kallatimuttany Bhairavan, Kala Bhairavariy Chutala
Bhadrakali.
Besides these, there is always an ever increasing
supply of evil spirits of local manufacture, such as those
mentioned by our author as Tjatte PannikerrU Tjan-
gadiy and Cooli Mootootoe Pannikerriy .vhile some of
the old ones are consigned to oblivion* Souls of those
who have committed suicide, who have died in child¬
birth or from such diseases as preclude their entrance
N. 10.] Witchcraft 213

into heaven, are said to haunt the earth as evil spirits

till they are delivered by means of ceremonies perform¬
ed for their benefit so as to enable them to enter the
eternal abode of bliss. These spirits the black magician
wins over to his service, and once subdued they have to
blindly obey his behests. The names mentioned by our
author were perhaps those of some such spirits of local
notoriety. These spirits or demons can be bought,
Carried about, and transferred from one sorcerer to
another. In one of the issues of the Indian Antiquary 1
a story is quoted from a Madras newspaper which is
truly mediaeval in its wildness./* At Bodinaikanoor, near
Palani, in the Madura District, a certain Chetty bought
of a magician a Malabar demon for Rs. 90, it is said;/
but ere a day had passed since the transfer the unduti-
ful spirit fell in love with its master’s wife and succeeded
in its nefarious purpose. A pious Hindu assures me
that the woman still lives leading a very unhappy life
with the demon, the husband being long dead and gone.”
Dr. Day observes that in his time there lived in the
Cochin State a man of the Izhuva caste who was believed
to have under his control a hundred spirits whom he let
out by the year for one Rupee, one anna. The process
of letting out is thus described. “The wizard must be
informed for what purpose the spirit is required, and
after he has made the necessary arrangement for parting
with him, prayers are then said to the spirit and a feast
in his honour must be held when arrack, toddy, eggs,
salt-fish, curry, fruits, cocoanuts, rice pounded and raw
flowers, oil, ghee, betel,burnt chunnam, sharks and
other flesh, fowls, incense, etc., must be offered up to it,
each article being separately placed on a plantain leaf and
individually worshipped. Then another prayer ensues
and the figure of the person to be bewitched is made
out of mud, the name being written upon it, with
words and letters placed backwards a number of
curious ceremonies succeed, before the spirit is
permitted to take its departure with its new master” 2
214 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Now for the methods adopted by the magician for

getting these spirits under his control: we may give
the recipe for subjecting the spirit Karinkutti into one’s
service by way of illustration and example. Mr. Bala-
krishnan Nayar describes it thus:—“First you bury a
dead black or reddish buffalo. You must not catch
your buffalo and kill him, you must find him dead. If
you say, this is far from easy, I can only remark that
the subjection of an evil spirit is not an easy matter.
Having buried your buffalo—assuming for the moment
that you are a magician such as the instructions are
intended for. You bathe, and while your cloths are
wet and clinging to your body, draw the figure of a
Chakram, which corresponds to a magic circle, on the
ground over the buried buffalo. The ground is then
plastered over with cow dung. Then you mark out with
rice flour an eight cornered Chakram, in the centre
of which you place a small piece of cadjan leaf, and you
place a similar piece at the four corners* You sit with
your back to the Chakram, facing eastwards in the
morning and westwards in the evening while perform¬
ing puja. This puja, is, I think, addressed to Karin¬
kutti, not in anyway to the Sun-god who is not then
visible- For the puja you must be supplied with fried
grain, beaten rice, rice bran, a fowl, toddy, arrack, some
flowers of three colours-one of them the Tulasi (Ocimum
Sanctum)—sandalwood paste, camphor, incense. (Note
the use of the sacred Tulasi in this diabolical incan¬
tation!). While the puja, which I am unfortunately
unable to describe (leaving my directions rather lame),
is being performed, the Mula Mantram of Karinkutti
is to be repeated 101 times.
“In order to do all this you must bathe 7& Nazhikas
(about 2I hours) before down, and complete the puja
before dawn arrives. But even before this you must
stand up to your chest in water and repeat the Mula
Mantram 101 times. And you must repeat the whole
thing da capo in the evening. The Mantram is thus
repeated 404 times in the day. You are not done yet, in
N. io.] WITCHCRAFT 215
fact this is only the beginning. The whole thing is done
every day for 21 consecutive days and then you will
have the evil spirit Karinkutti entirely at your disposal.
The person who remains continent, eats but once a day
cooking his own food, may, it is said be able to bring
the spirit into obedience in less than 21 days”.
The following are considered as good spirits:—Sat
Murti:—Bhagavati, Bhadrakali, Hanuman, Ganapathi,
Subramanian, Mookambi, Veerabhadran, Mohini,
Sarabhamoorthi, etc.
We see from the above list that most of those
named there are those generally adored and wor¬
shipped as divinities. The method of subjecting these
to one’s will is by propitiating them by long
penance and worship. Many of them are said not to
lend themselves to the working of any injury on man.
There are in Malabar many treatises dealing with
the subject of magic. The names of a few may be
mentioned here.
(/) Prapancha Saram, (2) Sarada Tilakam (3)
Mantra Saram, {4) Yantra Saram, (5) Priyoga Saram,
{6) Tantra Saram, (7) Sara San graham, (8) Kukshi
Kalpam, (9) Hari Mekhala, {id) Bali Kalpam, (//)
Manaacham, {12) Ela Mandacham, {13) Dxttatraya
Tantram.
The magicians are so reticent that it is very dif¬
ficult to get these works or any information on the
subject. It will be found that one of the primary les¬
sons taught by all schools of magicians is one inculca¬
ting absolute secrecy as to anything connected with
the art. The last of the works mentioned, the Datta-
treyatantra, is a treatise on the subject in the form of
a conversation between the god Siva and the Rishi
Datt5treya who is anxious to learn the art from the
god* direct. The sage addressing Siva said. “I
implore you, worshipping you with joined hands, O God,
the lover of the faithful,to instruct me in Kala Mantra,
so that it may benefit believers. There are numerous
2l6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.
Yantrams{ Cabalistic figures), Mantrams (incantations),
Abhicharams (enchantments) in this world as are des¬
cribed in the Agamas, Puranas, Vedas, Damaram,
Radhatantram,, TarSntantram, Amriteswaram, etc. O !
Mahadeva teach me (a) Mantra based on the above
authorities which will enable men to attain their
wishes.” Siva answers.
“Mantra Vtdya or the art of sorcery is a great
secret. Even the gods attain it with great difficulty.
Still I speak of it in your presence. I place before you
this jewel which ought to be worn on the head. Again
and again I repeat, this ought to be kept a secret, a
profound secret”.
He repeats the injunction once more and says.—
“Secret, secret, a profound secret, again and again,
secret, secret.”
The Dattatreyatantra treats, among others, of the
following matters:—
(1) Maranam. Destruction ; the taking away
of life from animate beings.
(2) Mohanam. Enticement ; the art of excit¬
ing love between two persons.
(3) Stambhanam. Stupefaction, or inhibition
stopping, suppressing the use of faculties by enchant¬
ment. There are varieties of stahmbhanam.
(4) Vidweshanam. Separation of friends, creat¬
ing enemity between them.
(5) Uchatanam. Driving away one from one’s
own village. Sometimes also used to mean exorcism
or the driving away of evil spirits.
(6) Vasyam. Subjecting the will of another-
enchanting.
(7) /ndrajalavu Making-one thing to look like
another.
(8) Rasciyctnam. Alchemy (Chemistry) the
making of gold, silver, et~
 N. to .] WITCHCRAFT til

(9) Mritya Kalagnanam.■—The method of as¬

certaining the approach of death.
(10) Anaharam•—-How to live long without
taking any food or nourishment.
(11) V idhidarsanam.—The means of finding out
hidden treasure.
(12) V ariditya Garbkadh aranani.—How to make
barren women bear.
(13) Mritasanjcevani"—The raising of the dead.
(14) V ajeekaranam*—The improvement of virile
powers.
Ci5) Bhootagraha Nivaranam*—Exorcism. The
casting away of evil spirits, etc.
(16) Simha Vyaghra vrischikadi damsanamr—
The obtaining of immunity from the attacks of lions,
tigers, scorpions, etc.
(17) Sarppa Nivaranam*—Immunity from snake
bite.
(18) Vyagrabhaya Nivaranam.—Immunity from
tigers.
(19) Agnibhclya Nivaranam.—-Immunity from
fire.
It will be noticed that the book treats of a jumble
of things, some of which fall scarcely within the pro¬
vince of the magician pure and simple. In Malabar the
theory is that every ill to which mankind is subject,
physical or mental, is under the direction of a separate
spirit and that the world of medicine is presided over
by Dhanvantara Murti an incarnation of Vi§gu. The
yattStrSya$?.n{ra says:-—“It is only with the aid of
mantram and tantram that medicines take effect. Their
power leads to the speedy attainment of one’s object. So
the doctor should also be a bit of Mantravadi, magician,
if he. wants to be a successful practitioner. Butter on
which the following Mantram is traced and over which
 LETTERS FRQM MALABAR |L. 24.
it is repeated a hundred and eight times is administered
to the patient by the doctor and not seldom he is made
to wear a charm, of which later on. This is a panacea
for all sorts of diseases.
Om\ namo bhagavate vasudevaya Dhanvanteraye
anirita kalasa hastaya sarva roga mayam vinasanaya
maha Vis knave swaha.
Om! Prostrations oh! God Vasudeva Dhanuvantari
(who) bears the pot of Ambrosia in his hands.
Cure me of all my ills. O! Mahavishnu Swaha.”
To give an idea of the methods prescribed in the
Dattatreya Tantra we may notice a few of them under
the several headings given above as illustratons 1.
Under each head there are a number of receipes given*
Siva wisely refrains from instructing his pupil the art
of Marana or destruction. But there are other works
which treat of it exhaustively and the black magicians
of Malabar practise it to some extent.
(20) Mohanam: or enticement as for love.
To effect this, take a few seeds of the Tujasi plant,
the holy basel (Ocymum Sanctum), powder it and make
a paste of it by mixing it with the juice of the tender
leaves of Poovankuvunth (Calc alia rotundifolia); make a
mark on your forehead with this paste and the whole
world will be at your feet.
(21) Agnistambhanam.—Immunity from the heat
of fire.
Mix the fat of frog in the juice of the Kattavazha
(Aloe Vera) and smear the body with it and you get
perfect immunity from the heat of fire.
Masticate well a piece of dried ginger which has
been already masticated once before, but now with some
1. I he list is not exhaustive, nor the mantrams complete in
all details. Even those who believe in the authenticity and effi-
casy of these are warned not to practise any of these nor to use
the medicines except after initiation by and study under a compe*
tent preceptor. Ed,
 N. io.] WITCHCRAFT 2IQ

ghee and sugar added to it, and you can safely put
into your mout^i a piece of red-hot iron,
A Mantra also is prescribed for the attainment of
this power. It will be seen further on that Mantras
are also prescribed in addition to the recipes given.
f Om\ namo Agm roopaya mama sareere
Mantra
1 sthambhanam kuru kuru swaha.
Ora! Prostrations! O! Fire make my body immune
—do, do, swaha.
This has to be repeated a hundred and eight times
over. Generally all these Man trams have to be repeat¬
ed a hundred and eight times so that they may have
the desired effect.
(22) Sasthrasthambham.—Immunity from weapons
aimed by your enemy.
Pluck the plant Vishnukranthiy (Evolvutus at sin -
oidcs) on a Sunday which falls on the 8th lunar asteri-
sm, (Cancer and the head of Hydra) and wear it on
your head or keep it in your mouth, root, stem, leaves,
and all. You can destroy every weapon aimed at you
by your enemy.
Another recipe promises immunity from the
attacks of wild boars, tigers, kings, robbers and
enemies.
For this, place a few pieces of the root of the
flower-bearing plant Pichhaka (Jasminum grandi-
florm) in your mouth and you are perfectly safe from
those mentioned before.
j Om\ aho Kumbhakarna ma/iarakshasa. A i-
Mantra < ksha garbha sambkoota para saiua stambhana
(Maha bhagavan Rudropa jayatiswaka.
Om! Oh! the great Rudra, the possession of the
six divine perfections and the one who magically
stops the assailant’s forces, born of the womb of the
Rakshasi (wife) of the great Rakshasa named Kumbha¬
karna triumphs swaha-
(23) Gomahishyadi stambhanam—To stop the milk
of cows, buffaloes, etc. Bury a piece of camel’s bone
22® LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 2\.

at the four corners of the cow-pen or put some earners

hair on the cow; in either case the animal will cease to
give milk.
In parts of Scotland it is still believed that there
are people who can cause cows to give milk or to stop
*

them giving. In an issue of the Chambers Journal1 , we

read Mr. Maclver (a well known estate agent of the
locality) was able to introduce Mr. Gladstone to certain
people who believed that there were persons who had
the power cf injuring the milk of cows belonging to any
one they disliked. On one occasion, the cows of Mr.
Macdonald of Loch Inver ceased to give milk for a day
or two. A sailor on board one of his vessels was
credited with the power of restoring it. He was sent
for, and said he would require an hour or two in the
milk-house for the purpose. After he came out and
returned to his ship, it was found that he had drunk
the cream off every dish in the diary. The cows are
said to have recovered in a day or two.,J
(24) Jalasthambhanam*—To solidify water.
Put into the water of a tank, etc., the medicine
known as Pathmakam or Pathumukham a red coloured
wood such as chappang {Sappan, Caesalpinia).
Om\ namo bhagavate Rudy ay a jay a stam-
bhaya stambhaya tta, ttay tta.
Oml Prostrations: victory to the God Rudra, soli¬
dify water solidify—/^, tha, tha.
(25) Vidveshana•—separation of friends.
A dozen prescriptions are given to bring about the
separation of friends. The ingredients common to all
or most of them are soil trodden on by the victim and
animals, birds and reptiles'that are natural enemies oi
one another, A few of these prescriptions may be given
here.
Take hold of the wings of a crow in one hand and
in the other those of an owl, repeat the subjoined
1. For April 1906, at page 227,
N. io,] WITCHCRAFT 221

Mantra, tie the feathers of the wings to the heads of the

birds with black thread, pour on them water from the
palm of your hands, and sacrifice them on the day of
the 13th lunar asterism Atham (Coma Berenices).
Continue this process for seven successive days.
Mantram• Om namo Narayana amukam amu-
kena saha vidwesham kuru kuru swaha.
Om! salutation to Narayana do, do hatred between
such a one and such a one swaha.
To be repeated 108 times in all cases.
(26) Ltchatanam.—The driving away of one from
his country or village.
This may be effected by burying in the victim’s
house on a Sunday the wings of a crow, or by the de¬
positing therein on a Tuesday of the two wings of an
owl.
Mantrm. Om namo bhagavate Rudraya damshtra
Karat ay a amukam saputra bandhavey saha hana hana
daha daha pacha pacha seeghram uchataya uchataya
sahum phat swaha ttah ttah.
Om! salutation to Rudra, having tusks and pro¬
jecting teeth, kill, kill, burn, burn, and soon consume,
consume, such and such a man with all his sons and
relations.
(27) Sarvajana Vaseekaranam*—For the enticing
of all men. The methods prescribed consists of forming
pastes to mark your forehead with, and the giving
of betel and other ingredients for your victim to
chew.
Grind a piece of root of the baniyan tree in water,
mix it with ashes you use to mark your forehead with,
and make a mark with the paste thereon. This will
draw towards you all the world.
Dry in the shade the plant Poovamkurunnila
(1Calcaria Rotundifolia:), powder it and give it to your
victim with a betel to chew.
222 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Mantram. Om namah surva loka vasamkaraya

kuru kuru swaha.
Cm! salutation to the entricer of all the worlds
do, do, swaha.
(28) Indrajalam.—Superior jugglery, making one
thing look like another, etc. Under this head, numerous
prescriptions are given to make things appear different
from what they really are. The feats of the Indian
jugglers come under this head.
The chapter opens with the injunction that he who
practises the art must take care to protect himself by
means of the following:—
Mantram. Om para brahma paramatmane mama
sareere pahi pahi kuru kuru swaha.
Om! salutation t© the pre-eminent Brahma and
the Supreme Soul, within my body, protect, protect,
do, do, swaha.
There are various methods prescribed to create
illusive appearances; such as to hoodwink one’s eyes,
to make oneself look like an animal or a bird, a cat, an
elephant, a horse, a bull, a lion, a peacock etc., to
produce trees, shrubs and plants with leaves, flowers
and fruits; to make the dead look alive; to produce fire,
etc., etc. In most of these recipes Ankolam
{Alangium Hexapetalum) finds a prominent place. An
ointment is prepared out of the seeds of this tree which
is used for various purposes. The process of extract¬
ing the oil is thus described: Have the powdered seed
mixed with gingelly oil and dry it in the son for 7 days,
add more oil and dry it again. Repeat this process
four or five times. Smear the inside of two brass vessels
with this preparation and place them on another brass
vessel, mouth downwards, so that the oil may ooze out
of the two vessels into the third placed below. The
oil that falls into ihe last vessel is the ointment called
An kola Tailum. Some of the properties of this Tai*
lum are:—If you pour a drop of this oil on the face of
the dead, the body will show life for three hours- Drop a
N. 10.I WITCHCRAFT 223

little on a mango seed and it will at once spout, put

forth leaves and flowers and produce full grown
fruits* Similarly with regard to other trees, plants,
etc.
There is a special mantram for Ankolam.
Man tram. Om ankolaya Om rah Om hreem,
hreem, hreem.
Om! salutation to the Ankola tree Om! rah Om!
Hreem, Hreem.
There are a number of prescriptions given which
it is altogether profitless to mention, but which it is
seriously asserted will produce wonderful results*
Most of the feats of legerdemain exhibited by
Indian street jugglers find mention under this head.
Mantram Oml Namo Narayanaya Viswabharaya
indrajala Kautukani darsaya darsaya siddhim kuru
kuru swaka.
Om! salutation to Narayana, the protector of the
world, show, show, the pastimes of legerdemain, do, do,
accomplishment swaha.
(29) R asayana .—Alchemy* Under this head, two
separate prescriptions are given to turn copper into
gold, and they are curious enough. There is the
special injunction that only an ardent and devoted
disciple of the Guru (preceptor) should be taught these®
They are unattainable even to the gods and should
therefore be preserved as great secrets.
Take in equal quantities cow's urine, Aritharam,
sulphor and manola (red arsenic); mix and grind them
together till they become dry; do puja to it for 11 days,
offering incense, milk, etc-, repeating the mantra given
below. After the 11 days are over, form it into a pill,
wrap it in a piece of cloth and cover it up with clay*
Dry it then in the shade, dig a pit on the ground and
raise fire in it, deposit it in this and cover it up with
firewood of Pilsa {Butea Froudosa), keep the fire burn¬
ing for 24 hours (8 yamSs), collect the ashes formed by
 a *4 Letters from malabar [L. 24 .

the mixture deposited, put them into a copper vessel

and place it in fire. The copper vessel will in no time
be turned into gold.
Man tram, Om ! namo Hari haraya rasayanant
sidhim kuru kuru swaha,
Om! salutation to Harihara do, do, accomplish¬
ment of the elixis vitae swaha
(30) Mrityukalajnanam.—Method of ascertaining
the approach of death.
Various tests are given to ascertain this.
(1) He who cannot see his nose by his own
eyes is sure to meet with his death in six months, even
though Brahma, the creator, may himself undertake to
protect him.
(2) A man to whom one thing appears as
another and not as it really is, for which no special
reason can be assigned, will die in two months.
(3)He who fails to see the very small star
Arundhati placed near the middle one of the constel*
lation Saptarshi (brsa major) towards the north, will
die in 6 months though God himself undertakes to
protect him.
(4) He on whose chest water dries up soon
after dipping himself in a tank can live only for 6
months more.
(6) If on walking one’s feet moves involuntarily
without any sufficient cause, death will follow in one
month; surely in a month and a half.
(6) If for two days and nights together breath
passes through the right nasal aperture only, death
comes in two years.
(7) If you breathe continuously for three nights
e through either Eda or Pin gala naties alone, i. e. through
the right or left nasal aperture alone, you can live only
for one year more.
(8) One whose breath passes continuously for
one month through the left nasal aperture alone by
 N- 10*1 WITCHCRAFT 225
night and through the right one alone by day, is sure
to die in six months.
(9) He who can every day successfully stop
breathing through the left nasal aperture by night and
by the right one by day is indeed a yogi,
(31) Anaharam.—How to attain immunity from
hunger and thirst. Grind together a few seeds of the
lotus (Nelumbium Speciosum), Katalali (Achyranthes
aspera) and of Tulasi, the holy basil (ocymum sanctum),
form a pill of it and swallow it. Drink cow’s milk
over it and you attain perfect immunity from hunger
and thirst for the day.
Grind some lotus seeds in goat’s milk, add some
ghee to it and take it for twelve consecutive days; you
will not feel hunger after that.
# Grind a few seeds of Vayalchully, Vijaya, holy
basil and the root of the betel vine in, goat’s milk, and
form a pill of it, and take one every morning as you rise
from your bed. Drink some cow’s milk over it and
you will not feel either hunger or thirst.
(Triloham means the 3 metals, and they are gold,
silver and copper, the proportion in which these are to
be used is 10 parts of gold, 16 parts of silver and 12
parts of copper.)
Man tram, Om\ namah sidhi r00 pay a mama sareere
amritam kuru swaha.
Om; salutation to him who is all accomplishment,
do do Ambrosia within my body swaha.
(32) Nidkidarsana.—The method of taking out
treasure hidden under the earth.
Turning to the place where the treasure is known
to lie hidden, take the five parts of PJenmenivaka
(Mimosa Sir is ha), grind it, boil it in mustard oil, add to
it Vatsa JS/abhi (Aconitum ferox), datura seeds, the
five parts of Arli (Oleander), Vella Cunm (white Alerus
precatorious), the excreta of the camel, sulphur and
manola (red arsenic). Meanwhile repeat the mantra
subjoined. The Rjkshasas, Bhutas, Veplas, Devns,
AsurSs, Serpents—all will give up the treasure thev
226 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24*

guard, and run away as if from fear of battle; you can

then conveniently take the treasure without any hind¬
rance whatever.
Mantranu Om nanto vighna vinasaya nidhi graham
kuru kuru swaha>
Om! salutation to the destroyer of obstructions do,
do obtainment of treasure swaha.
(33) Vandhya garbhadharananw—Wo^ to make
the barren woman bear*
Barren woman are said to be of three classes:^viz»
(1) ]anma Vandhya. She who has not borne at
all
(2) Kakavandkya. She who has borne once but
not after.
(3) Mritavatsa. She who loses her child soon
after it is born, or within 15 days, one month, or one
year, after birth.
With respect to the first class:
(a) Take a leaf of Plasa (Butea Frondosa), make
it into the form of a cup and let the barren woman drink
out of it for seven days consecutively at the end of her
periods human milk taken from the breasts of a pregnant
woman. She should confine her diet to milk, rice, and
such other things easy to digest.
(b) Let the woman take for seven days during
her menses the berry of Rudraksham (Elaocarpus lanceol-
atus) and 105 grains of Chittaratha (Alpina galanga)
ground in cow5s milk.
(cj Let her take the root of Kozhinjil {Galcga
Colonila) ground in cold water 105 grains weight.
(d) Pluck the plant poovankurunnila {Calecaria
rotundifolia) on a Sunday falling on the 8th lunar
astensm, dry the hole plant in the shade, powder it
and let the woman take it in the milk of a cow of a
single colour. The barren woman will certainly bear
children.
N. 10.] WITCHCRAFT 227

With respect to the socond class:

(a) Let the woman take a mixture of Vishnukranti
(Evolvulus alsinoides) ground in buffaloe’s milk, with
the butter made out of buffaloe’s milk, for seven days
during her periods.
(b) Let her take for seven days the root of Amuki-
ram (physales flexnosa) ground in buffaloe’s milk, half
a fialam weight. She wilhbear a child who will live
long.
Man tram* On nama sakthirupaya asya grehe putram
kuru kuru swaha.
Om! salutation to him who is all sakti do do son in
this house swaha.
With respect to the third class:
Let the woman take a mixture of the root of
katalati (Achyranthes aspera) and Lakshanamoolam
ground in the milk of cow of a single colour on an
auspicious lunar asterism. She will bear and bring
forth a child who will live long.
Mantrani• Om paramam Brahma paramatmane
amukee garbhe deerghajeevi sutam kuru kuru swaha
Om ! salutation to the supreme Brahma the supreme
soul. In the w omb of such and such a woman do do
a long living son swaha.
(34) Vajeekaranam.—The subjects dealt with
under this head are not fit for mention here. So we pass
on to
(35) Resaranjaham.—How to turn grey hair into
jet black.
Prepare a medicated oil by boiling the flower of
V ishnukranti (Evolvulous alsinoides) in castor oil and
apply it to the head. Grey hair will turn into black.
Grind together the dross of iron, Chemp parithippu
(Hibiscus Rosa sinensis) and the astringent fruit
Nellikka (Phyllanthus E mb lie a) and apply to it to the
head on three days successively. This will turn grey
hair into black and retain the blackness for three months.
228 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. **•

To turn grey hair into black and retain the black

colour for all time: Prepare a medicated oil by mixing
the juice of the plantain in equal quantity of gingelly
oil and boil in it the shoe flower, Triphala, i. e.,
Katukka (Terminalia chelula), Nelhkka (Phyllanthus
embelicd) and Tannikka (Terminalia belerica) and apply
it to the head for seven days.
(36) Bhootagrahanivaman.—The means of keep¬
ing off evil spirits, etc., that generally torment children.
Pluck on a Sunday the flower and leaves of Vaka
(.Acacia odoratissima), add to it the excreta of the owl,
dog and cat, also camel’s hair, cowdung, sulphur, and
Vella Aunnikkurru the seed of glycyrehiza. Boil these
in oil extracted from Patavalam seeds, (Trichosanthes
docca). Fumigate the house with this, repeating the fol¬
lowing mantra. The devils will be driven away.
Manlram. Om\ namah smasana vasine bhootaai
palayanam kuru kuru swaha-
Om! Salutation to him wno lives in a cemetery do
do the driving away of spirits and the like swaha.
Put into an earthen pot the root of the Erikka
{Calotropis gigantea), Ummam {Datura), Katalati
(,Achyranthes aspera), Karuka {Agrostis linearis),
Peral {Ficus religiosa), and Arayal {ficus rehgiosa) the
leaves of the Agni Vriksham {Fire tree). Athi {ficus
racemosa) and mango tree. Add the following: —ghee,
milk, raw rice, Payaru,{Dolichus catjang), CheruPayaru
(Phasmungo), Gothanpu {wheat), Ella {sesam), cow’s
urine, white mustard,Darbha, (the holy grass Poacynos
uroides), sandalwood, honey; mix them all together and
bury it at the foot of a ficu s riligiosa tree at dusk on a
Saturday. Every evil spirit in the house will be removed.
So also poverty and sins. The household will be long
lived. There will be no more troubles.
(3 7) Simhavyaghravrichikadinasana m •—To avoid
attacks from lions, tigers, scorpions. When you meet
with a lion, repeat the Namaskara Mantra again and
again: The king of beasts will run away.
N- I0d WITCHCRAFT 22g
Mantram. Om\ namah agniroopdya hreem natnah.
Om! Salutation to him who has the form of fire,
hreem salutation.
One would rather avoid meeting the king of beasts
than meet him and try the experiment.
Again, wear on your right hand a piece of the
root of the white Enkku (Culotropis gigantea) on a
Sunday falling on the 8th lunar asterism. There will
be no more trouble from lions. To aovid troubles from
tigers: On an auspicious day get the root of the
Datura plant and wear it on your right arm.
To avoid scorpion stings: Keep in your right ear
the root of Katalati (.Achyranthes as per a) on an aus¬
picious da\,
To avoid serpent bites: On the day of the 8th
lunar asterism (Pooyam), pluck the root of Chittamrita
0menispermum glabram) make a garland of it and wear
it round your neck.
(38) Agnibhayanivaranm.—To remove fear from
fire:
Take some water in your hands and pour it seven
times into the midst of the fire, repeating the following
mantra. The fire will at once abate.
Mantram. Uitarasyanchadigbhage mareecho nama
rakshasah tasya mootra pureeshabheyam hute vanhi
stambhah swaka.
In the North, there is a demon named Msreecha
when his urine and ordure are burnt as oblations, fire
magically stopped. Swaha.
To avoid troubles from fire: Take a piece of the
root of Velutha Aril (White Oleander) and wear it on
your right hand.
We have observed that the Dattatreya Tantra does
not deal with the first head msrana. This primarily
means destruction. But it includes within it also all
the methods that are compassed by the magician to do
injury to others, bodily and mental, of whatever nature.
The Odi cult stands foremost, if practised properly, as
 230 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

the one prominent and certain method of taking away

the life of your enemy. There is scarcely anything
written on the system. It is practised almost exclusive¬
ly by the Parayers who stand outside the pale of
Hindu caste and whose proximity carries pollution to
one of any superior caste within about a furlong. The
practice is hereditary, and it is not always that an out¬
sider is admitted into the fraternity. Even those with¬
in the charmed circle have to go through a rather try¬
ing novitiate before they can practise odi. To an
outsider a more trying ordeal is assigned. The latter
have to prove themselves worthy to join the fraternity.
Some of the ordeals prescribed are utterly filthy and
abominable even to a Paraya. Mr. Fawcett, on the
authority of Mr. U. Balakrishnan Nayar, gives the
following account of the novitiate the apprentice has to
undergo.

“It is their trials as novices, terrifying and utterly

filthy, which are truly difficult. Members of the
brotherhood are bound to secrecy by solemn oaths, and
the secrets of their craft are not allowed lightly to pass
to an outsider. A member of the brotherhood may
have one or more disciples or apprentices who are in
the first place bound to strict obedience. These ap¬
prentices fill vacancies in the brotherhood.

“He who would be a member of the Odi cult falls

at the feet of him whom he would have as master and
begs for initiation into the mysteries. The master
tries to dissuade him, but the would-be Otiyan per¬
sists; and then, when assent is given, comes the trial.
He follows his master to a lonely place by night. The
master disappears in mist and then reappears as some
terrible beast, now standing still, now rushing furious¬
ly towards the novice as if to tear him to pieces. If he
stands still and imperturbed, the novice is considered
to have fulfilled that test. He is then required to
pass the night alone in the forest which he is
made to believe is peopled with strange beings tJ o
N. ,o.] WITCHCRAFT 231

howling horribly. When he has satisfied the master

that he is not afraid, he is subjected to other tests, and
he is eventually accepted as a novice. He is introduced
formally into the brotherhood on a certain selected day
when, having invited them to a feast, puja is made to the
dread spirit worshipped by them. Nili of Kalladikode
or Kalladikode Nili as she is called (Kalladikode is the
place name) through whose aid the Odiyan works his
devilment. Flesh and liquor are consumed and the
novice is taught how to procure the magical Pilla thilam
(Infant oil).”
The preparation of Pilla thilam is described by the
author of the Cochin Tribes and Castes.
By means of this thilam, the Odiyan claims to work
wonders. He can make himself invisible. He can
transform himself into the shape of any animal whose
form he wants to assume. In this way he effects his
nefarious purpose by waylaying his victim in the dark.
It is also said that, by the powerful agency of this thilam
and by the potency of his man tram, he can compel his
victim to come out of his house stupified and, while in
that condition, the victim is put to death with a hard
blow on the medulla or by suffocating him to death
with two sticks pressed on his neck. Odi literally
means breaking and what the Odiyan does is really
breaking the human body.
There are several methods pointed out in works
on Mantravadam to cause injury to your fellow being.
The practice of this is called Kshudraprayogam (work¬
ing evil with the aid of low genii)-
A figure representing the victim to be destroyed
is drawn on a small sheet of metal, gold by preference,
' and to it are added some mystic diagrams. It is then
addressed stating that bodily injury or death of the
person shall take place at a certain time* This little
§heet is wrapped up in another metal sheet or leaf (gold
if possible) and buried in some place where the person
to be injured or destroyed usually passes; and should
232 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L* 24

he pass over the place, it is supposed the charm will

have effect at the time named. Instead of the little
sheet of metal, there is sometimes buried a live frog or
lizard, after sticking nails into its eyes and stomach.
It is buried within a cocoanut shell, and the death of
the person and the animal are supposed to happen
simultaneously. Another favourite form is to bury an
earthen pot under the threshold of the house of the
person who is the object of hatred. The pot is filled
with human hair, flowers, charcoal, bones, etc., and a
small silver, brass or’copper plate with cabalistic figures
and characters, to which puja had been made for a
number of days is always added, and sometimes an
effigy of the victim as well. If the victim crosses and
recrosses the threshold a number of times, it is believed
he will be destroyed or paralysed for life or subjected
to other maladies.
To cause pains in the body of another: A mantram
is written on the stem of the Kaitha (Pandanus odoratis-
simus). The stem should be of the length of eight fingers.
A figure representing the person to be injured is also
drawn on the stem. A hole is bored to represent the
navel. The mantram is repeated and at each repetition
a certain thorn Kara mullu (Canthium parviflorum) is
fixed into the limbs of the figure. The name of the
person and of the star under which he was born are
written on a piece of cadjan leaf, which is stuck into
the hole representing the navel. The thorns are stuck
in 21 times, i.e., removed and replaced 21 times. Two
magic circles are drawn below the nipple on the figure.
The stem is then hung up in the smoke of the kitchen.
A pot of toddy and some other accessories are procur¬
ed and with these certain rites are performed by the
magician. When he concludes them, he moves three steps
backwards. He shouts aloud thrice fixing in again the
thorns, thinking all the while of the particular mischief
with which he would afflict the person to be injured.
When all this has been done, the person whose figure
has been drawn on the stem and pricked with thorns is
 N. io.] WITCHCRAFT *33

supposed to feel pain as if he were being pricked with

thorns.
There are also means prescribed to counteract the
evils caused by the above practices. Elaborate rituals
are set forth for this purpose. What is popularly known
as Sathru Idukkal, i.e., the removal of enemical objects
is of frequent occurrence in Malabar. The magician,
after the performance of various weired rites, falls into
a trance, shouts, shivers and shakes himself very much,
and proceeds to find out the instruments of magic de¬
posited by your enemy within the precincts of your
house and garden. Cabalistic figures, animals, birds
and reptiles, such as the head of a dead cat, fowl, a
lizard, a serpent, a frog are unearthed from places
almost impossible of access to strangers. Bed rooms,
door steps, courtyards, kitchens, the beds of tanks and
wells are dug up, and a number of these magical appli¬
ances are brought up from beneath the earth. After
removal of them, the evil spirits sent by your enemy are
fully propitiated and you begin once more to run
smoothly the even course of your life.
Mr. V. Nagam Aiva supplies us with some inter¬
esting information regarding the way in which the evil
machinations of those who practise Kshudraprayo gam
against any one are counteracted. He derived his
information from a Sudra servant of his who had to
put hirnself to an expense of 200 fanams (Rs. 28)
which in his case was a serious drain, to rid himself of
the ill effects of a wicked sorcery of some unknown
enemy agkinst himself and his wife. “He read out to
me”says Mr. Nagam Aiya a list of expenses incurred by
him for the purpose, on the recommendation of eminent
exorcists in his village, and it is gratifying to note that
the poor man and his wife feel considerable relief after
the exorism was gone through. The list of Sama•
nams (things) prepared for exorcism is long and con¬
tained a varied assortment. The act of exorcism is
called yethir—er> literally a return pelt or a hit at the
enemv. The ceremony consists of Puja to Ganapafi,
234 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

a homam of jack-wood faggots, medicinal herbs,

bazaar medicines, roots, grains, fruits, honey, ghee,
dried cocoanuts, peacock feathears, cottonseed, vege¬
table stuffs, horns of different kinds, eggs, spices,
etc. At the conclusion of the homam is the sacrifice
of two cocks finishing up with an illumination of lighted
wicks and torches. The list includes all the articles
required for the several stages of the ceremony. The
object is to secure the house-holder and his family
against the machinations of evil spirits set up by ene¬
mies. These beliefs are almost universal and are acted
upon by more than 95 per cent of our people. Even
the educated man is not free from the beliefs he has
inheritedjxom ages past.1
Another subject which requires mention is the
method of casting off evil spirits. Astrology is the
hand-maid of magic, and it is by the aid of the former
that the latter attains its end. It is the Kantian or
astrolger who is consulted when anything goes wrong.
He at once divines by means of the art he practises how
matters stand and points out the remedy. The
magician now steps in and applies his art to bring
about the desired result.
It is generally nervous and hysterical women who
are subject to demoniacal influences. An evil spirit
may have been bribed to enter into the body of a
woman and torment her, or a Gawdhawa (a heavenly
spirit) may have become enamoured of a beautiful
woman and subjected her to his lustful embraces.
The spirits have to be driven out and the expert
magician is called in to do so just as one would call in
a doctor to cure a patient of his illness. The follow¬
ing passages, extracted from the Ethnological Survey
of the Cochin State gives us some idea of the means
resorted to, to drive out the spirits.
Sometimes sacrificial fires (homam) in honour of
the deity, Ganapathy are also offered for the relief from
Vl] II. 1 r. 6 ■ \o 69,
N. io.] WITCHCRAFT 2 66

It. In some cases the demon can be located In trees®

A devil-driver with the aid of his Mantrams makes it
reside in a pot which is buried underneath a large
stone by the side of a river or a large stream. A
woman who is possessed by a demon can be relieved
from it by one of the following methods, namely, (i) by
causing it to appear in the person who makes some
involuntary movements, and making it depart by
offerings ; (2) by growing sacrificial fires and (3) by
transferring it to some other body. The first of the
methods above referred to is described here. The
magician who is invited to cast out the devil is fur¬
nished with everything he requires for the performance
of the ceremony. He chooses a spot either in the house,
or outside it in the courtyard and purifies it with water
mixed with cowdung. This spot is scattered over
with burned ashes over which the yantram (cabalastic
figure) is drawn, the several portions of which are
coloured yellow, green, red, black and white powder.
He writes on each portion, a letter of the Gsyatri
which he mutters at the same time. He also puts on it
some rice and flower® Over this, he places a piece of
cloth, three betel leaves and an areca nut. Close to
it on a small pedestel are placed a few pieces of small
plantain leaves with rice and flower on them. A few
drops of water are also sprinkled thereon and he mut¬
ters the Mantram$ Jala-gandha-push pa-dh oopena
Namah (Salutation with water, frankincense, flowers,
aromatic vapour and light).
“A few flowers and some sandal are thrown over
the yantram. Frankincense is burned and a light is
waved in front of it. A lighted lamp is burned at the
side of it. The possessed woman is bathed and dres¬
sed in a new garment and allowed to take her seat on
a plantain leaf with her face towards the east. M ut-
tering the Gayatri Mantram and throwing some holy
ashes (Bhasmam) on her head, he gives her some rice
and flower to wave round her head three times and
directs her to put them on the figure with a prayer that
z$6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 24.

she may be relieved from the demonaical possession.

With pious meditations on the deity and his guru he
mutters the Man tram,
Om\ Brahma, Rishi, Gayatri Chandah, Randha
Kamo Devata, Randha Rama Viroopaksha
Sarvopadrava Nasana Vivakanga Jay am Praptha
Raksha Rakshamahabaho Phul Swahah.
Translation.—Of this Mantra of the great Kanda-
karuna, Brahma is the Rishi, Gayitri is the metre,
Kandakarunan is the Deity (God). He is requested to
cure her of the demonaical possession.
The woman holds a flower of the arecapalm. The
magician’s desciples at the time, sing songs, keeping
time either with beating on a bell-metal or with a tabor
and the woman puts the rice and flower on the figure.”
The following is the substance of the songs sung.
“As the Devas were oppressed by the Asuras, and
as they were not able to perform their daily religious
rites they requested the aid of Siva and began to praise
him. From his third and sparkling eye came, Ksli in
her terrible aspects clad in silk and black skin* with
anklets round her feet, with snakes round her neck, and
armed with many weapons in her hands, she stood at
the gate of the giant Dsrika and called him to battle.
His head was at last severed from his body and thrown
on earth. His body was burst open by his own sword
and the blood which he drank was received in his
shield, and his intestines completely eaten. His bones
were broken to pieces. As Kali was joyfully returning
after the victory, Siva thought that he would be smashed
by her. He appeared to her in the form of a bright
ire. The ,goddess stood amazed. May my salutation
be to such deity.*’

Again. “Salutation by me to Narayana, Gana-

pathy, Parabramham, the tutelary deity, the preceptor
and the great sages, who are represented by the
symbolic letters of Han Sri Ganapathayc* Hamah*
N. 10.] Witchcraft 237
“Thepossessed woman at this stage becomes ex-
cited at the musical tunes and utterance of the
mantrams. The demon is supposed to make its
appearance in her body which is thrown into convulsive
movements. The frenzied demonaic seems to be
tossed and shaken in, ever pained and wrenched as
though some living creature were tearing or twisting
her from within till she becomes subdued by the exor¬
cist. The devil-driver pretending to have the power to
control the demon, asks her the name of the demon
living in her body. If she remains silent, he beats her
with a cane, believing that his thrashing may affect the
demon and not the woman. Sometimes he catches hold
of her hair and ties a knot, muttering a mantram.
This done, the demon speaks through her, and pro¬
mises to leave her for ever 09 receipt of the offerings.
At once the magician brings a lamp and makes him
swear thus: “By me, by thee, by Kali, by Markan-
deya, I depart from this body.” This said, the woman
lies prostrate in a swoon. The magician utters the
Jiva prathiskta mantram, and sprinkles some water on
her and the woman recovers her consciousness.
Mantram. Om\ Jivaya Jiva Prathisktaya Pra-
nay a, Praiishtaya Mantram Patatha Markanda
Maharishi yana Phalikka Muzhuvanum Phalikka
swaha.
O! Markendeya, may thy Mantram be effectual in
bringing her back to life and help her for complete
relief from the possession of the demon.
“He next performs what is called Gurisikotukkuka
(giving water with lime and turmeric dissolved in it),
Small pieces of plantain leaves, each two inches in
breadth are placed on a ckakram (yantram) with 64
divisions made of the bark of the plantain tree. Over
the bark at regular intervals are stuck pieces of cocoa-
nut leaves and lighted torches. The magician takes
it in his hand, singing songs in praise of Kdi and
places it on the ground.. He then takes a few vessels
238 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

filled with rice flour, toddy and arrack and the gurusi
is mixed with the blood ot a fowl or two which are in-
tended as offerings for evil demons.’5
Then a song, the substance of which is as follows,
is sung: “I am here giving the origin of the cock and
he hen. When the great giant Mahishasura re¬
quested Brahma for a boon, and was returning home,
the sword of Kali touching the body of the giant caus¬
ed the blood to fall on earth in two drops which be¬
came a cock and a herb The flap of his face, and lips
were as red as red hot charcoal and the eyes as con¬
vex as the belly. O! Kali, mayest thou come and
drink the blood of the hen held in my left hand and
killed with the sword in my right hand, as it came
running joyfully.
“The Chokram is then taken either to a spot
where several roads meet, on to the side of a river or a
canal at 3 in the morning and placed there. The guv-
usi is poured on the ground. A big torch is lighted
and the rice flour scattered on the ground. He extin¬
guishes the torch and returns home.
“Sometimes the above Mantrams are dispensed
with. The figures of demons are drawn and the songs
in praise of Kali sung for devil driving® All kinds of
disease are believed to be caused by spirits of deceased
men. They are cured by the performance of elaborate
ceremonies and offerings to propitiate them. Charms
are also worn to ward off their attack. They believe
in oracular manifestations. 1
“Toluzhiyuka and Beliyuzhiyuka are two other
ceremonies usually performed for the removal of spells.
Mr. Logan gives the following description from an
account furnished him ‘from a trustworthy source5
“Besides this, two other methods called Tolulika
(a ceremony for removing different sins and punish¬
ments by throwing them with leaves into the fire) and
Beliyulika (a ceremony performed by waving a basket
1* Monograph No, io} pp; 33—^39,
N. 10.J WITCHCRAFT 239

of flowers round a possessed person), are also adopted

in the case of human beings, and the mode of perform¬
ing it is as follows: First a lighted lamp and a nazhi
(a wooden vessel containing half a seer) filled with rice
are kept in the verandah or in the yard of a house.
On the north-east corner of it a representation of Kala
Bhyravan (a demon) with its head towards the south
and feet towards the north, is made in five colours, viz.
white, yellow, green, red and black. Rice cleaned and
uncleaned, tender cocoanut; plantains, powdered rice,
fried grain, betel leaf, arecanut, etc., are placed on all
the four sides of it. A hypandi (a triangle made with
plantain rind and young cocoanut leaves cut and stuck
upon it in rows) having Kanikkali (saffron and chunam
mixed with water and made after the fashion of a
gruel) sprinkled over it, is placed on the east, red
gurusi (water made red by mixing a little saffron and
chunam with it) and reddened, cocoanut on the north,
and black gurusi (water mixed with charcoal) and a
blackened cocoanut on the south, of the said represen¬
tations. After modes of adoration have been done to
these, Piniyal (the person on whom exorcism is being
practised) proceeds with three betel leaves and three
pieces of arecanut, rice and wick in the right hand
and with a knife in the other, and goes three times
round the said representation and then standing
on the west of it, facing towards the east holds
out the knife three times against the representation, and
cuts three times across it, and at last sticks the knife in
its right eye, and then sits down. After this a wick is
placed in the Kypandi, one in the red gurusi, and a third
on the reddened cocoanut after singing hymns in praise
of Kali, and wicks are similarly placed in black gurusi
and on the blackened cocoanut after singing hymns in
praise of Guiikan (son of Saturn, the ruler of fatal hours).
Then either the person who performs the ceremony or
any body else takes one handful of the leaves of
Iranynyi (a tree) and one handful of those of nochchi
(a shrub), and having caused Piniyal to keep a wick
24o LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

upon them for avoiding the evil eye, keeps them aside.
Again one man takes one handful and a second another
.landful of the said leaves and stand on each side of the
Piniyal and rub with them from the head to the feet of
the Piniyaly when Bharatam ought to be sung. This
ought to be that portion of the Bharatam called Nilal-
kuttu which relates the story of the Pandus who were
troubled by Gurus by means of a sorcery. At the end
of each verse, the said leaves ought to be tied mixed
with salt, chillies, mustard seed, gingelly seed, etc, and
burned in fire prepared with jack wood; apiece of iron
is also placed in the fire. At the end of the four verses
in this manner Pandi and gurusi are thrown aside
having due hymns sung by the person who performs
the ceremony* After this, the body of the Piniyal is
anointed with the ground root of a medicinal plant
called Panal mixed with gingelly oil. The said piece of
iron is then taken out of the fire and placed in front of
the Piniyal, and the performer takes in his hands the
smoke that bursts out by pouring upon it water mixed
with gingelly and lamp oil, and rubs the body of the
Piniyal with it. A cocoanut is then placed in front of
the Piniyal, having two wicks one across the other upon
it. The Piniyal then crosses the cocoanut three times
forward and backward, with a knife in the right hand
and with a lighted wick in the other, and then sets fire
to the wicks already placed on the cocoanut. The
Piniyal then attempts three times to cut the cocoanut
with the knife, and at the fourth time cuts it into two
pieces, and then destroys the said representation with
the hands and puts a mark on the forehead. Thus it
ends.
8iThis is generally performed for males just before
their first marriage and also when they appear to be
subject to such injuries as those already mentioned.
This is done for females also on the day previous to the
Pumsavana (a ceremony generally observed by them in
the fifth, seventh, or ninth month of their first
N. 10.] WITCHCRAFT 241

pregnancy). It is also performed for females who are

afflicted with barrenness”:1
When a person is ill, the following mantram is
muttered and some ashes thrown on the patient in the
full belief that it will cure him more easily and much
more efficaciously than any medicine that the doctor
can administer.
Bhasma sthanathu nityam Sasidhara mriiu
Sindhu moksham jangarthena tulyam sakala jana
sukham Parvatheesam namame.
What this jargon means it is difficult to make out.
One can only say that it is a jumble of Sanskrit words
strung together with Malayalam endings.
Sometimes the magician takes a thread and makes
several knots, muttering the following Mantra as the
knots are tied. The thread is worn round the neck or
tied round the waist of the person obsessed. It is also
intended to save one from evil spirits, sickness, etc®
Om 1 Namo bhagavate^ atiyil ananlan, mutiyil
simham* mootadh ara th u Sri Garudan> etathu
Lakshmananx valathu Sri Raman, munpinne Ranu-
man, piraku Ravanan% chuttum matium keezhum Sri
Narayanan kavalayirikka swaha.
This mantram is in the Malayalam language but
it will be observed that it contains the names of Pura-
nic deities. It may be thus translated: “Salutation to
God. May Serpent Ananta below, a lion on the head,
in the Mooladhara (the lowest of the yogic 50,0ms or
places in the human body) Garuda (the lord of birds,
the Brabmanic kite), on the left Lekshraana, Rama to the
right, Harm man in front, Ravana behind and all round,
above, below, everywhere Sree NsrSyana, guard
Swaha”.
M alabar is a country full of charms—not simply
in the sense that its scenery, its old-world manners
and customs, its womankind, etc., are all charming but
1. Logan*s Manual, pp, 175 to 177.
242 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

also in the sense that there most men and women wear
on their body magical charms believed powerful to
work good as well as to avoid evil. A domestic animal
is ill or a cow or goat, does not milk: at once a magician
will be called in to have a charm prepared for the
animal to wear. Similarly with men and women who
are either ill or suspected to be possessed. Charms
are of many kinds, and each one is dedicated to a sepa¬
rate spirit, often of the beneficently inclined class.
Geometrical figures are drawn on sheets of metal plate,
gold is always preferred, and the Mantra peculiar to
the spirit invoked, is written on them. These are then
rolled up and enclosed in a small cylindrical case made
of gold or silver and worn round the neck or waist.
These charms are called yentrams. They are also at
times written on palmyra leaves with an iron style.'The
yentrams are named after the mantrams inscribed on
the leaf and enclosed in the receptacle.
(1) Triambakam. (2) Purushasukiam. (3) Sampadasuktam.
(4) Mukiiyasatakshari. (5) Sree Suktam. (6) Muktapanchakam.
(7) Gayatri. (8) Beeja Ganapathi. (9) .Dhanvantari. (10) Srtc
Patnan. (11) Ashtadesakshari. (12) Santana Gopalam. (13) Aara-
simham. (14) Sudarsanam. ("15) Hanuman. (16) Swayamvaram.
(17) Aswaroodam. (18) Panchakshari. (19) Asvarudha. (20) Santi
Durga. (21) Karta veeraarjunayentram are the names of a few of
them.
There can be no Yentram without a Man tram. In
fact it is the 7nantram that lends efficacy to the
yentram. The ceremonies, the rituals, the accessories
and paraphernalia paraded in the practice of the
Mantravada are all subordinate to the Man tram. It
is the mantram that has to be properly studied and
properly repeated. The methods of reciting and using
them have to be studied under the guidance of a Guru
or spiritual preceptor. A mantram must be uttered,
breathed, whispered with extreme accuracy. There
must be no omission, no false accent, no mispronun¬
ciation; anything of the kind destroys its efficacy. It
has to be repeated while sitting in certain settled Yogic
N. 10.] WITCHCRAFT 243

postures (Asana such as Padmasana, Koormasaua, etc.),

which itself has to be studied with great care. A Yogi
who has gone through the several stages could wield
the mantra with greater effect than one who has only
studied the mantra by heart and could repeat it like a
parrot. We have already seen that the mantravadi calls
in the aid of most of the Brahman divinities and it will
also be noticed that the mantras by which they are
invoked are all or mostly in the Sanskrit language.
Minor spirits and especially the evil ones, are of
Dravidian origin and are addressed in the Malayalam
language. There are works on Mantravadam which
contain mantrams that show a commingling of the two
languages of which we have already furnished an
example. Those mantras in Sanskrit to which the
mystic word Om is prefixed and which end with the
word Swaha and to which a Rishi, a Ckandas and a
Devaia are assigned may invariably be taken as of
Aryan origin. The Dravidian mantrams, besides being
in the Malayalam language, have their accompaniments
in elaborate ceremonies of an unsavoury nature. While
the Aryan Yentrams are almost exclusively in the form
of geometrical figures, the Dravidian ones, not seldom,
partake of the nature of the figures of their deities.
The Aryan yentrams will be found illuminated with the
mystic signs of Sakti> Swastikam, Padmam, etc., besides
showing the beejaksharam or the first syllable of the
mantram to which the yentram belongs.
The belief in the efficacy of Mantram is justified
by some on scientific grounds but it is beyond our
scope to go into the question here. The following,
however, is the explanation as to mesmeric and mam
traic cures offered by a Theosophist.
“It is a well-ascertained fact that by means of
mesmerism hundreds of thousands have been cured, and
by using the will power, people given up for years by
physicians as incurable have gone on living, despite
professional prognostications. As to the recitation of
244 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

mantrams producing an immediate relief, this is quite a

different thing. We cannot call their effect mesmerism,
since the curative agency in that is an anima, aura,
force or fluid in one person, by means of which a
peculiar action is set up in the physical system of
another whether without or with direct contact. We
confess we do not see how anything of that kind—we
mean a nervous fluid or force—can be said to reside
in a mantram, even as a potentiality since a mantram
is simply a recitation of certain verses held sacred
among the Hindus. Yet, if repeated loudly and after a
certain rule of phonetics, i, e., chanted in a peculiar
way, we do not know why the resultant sound could
not possess as curative a power in itself as a mesme¬
ric force. The latter is neither, more ponderable nor
more visible, than the former and is certainly not
audible, which sound is. If the dulcet tones of a flute
have been known to soothe and in many instances to
arrest for a considerable time the throbbings of the nerves
in fits of sciatica—-why not the rhythmic sounds of a
Sanskrit mantram ? The forefathers of many Brahmans,
if not the latter themselves—must have certainly known
more of the mystery of sound than Professor Tyndall,
even though that learned gentleman has succeeded
in drawing musical sounds from fire and imponderable
gases” 1 .

Writing of the efficacy of the geometrical figure,

the five-pointed star, in cases of bites and stings of
poisonous insects, etc., Babu Kedarnath Basu says:—

“I am of opinion that the Aryans introduced very

judiciously signs, mystical incantations and so forth in
connection with their magnetic manipulations, to secure
the belief and faith of ignorant people who would not
have otherwise relied upon their efficacy. It is the innate
nature of ignorant people and savages to attribute the
cause of cures of diseases to miracles wrought by
?. Esoteric Hinduism, Book I, page 111—J12,
N. io.] WITCHCRAFT 245

charms or other supernatural means and this peculi¬

arity is seen all over the world. The Aryans to satisfy
and suit the low mental capacities of such people intro¬
duced cabalistic signs and mantras or mystical incant¬
ations and sundry other processes, merely to secure
the patient’s faith and belief which materially assist the
manipulating process towards the cure of maladies.
Therefore it cannot be said that the whole mystery and
philosophy lie on the cabalistic signs or mantras,
themselves, but on the magnetic manipulations and
will-power evinced in effecting them.”
Speaking of the Pentagram, which when drawn
over the part affected is alleged to relieve pain from
scorpion sting, Madame BJavatsky says in the Theoso*
phist:—
“Like the six-pointed star which is the figure of
the Macrocosm, the five-pointed star has its own deep
symbolic significance, for it represents the microcosm.
The former—the ‘double triangle’ composed of two
triangles respectively white and black—crossed and
interlaced (our society’s symbol)—known as a sign of
VisQU in India—is made to represent the universal
spirit and matter, one white point, which symbolises
the former ascending heavenward, and the two points
of its black triangle inclining earthward. The Penta¬
gram also represents spirit and matter, but only as
manifested upon earth emblem of the microcosm or the
(“little universe”) faithfully mirroring in itself the
macrocosm (or the great Cosmos), it is the sign of the
supermacy of human intellect or spirit over brutal
matter”
“The explanation given by the Theosophists for
the occasional success obtained in relieving pain (such
as scorpion-bites) by the application of the Pentagram
—a success by the bye which with the knowledge of the
cause producing it might with some persons become
permanent and sure—is a little less supernatural, and
rejects every theory of “spirit agency accomplishing it
246 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

whether these spirits be claimed human or elemental.

True the five-pointed shape of the star has something
to do with it as will be now explained, but it depends
on and is fully subservient to the chief agent in the
operation, the alpha and omega of the magical force—
Human will. All the paraphernalia of ceremonial
magic—perfumes, vestments, inscribed hieroglyphics
and nummeries are good ; but for the beginner, the
neophyte, his powers have to be developed, his mental
attitude during the operations defined and his will
educated by concentrating it on such symbols” .
“What is in a sign?’ will our readers ask. ‘No
more than in a name’—we shall reply. Nothing except
that as said above it helps to concentrate the attention,
hence to nail the will of the operator to a certain point.
It is the magnetic or mesmeric fluid flowing out of the
finger’s ends of the hand tracing the figure which cures
or at least stops the acute pain in benumbing the nerves
and not the figure per se. And yet there are some
proficients who are able to demonstrate that the five-
pointed star, whose points represent the five cardinal
limbs or those channels of man—the head, the two arms
and the two legs~from whence the mesmeric currents
issue the strongest, the simple tracing of that figure
(a tracing produced with far more efficacy with the
finger ends than with ink, chalk or pencil) helped by a
strong desire to alleviate pain will very often force out
unconsciously the healing fluid from all these extre¬
mities with far more focce than it otherwise would.
Faith in the figure is transformed into intense will, and
the latter into energy; and energy from whatsoever
feeling or cause it may proceed, is sure to rebound some¬
where and strike the place with more or less force; and
naturally enough that place will be the locality upon
which the attention of the operator is at that moment
concentrated and hence—the cure attributed by the
self-ignorant mesmeriser to the Pentagram” 1 .
1. Esoteric Hinduism, Book I pp. 112 to 114,
 N. ii.] DAYS OF LUCK AND OF ILL-LUCK 247

11. Days of luck and of ill-luck. 1 The days

on which the following lunar asterisms fall are con¬
sidered auspicious days to start on a journey.—
Aswati (ist), Rohini (4th), Makeeram (5th), Punartham (7th),
Pooyatn (8th), Utram (I2th)% Atham (13th), Choli {15th), Anizham
(r7th), Utradam (.21st), Tiruvonam (22nd), Avittam (23rd), Cha-
thayam (24th), Utrattathi (26th), Eravathi (27th), Mulam (igth),-
in all 16 days.

Of these, UtrStam and rl iruvoriam are inauspicious

days to start for a journey towards the east; Uttrattati
and A$wati towards the south, Rohini and Puyam to¬
wards the west; Utram and Attam towards the north.
The traveller should in no case start on the day
on which his natal star falls to any place. Of the
week days do not start on a Sunday towards the east,
on a Tuesday towards the south-east; on a Thursday
towards the south; on a Wednesday towards the south¬
west; on a Friday towards the west; on a Saturday
towards the northwest; and on a Monday towards the
north.
No one should return to his house on the 9th day
or on the 9th month after leaving it. Women should
avoid Fridays for starting on a journey.
One should not undertake any monetary trans¬
action on the following dajs of the lunar asterism_
K5r$ika(3rd) Ufram(1 2th) Mulam (19th; Makam (10th)
Chiftira (14th) Revati (27th).
The money that you advance on these days will
never return to you. And what is more any additional
money you may have in hand will also be lost forever
A Malaydi forecasts the result of his mission by
taking note of the first object he meets on setting out
of his house.
If on starting on his errand, he meets with a good
Sakuna (omen) he is sure of success. If however, he
meets with bad omens, he at once retraces his steps;

r. See South-Indian Customs by Mr. V. Taeadisa A war.

a48 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24

but if he persists and proceeds onward, his belief is

that he would be disappointed.
Good Omens.—The following are considered aus¬
picious objects and sounds good to be seen and heard
when one sets out on a mission or journey:—
The sound produced by an Indian lute, a flute, a
tabor, a conch, a kettle-drum, a drum; joyful music, a
well-shaped woman, a harlot, curdled milk, pigment of
rice, saffron and lime, sugar-cane and things of that
sort,; sandalwood, a vessel filled with holy water,
flowers, a garland, fruits, a virgin, a bell, a light lotus
flower.
Another list of such objects is:—
An intoxicating drink, raw flesh, earth, a corpse,
a burning light, pigment of rice, etc., as above, ghee,
sandalwood, white flowers, a pair of Brahmans,
plantain, a harlot, curdled milk, honey, sugar-cane, an
elephant, a litter, a horse, a palankin, a Raja, an ox or
a cow with rope round its neck.
The following are considered as objects of ill
omen, so that if any of these confront any one when he
sets out on a journey, the purpose of his trip, it is
supposed, would not be realised: —
Ashes, fuel, oils, an ass, a broomstick, a winnow,
holy grass, a buffalo, an ox, sesam, salt, rope, butter¬
milk, an axe, a sitikan i.e., one of a class of Nayars
who officiate as priest at the obsequies of other class
Nayars, a convict, a barber, any one with a physical
defect, a widow, a serpent, iron, a beggar, a cat,
flowers used at the obsequial ceremony of Nayars.
Mr. Logan furnishes us with a list of objects and
sounds which are generally considered as good and bad
omens and it is as follows:—
“Good O mens—Thz sight of such birds as crows, cock
and pigeons, etc., and beasts as deer, etc., moving from
left to right, and dogs and jackals moving inversely,
and other beasts found similarly and singly, wild crow,
ruddy goose, mongoose, goat and peacock seen singly
N. ii.] DAYS OF LUCK AND ILL-LUCK 249

or in couples either at right or left; the rain-bow seen

on right or left side or behind, prognosticates good,
but the reverse if seen in front.
“Butter-milk, raw aice, Puttalpira (Trichosanthes
anguina) Priyangis, flower, honey, ghee, red cotton
juice, Antimony, sulpharate, metalic mug, bell ringing,
lamp, lotus, Kamika grass (Agrostis linearis) raw fish,
flesh, flour; ripe fruits, sweetmeats, gems, sandalwood,
elephant, pots filled with water, a virgin, a woman, a
couple of Brahmans, Rajas, respectable men, white
flowers, white yak tail, white cloth and white horse.
“Chank-shell, flagstaff, turband, triumphal arch¬
fruitful soil, burning fire, elegant eatables or drinkables,
carts with men in, cows with their young, mares, bulls,
or cows with ropes tied to their neck?, palanquin,
swans, peacock, and Indian crane warbling sweetly !!
“Bracelets, looking glass, mustard, Bezoor% any
substance of white colour, the bellowing of oxen, aus¬
picious words, harmonious human voice, such sounds
made by words or beasts, the uplifting of umbrellas,
flagstaffs and flags, hailing acclamations, sounds of
harp, flute, timbrel, tabor, and other instruments of
music, sounds of hymns of consecration and of vedic
recitations, gentle breeze all around happening at the
time of journey.
“Bad Omens.—The sight of men deprived of any
of their limbs, such as the lame or blind, etc., of corpse,
or wearer of cloth put on a corpse, coir pieces, broken
vessels, hearing of words expressive of breaking, burn¬
ing and destroying, etc., the alarming cry of aias! alas!,
loud screams, cursing, fumbling, sneezing, the sight of
a man in sorrow or one with a stick, a barber, or widow,
pepper and other pungent substances.
“The sight of a serpent, cat, iguana, blood-sucker,
or monkey passing across the road, or vociferous beasts
or birds such as jackals, dogs, kites, crying loud from
the eastern side, and of a buffalo, donkey or temple
bull, black grains, salt, liquor, hide, grass, dirt, faggots,
2 50 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

iron, and flower used for funeral ceremonies, a eunuch,

a ruffian, an outcast, vomit, excrement, stench, any
horrible figure, bamboo, cotton, lead, cots. Stools or
vehicles being carried with legs upwards, and dishes,
cups, etc., with mouth downwards vesse Is filled with
live coals, and which are broken and not burning,
broomstick, ashes, oil, winnow and a hatchet, etc.
Generally speaking, such things as are pleasant and
agreeable to the eye and the palate and such sounds as
are relished by the ear will be found to be considered
as good omens, while s uch as those that are unsightly
or distasteful and inharmonious are classed among
the bad ones.
Here we may refer to the explanation offered by
the philosophic Hindu in justification of the belief in
omens.
“It is said that, when a man starts on an errand,
if a Brahman comes opposite to him, it is an inauspi¬
cious omen. When a Brahman comes opposite to you,
his pure magnetic aura crosses, as it were, your pur¬
pose and therefore this omen is inauspicious.
“Whenever one proceeds on a journey, his ‘Double’
travels through the whole journey quick as thought.
Being: more amenable to the fine forces of nature, it
experiences the same state of things as it would if it
accompanied the body. Now, if the double undergoes
any serious obstacles or risks on the way it instantly
comes back and reenters the body, it may be in a
convulsed state, and gives signs of warnings.
Some birds may have the power of observing the
convulsed state of the double, and their voice, if
properly understood, may warn against danger.’'2
To see a lighted lamp, a fruit tree like the cocoa-
nut and a jackal, the first time you open your eyes in
the morning is propitious. A cat and a broomstick
is a bad sight.
1. Vol. I, pp. 177—178.
2. Esoteric Hinduism^ P. n—56.
 N. n.J DAYS OF LUCK AND ILL-LUCK 2Si

The house-lizard, the crow, the screech owl, the

snowy owl, the horned owl, are all prophets of future
events. The lizard is a great prognisticator of events.
There are experts who are versed in the Gowlisastram
who profess to interpret the import of the chirping of
lizards when made in particular ways and at particular
periods of time or from particular directions. The
Gowlisastra is an elaborate treatise dealing with the
subject.
If at the time of the starting on a journey a lizard
chirps from a point over your seat or from the east,
west, or north, the object of your errand will be
attained. If from the southeast you attain wealth, if
from northwest you will have to wander in foreign
climes; if from the southwest you will be overwhelmed
with sorrow, if from the southwest you will meet with
difficulties and if from the south you will die ere long.
If the lizard happens to fall on your body it fore¬
bodes something.
If a lizard falls on the centre of the head, it
presages the death of one’s mother, brother or guru;
on the root of the nead, quarrel; on the forehead, sight
of hidden treasure, on the middle of the forehead,'
presents from kings; on the tip of the nose, many
diseases; on the upper or lower lip, wealth, on the
cheeks, loss of money, on the ears, eyes, and sides of
the face including the temple, an inclination of the
mind to die; on the neck, company with good men;
on the armpit, sorrow; on the chest, great pain; on the
belly fear of great men; on the hands, gain of wealth;
on the sides, pain caused by enemies; on the private
parts, fear from serpents, on the thighs or knees, child
birth; on the feet, pilgrimage; or the underpart of the
feet, a meal with milk-
Note.—Right side for males and left for females.
If by accident a lizard falls while one is in a temple,
or on the banks of a river, or near the holy fig tree or
the baniyan tree, there is never any evil result
whatever.
*52 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

Ascending is said to indicate prosperity and

descending, the reverse of it. As a remedy for the
evils have resort to Sankara for refuge.
The crow too possesses prophetic power. Its cry
uttered in a peculiar way accompanied with the
flapping of the wings is indicative of the arrival of
guests from that quarter to which its tail is turned at
the time. Again if you see the crow immersing itself
in water or if it flaps its wings against you both are
indicative of coming deaths in your family.
The hooting of the screech owl is said to forebode
a death or birth in the family nearest to the place
where the noise is made. The exact nature of the
event is thus recognised. If the cry comes from the
southern quarter of the house, it shows that a birth is
shortly to take place in the house; if on the contrary,
it comes from a northerly direction, then it is a death
that is to be expected. The cries of the snowy owl
and the horned owl also forebode death.
A firefly by getting inside a house at night gives
warning that thieves or robbers would break into the
house that night.
In Malabar it is not the simple deluded Hindu
alone who is superstitious- The Christian, the
Mohammadan and the Jew are not a whit behind in
superstitious beliefs and observances. These have
many charms against the evil eye, etc.
Dr. Day tells us that Syrian Christians are as
superstitious as the Hindus. “One of their most
extraordinary ceremonies’ * says he “consists in poking
out the eye of Judas Iscariot. On Good Friday, a cake
on which is a representation of an eye, is placed in the
midst of the family circle. Each person is armed
with the knife, and in succession makes a dig at the
eye, after this is satisfactorily destroyed the cake is
cut up and distributed. One sect were said not long
since, once a year, to have had their sins written out
in a piece of paper by a Kathanar (Priest) and then
 N. i«.] DAYS OF LUCK AND ILL-LUCK 253

placed inside a loaded bamooo gun and discharged, in

the midst of a great feast, the uproar thus effectually
dissipating and destroying, their year’s accumulation
of misdemenanours”.
The Roman Catholics are as superstitious, as the
Syrians if not more. They perform vows, make pil.
grimages to certain Churches, perform Sradhas, hang
about their necks the picture of the Madonna and the
child, wear charms and do a thousand other super,
stitious things. It is no unusual sight to see, in the
interior parts specially, the skull of an animal raised
on a stick in a Christian s paddy field to avert the evil
eye, in the same manner as in those of the sorrounding
Hindus. 8
Many of the Mohammadan Tangals or Priests
dabble in magic, and the use of charms is an accepted
fact. They have their own Manlratns, texts from the
Koran, which are very much used just as the Hindu
magician uses his Mantrams. That well known magi
cian of Palghat, Usana Ravuthan, was a Mohammedan.
They suspend charms from the ceilings of their houses
to avert the evil eye. The Jews also put up figure
in front of their houses for the same purpose. All
classes load their children with "charmed jewels,
specially tiger s claws and teeth set in gold or silver, as
a preventive from the effects of the evil eye.
No doubt these superstitions' are wearing away
under the stress of progressive education arid
advancing civilization. In Malabar the Hindu and
the Christian vie with each other in taking advantage
of the western education given them and they show an
adaptability to progressive ideas that is truly note-
worthy- Many of the superstitious practices noticed
above have been already dropped while many more
are being discontinued.
1. From birth to death, almost every important act of a Malayali
in that long or short interval is done after consulting a propitious
time for each. The auspicious time for the performance of each
of the Skoda sa-kryakal is previously ascertained. For sowing.
254 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

reaping and filling the granary; for planting trees and plucking
nuts; for starting on a journy or for returning home after it; for
taking medicines, even for consulting physicians, for taking loans
and liquidating debts for sparing and taking oil-baths, for
constructing houses and occupying them—in short, for anything
and everything the good hour has to be chosen and adhered to.
In old days, the magician and the astrologer loomed large in rural
life. Even now, they are not considered as unwelcome or unwanted
people.
To the Malayali, the first cf Medam, on which the Vishu
ordinarily falls, is the beginning of the year. On that day, when
he gets up in the morning, he must see nice things only, which
would be arranged the previous night. Daily, there are people,
who are particular to look at pictures of gods and goddesses when
they get up from their sleep at dawn. On Vishu day, after bath
and worship, a person is expected to take a fully ripe cocoanut,
and after washing it to roll it to the east. When it stops, you can
deduce the year’s good and civil to the roller from the position of
its top. I shall here quote one of the few verses on the
subject.
<012)0$^euoccecwa^scy coocwx^lcaoaA crpsudoocos
6c&ail<26m »'lmaooao')cn>jO(oi> aJc&fU® ecoocoajlciulou
It seems the dawn of every day is good for starting on
journeys. Then, you need regard the day of the week or the
pakkam or thithi. Every one will do well to repeat certain slokams
for the success of the object for which a journey is undertaken
I shall transcribe one of them.
(8TO ($£)«(3) 0 Cn©Crulo«aO0S2> cya^lIOTO CO(33CU)*DJ8 3
Qjocbj«oooo^ cjoaoo^aoio)© cruoosxo® (ooaej^sjsm®.
If a stone or any other hard substance comes in forcible
contact with any of the digits of your feet on starting on a journey
the following results are likely to happen.
(BTOOT)sr^QJ^6imj(Tgaj5rr^ejo«@0 Qjjoco'lgco'laaosajaj-

Please begin with the small digit of the left foot and the
large one of the right to find out the corresponding result.
Similarly, for seing the moon for the first time in the bright
fortnight, you have to look to the day of the week. The results
of the days beginning from Sunday are thus summarised.
op 6U « @ col co)'l ^loro) c9s 0 oo) 0 0^1® (0 0 co 8
The good and evil omens are given below.
a)1rno®ajsrto@aocoooo6ijaJSQO@DJoao6Kaj ®e<o1<oojo
coIodo ai*coQja*coaoo6r5ELicosnr>1«a>oo e @0j<e&3«(3)caa3 joalc&o
 N. ii.l DAYS OF LUCK AND ILL-LUCK 255

§cyo_QJCY3cn aosacv^&o ao&jooan&jo aciojAoo

QG]SVT30o Q*]aJ(TD(g(DOfa3(2aD.QJOg)(g8o o/)aj<m1(2n®TU)0 6n4CJU8

asjo o-i-Q4oo;1o_Q4l flbg^ooaiajo OTi'l^ea^aj)©

fflcn^o jucBmajo aoj <3 (OY^Acrpao q/1q_j3 jqq) 0 c&oqd^o
«QjcojO(£r^p 6>aa»(2> Qanab Acodcnj cosajo an6n§00johsrrcDO&ajo
(OOffiOClJo AQOO^g AOgl aJG®QJo CQ10(05)0€611 <J 000(3 0Q(\

A^ancsyo _o^pjq ^oo b<&>&ayo

gqjogrso ^oood aag^i^aj a<32K>,o cs)^o a>g>go'lcsTIArri

asmi)*)^6n\x;,l(a)noocoQo’lcr) cuIojoj o c« ®&aj ootiD on oojo^foo^
(t sajejlo^^siatrnLiJsiQcy<g)(ara)*)s'l(oi croso cnlcolano.

To counteract the evil effects of a bad on en, one is advised

to repeat the following slokarn three times.
(0i9>aJQoaojaoofo)O(Oo Boanooo arucyarucmsoo
fl&ioc&oelooao (go^cooao (§«qqjo i^eccio cnaooyoo©.

Good or bad results will follow according to the place where

a house lizard falls on one’s body. Here is one of the many
verses on the subject.
O0l«C00(*>rt<B@OJ OJ (8(0)01) 6>CO0g.'li2a3^A(gO^(i>^(2(OO^@a»l3
c&filQDgo''|(0 (HT^COOS^O £J &J3 <2 s Cnlo/lG GO CP O
A good Hindu is expected and ordained to read and study the
almanac daily. This practice is perhaps intended to keep him in
touch with the information given above and also that of a similar
sort, not surely to increase the sale of the book where all these
bits of information are found scrupulously recorded.
oJ6r2uoocoo ajoeco) nol(<5)jo (S’^)o^(2il;^cra)'l«aj) <D(008
OTDcmlsc^io^aoejo sajjaaioo ccocoocr^oooo bIceco alecn
and so on.
Superstitions are not confined to Malabar or even to India.
The records of the Folklore Societies of Europe and America
reveal the hold these have on even educated people in those
countries also.
On the advent of distinguished visitors to a residence, or
when a bridegroom comes to the house of the bride, or vice versa
for the first time, or when a member of a family returns to his
home after a pilgrimage or a long absence, all these are expected
to be welcomed by persons holding lights and plates containing
astamangalyam (eight propitious articles). These are:
<7.snf)ciJonod juoctcj} tf) osd ajug_jo aja^Aajo cto±)d
6) QJ gg_.QJ O cry (2]0 ajggsa a^aoCO£Jj2dfl$T36)(D.

For the first twelve days in Karkadagam (July-August), every

house-holder places certain things in front of a light, which should
never be allowed to go out. The light and plate of articles are
placed generally in the rocm in front of the granary. The room
256 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 24.

will be smeared with cow-dung and purified. These are intended

for the goddess of wealth who it is believed will be visiting every
house where she is worshipped with faith and devotion. The
articles to be placed are.
&a3a")c863§<fl6> 6>anilIsojourn c&jjr^oslcsyo
6)-Q-la_jo aJa^cftcxjo OjSc0Sja_JSQJ0 Q^laJo CyFO'>a_J0110040

a_jc£3o cusxaTcno§ cftO6n§100*1(6 ojejc&csyo ©cr^o la-jsoonocoe<2>

6>ai.£yoa5i> izoco^jsq ajanoecocucrn'lcdoocmDOcr) jio(tu£)OCO(2)oo ,

Besides these things, fresh flowers are placed before the light
and ashtagandham (eight scented articles) are burnt. The old
and the young of the family chant their prayers from near the
light.
The ten flowers dasa-pushpam, referred to in the above si ok am
are.
o4cyoo&Q,CKJ)&J ^cfyasijajyaf) aniaj) qcyo
^cesooTayo ajcnotyaoa©«3JO§
cw(gig-|g3 (tooiT) ao04ee Istotcq c&stoy^
sr^lanjoel cUc^QOOsiaaD ;rocTl6rarc8®<froOo<&.
Every one is expected to wear these ten flowers on one’s
head on those days.
To prepare for a rich harvest, there is a ceremony, cabled
Illom-Nira, in the month of Cancer. Oaths appointed, auspicious
day and hour, dasa-pushpam with twigs of certain specified trees,
bits of certain creepers and spikes of corn are brought in and kept
on a purified plank of wood and worshipped in a particular
fashion. Then, bits of these are to be kept in the granary, kitchen,
etc., until they are replaced by similar things in the subsequent year.
These two slokams will give the reader an idea of the
ceremony.
oogjottfb acogjlay oflgjl an04 ojtotdo
ooqjooi 000 aj° o-4ao
m^jQ<spjo.g>aT>Q(Dgiajaisg1<^>0o c&©4
e<e®OS*l 6>QJ<3<rls&6TOTC»<B O
d&gjjsmo 00004033140 o)loo_jooda>0(0
a^(0o elojcajo
g> m 0 gj ggy o gg <& &> §cnoco)6ai®oi|

go^o orflocg^flnaacr). 11

04030 oreco^sj oilsoojooj©am aO(o"l

clJ^QO -QgOQo (5)(g) Qjlo^o

(8Y0)CUOciOJOCTDJOS3«S«00 (0)1 CQJ aa4‘'l (1400

(oocooooij cjuoai |0 eo6LD0«e/0)o

N, ii,] DAYS OF LUCK AND ILL-LUCK *57
aJCnuO(UKJ)o ^(0f®1a4fB0(g=JgCO)1cftCL6)j’leJe

c6»0(OCQ) Clb cd»0(3o

coj«cn)j e*lcooar>«dBbo©6ro nrgfi&sij^! ajlco'lto'lanl

cjoooqj cyasaoj.i i Ed.]
 LETTER XXV.

i. Chronology: of Bible and of gentiles.

Like a devout Christian and a true priest of the
Church, our author attempts to maintain the
correctness of Biblical chronology and falls foul of the
chronological systems of Eastern nations. He quotes
as authority the observations of St. Augustine in sup¬
port of his position as to the relative value of scrip¬
tural and Eastern Chronology. But St. Augustine as a
Saint of the Holy Church assumes, as he is bound to
do, that all that is related in the Holy Scripture is
what God spoke to His creatures. From this premise
it of course follows that what is said there, 5 ‘is more
worthy of credit than the words of men, because He
can foretell long before the things which are to happen.”
Even among: Christians themselves there are those who
have conscentious doubts as to the Bible being ‘the
word of God,! and all who are not Christians in reli¬
gion do not accept it as a revelation from God. Perhaps
our author would be shocked to read Mr. Havelock
Ellis’ observation that “portions of the Bible, specially
of Genesis, are in the strict sense fairy tales, that is
legends of early gods and their deeds which have be¬
come stories”.1 What value can be attached to the
views of St. Augustine on such matters may be gather¬
ed from what the great Divine says with regard to the
existence of Antipodes. Referring to scriptural testi¬
mony on the question, the saint observes, “the story of
there being Antipodes or men on the opposite side of
the earth, where the sun rises when it sets to us, plant¬
ing their foot steps opposite to our feet, is on no ac¬
count to be believed”, and that “even if the earth be a
globe (a thing in his mind very doubtful), it does not

z. The Nineteenth Century and after for May 1907, p.

774).
N. i.] CHRONOLOGY 259

follow that the opposite side is not an ocean, and, even

should it be bare of water, it is not necessary that it
has inhabitants; since the scripture is in no way false,
but secures belief in its narrative of the past, inasmuch
as its predictions of the future are accomplished. And
it is utterly absurd to suppose that any man should have
crossed the vast ocean from this side to that to establish
the human race”.1 But geographical researches have
demonstrated the incorrectness of the Saint’s argument
and his conclusion. Speaking of the Era of the creation
of the world, the writer on Chronology in the Encyclo¬
paedia Britanica says, “The latter (the Christians)
began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckon¬
ing their years from the supposed period of the crea¬
tion of the world. The chronological elements on which
both Jews and Christians founded in their computations
for determining this period were derived from the Old
Testament narratives, which have been transmitted to
us through three distinct channels. These are the
Hebrew text of Scriptures and Samaritan text and the
Greek version known as the Septuagint. In respect of
chronology, the three accounts are totally irreconcil¬
able with each other and no conclusive reason can be
given for preferring any one of them to another. We have
no current testimony with which to compare them; nor
is it even known which of them was regarded as
the most probable by the Jews themselves, when
the books of the Old Testament were revised and
transcribed by Ezra. The ordinary rules ot probabi¬
lity cannot be applied to a state of things in which the
duration of human life is represented as existing to
nearly a thousand years.”2
Science has long ago disproved the correctness of
Biblical chronology so far, at any rate, as regards the
age of the earth, though attempts have not been
i. Aug. de Civitate, Dee. lib,, XVI, cap. IX,quoted by Arch¬
deacon Pratt in his Scripture and Science not at Variance (Sixth
Edition pp. 18—19).
’ i. Vol. s, P' 713, 9th Edition
26o LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 2?.

wanting to reconcile scientific chronology with scrip*

tural by giving rather unnatural and far fetched in¬
terpretations to certain passages in the Bible*
The Hindu system of Yugas, Maha yugas and
Kalpams may be extravagant, taking us back to millions
and trillions of years. But we have the authority of
great scientists like Professor Giekie, “that geological
evidence indicates an interval of probably not much
less than one hundred million years since the earliest
forms of life appeared upon the earth and the oldest
stratified rocks began to be laid down”, and of Lord
Kelvin that, “most probably, the antiquity of the
planet we live and move upon can not be much more
than one hundred million years”* In these days every
educated man may be presumed to know something of
the evolutionary progress of the earth and of the ani¬
mal and vegetable life thereon, so that it is difficult
to pin one’s faith to the statements contained in the
Bible regarding the creation of the earth and its deni¬
zens.
2. Kali Yugam. While the Hindu chronology
relieves us from the absurdity of believing that the earth
is only 6,ooo years old as asserted by Christian divines,
it plunges us into the vortex of a vast ocean of years
even beyond the dreams of modern scientists. The
Malayalees have accepted the Hindu system. This
system as propounded in the PurSnSs and astronomical
works shows but little difference.
The Vishnu Purana1 says:—“The deity Time is
without beginning and to him there is no end; from
him the revolutions of creation, continuance and final
dissolution unremittingly proceed”. Again-, the same
work contains the following:—‘‘O wise one, in conse¬
quence of the eternal reverend Vishnu coming into
being from objects, as Brahma: the grand-father, he is
designated as produced. According to the measure set
1. Book I, Chapter 2, p. 26.
2. In Chapter III, 4, et seq.
N. 2.] KALI YUGAM 261

by him, human life is known as consisting of an

hundred years. This (age) is called para, and the half
thereof Parardha. O sinless one, do thou listen to me
as I mention unto thee the divisions of that which I
have named unto thee as the Time-form of Vishnu,—
in relation to Him as well as other creatures, and
mobile and immobile objects, and the seas and all other
things, O best of men. O chief of ascetics, a kastha
is composed of fifteen nimeshas\ (a nimesha is the
twinkling of an eye), thirty haslhas make up a Kala,
and thirty Kalas a muhurta; and as many muhurtas
make up a day and a night unto human beings. As
many days and nights form a month; and a month con¬
sists of two fortnights. Six months form#an ayana\
and a year is composed of two ay anas, one northern,
the other southern. The southern ayanci is the night
of the celestials, as the northern is their day. The
period of twelve thousand years of the deities constitute
the four YugSs, viz** Krita, Treta> and the others
(i. e., Dwapara and Kali.) Do thou understand that?
(The division of the Yugas). Chronologists say that
four, three, two, and one thousand divine years succes¬
sively compose Krita and the other YugSs. A
hundred divine years are said to constitute the first
twilight, as another hundred years the last, of the
Yuga. The space that intervenes between these twi¬
lights goeth by the name of Yuga, embracing Krita,
Treta and the rest. And O anchoret, a thousand of
the four YugSs, Krita, Treta, DwSpara and Kali con¬
stitute one day of Brahma:. One day of Brahms,
O Brshmana, compriseth four and ten reigns of the
Manus (a generic name of the progenitors of mankind).
Listen to the chronology thereof! The seven saints,
the celestials, Sakra, Manu, and his sons—kings all of
them—are created at the same time and, as formerly,
(I fail to perceive the sense of this, unless it meant as
they have been created afor time—T.) are destroyed at
the same time. O excellent one, a little over seventy-
one four Yu^Ss constitute a Maawantara—the period
262 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

of Mann as well as the gods. Manwantara takes up

over eight lakshas (lacs) and fifty-two thousand years;
and, O twice-born one, full thirty (one million) Kotis,
above sixty-seven (ten millions) niyutas and about
twenty-thousand human years. Ten and fourteen such
periods (Manwantaras) form one day of Brahma.
Then comes on his sleep (extending over as many
Manwantaras) and at the end thereof, the universal dis¬
solution”1
The great work on Astronomy, the Surya Sid-
dhanta2 also speaks of the same divisions. According
to it, the Krita Yuga with its Sandhya and Sandkyamsa
consists of 1,728,000 years.
The Treia Yuga 1,296,000 >>

The Dwapara Yuga 864,000 »

The Kali Yuga 432,000 >>

Thus a Maha Yuga consisting of these four

Yugas comprise 4,320,000 years.
71 such Maha Yugas with
an additional Sandhya at the close
of 1,728,000 years make one
Manwantara of 308,448,000 ,,
14 such Manwantaras with
another Sandhya at the begin¬
ning of 1,728,000 years consti¬
tute one Kalpa of 4,320,000,000
2 Kalpas make a day and night
of Brahma of 8,640,000,000 ,,
360 such days and nights
make one Brahma’s year
3*110,400,000,000 ,,
100 such days constitute his
life-time of 311,040,000,000,000 ,,
and there have been and will be many such Brahmas
in the eternity of time.

1. Dutt’s Translation of Vishnu Puranas pp, u to 13.

2. Chapter 1.
N. 2.] KALI YUGAM 263

Such division of time is somewhat peculiar to

India and the Hindus, and is not common to any other
countries, so much so, that Mill in his History of
India observes that a chronology involving such im¬
measurably long periods of time is a sure sign of
savagery on the part of the people who adopt it.
Professor Rangachariar has, after an elaborate consi¬
deration of the system of Yugas, come to the conclusion
“that most Indian astronomers have all along taken the
Aa/pasj Mahayugas, and Yugas, though perhaps based
on some kind of old tradition, as mere astronomical
conventions”. He points out that Arybhatta, the
great Hindu Astronomer, “was certainly aware of the
Puranic and Smriti periods of Kalpa, Mahayuga and
Yuga, as being those that were adopted as authoritative
in the Surya—and other Sidhantas. Nevertheless,
having understood the import and purpose of the
astronomical adoption of these periods of time, he did
not hesitate to simplify them even by handling them
in an unorthodox fashion”. In fact the ideas of Kalpa,
Manwantara, and Yuga, have no meaning apart from
indicating that time is endless—or as the Vishnu Puraria
puts it,“The deity Time is without beginning and to him
there is no end.” Mr. Muir observes in the first volume
of his Sanskrit Texts “that this elaborate system of
Yugas, ManwantarSs, and Ralphs finds no place in
the hymns of the Rig Veda" and Professor Ranga¬
chariar says that “in the Brahmanas also, so far as at
present known, there seems to be no mention made of
any such long cycles as our current KalpSs.” So also
the Vedic Calendar, as given in the Vedanga Jyotisha*
makes no reference to the long Yugas, Manwantaras and
Kalpas.

The immense duration of the ages as quoted above

from the Vishnu Parana is peculiar to the Puranas. It
will be found that the Mahabharata and the Manu
Smriti shorten this vast expanse of time considerably.
264 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

Dr. Roth in his monumental lexicon states that, “accord¬

ing to the earlier conception stated in Manu and Maha-
bharata, the four Yugss Krita, Trgta, DwSpara, and
Kali, with their mornings and evenings, consisted
respectively of no more than 4,800,—3,600,—2,400 and
1,200 ordinary years of mortals.’’
We read in the Mahabharata, Vana Parva^ Chap¬
ter 188:—4,000 years have been said to constitute the
Krita Yuga. Its dawn also, as well as its eve, hath been
said to comprise 400 years. The Treta Yuga is said
to comprise 3,000 years and its dawn, as well as its eve, is
said to comprise 300 years. The Yuga that comes next
is called DwSpara and it hath been computed to consist
of 2,000 yefrs. Its dawn as well as its eve is said to
comprise 200 years. The next Yuga called Kali is said
to comprise 1,000 years and its dawn as well as its eve,
is said to comprise 100 years. When the Kali Yuga
is over, the Krita Yuga begins. This period of 12,000
is called by the name ‘Yuga’. One full thousand of
such YugSs would constitute a day of Brahma. Simi¬
larly in the Manu Smriti”.
It is by interpreting the years mentioned above to
mean not merely the ordinary years of mortals, but
‘divine years’ or “Deva Varishams” as our author terms
them—the years of the gods—that commentators have
stretched the periods into the long expanse of time
already noticed. But, as remarked by Mr* W. J.
Wilkins T,“in the text of Mahabharata, no mention is
made of the years comprising the different yugas as
being divine years,” According to the Taihtriya
Brahmana, 2 “One day of the Devas is a Samvatsara
(human year).” The Suryasidhanta, the Vishnu
Parana and a number of other works refer to the same
idea. This idea of “divine years’' may be said to have
some resemblance to the ‘period theory’ of Biblical
interpretation by which it is argued that the word ‘day’
1. Hindu Mythology p, 297.
in, 9,221.
 N. 3'4*] COIIAM ERA 2^5

is not always used in Scripture to mean a period 01 2\

hours.

3. Year begins in Thulam. Day of 60

hours. These are not correct. The year begins in
Chingam—(August—September) and not in Tula
Masam—(October -November). Each day is divided
into 60 nazhikas (not hours) equivalent to twenty-four
hours.

4. Coilatn Era. The Era mostly in use in Mala¬

bar is the Kollam Andu. There was however another
Era known as Putu Vyppu which is not in use now.

As to the origin of the Kollam Era^, there is much

diversity cf opinion. Our author says that the Era
takes its name from the northern Kollam or Kollam
Quilandy. But there are those who maintain that it
had its origin from the southern Kollam or Quilon.
Just as there are two Kollams, there are also t vo
Kollam Eras, the northern and the southern, with their
New Years commencing in different months.

Shungoonny Menon in his History of Travancore

says, “In the Kali year 3926 (825 A. D.), when King
Udaya Marthanda Varma was residing in Kollam
(Quilon), he convened a council of all the learned men
of Kerala with the object of introducing a new Era, and
after making some astronomical researches and cal¬
culating the solar movements throughout the twelve
signs of the Zodiac, and counting scientifically the num¬
ber of days occupied in this revolution in every month,
it was resolved to adopt the new Era from the 1st of
Chingam of that year, 15th August 825, as Kollam year
one, and to call it the solar year/’

This arrangement was approved of by all the wise

men of the time, and every neighbouring country began
to adopt the same. And this system of reckoning the
year, continues up to the present day throughout
Keralam, as well as in every part of the Kingdom of
 266 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 2$.

ChSra, then possessed by the King of Travancore. This

Era has been adopted by other kings also, as we see
that in Madura, Tinnevelly, and other countries, the
Kollam Era is commonly used in reckoning the year.
Stone inscriptions are generally found in Tinnevelly,
and other localities, which corroborate this statement.
The old records in the Trivandrum pagoda shew that
on the 5th Chingam of the first Kollam year, i* e*, five
days after the promulgation of the New year, the
members of the five Royal Houses of the Travan¬
core family, the Swamiyar (ecclesiastical head),
and all the nobility, etc., assembled in the Trivandrum
Pagoda, and introduced certain new rules or ordinances
for the conduct of the daily, monthly and yearly per¬
formances of pujas and other ceremonies in the
Pagoda. These rules are still in force in the said
Pagoda”*1
Dr. Gundhert suggests that the Era was meant to
celebrate the building of a Siva temple. But there is
no important Siva temple of antiquity either at Quilon
in Travancore or Kollam in Malabar. ‘‘In the nature
of things”, as remarked by Professor Sundram Pillai,
“we should expect a grander event of greater national
importance, in justification of the starting of an Era,
then the building of a nameless temple.” Two other
events of more importance are sometimes referred to
as marking the commencement of a new Era. They are
(1) The Mecca pilgrimage of the last CheramSn Peru-
msl and (2) the promulgation by Sankaracharya, the
great Vgdantist, of the 64 rules known as Anacharam .
With respect to the first event, Mr. Logan has accept¬
ed the conversion of the last Perumal to Islamism and
his Mecca pilgrimage as historic facts and has gone the
length of identifying the tomb of the convert Perumal
with one said to exist on the shores of the Persian
Gulf. He has with the help of the reported epitaph
thereon tried to fix the date of the Perumal’s death in
1. Pp, 88—89.
N. 4.] COILAM ERA 267

Kali year 3931 oa Kollam Andu 6. Supposing that

the Perumal was engaged in his voyage for six years,
the Kollam Era may be said to have commenced from
the date of his leaving Malabar. Elsewhere, we have
attempted to show, with some degree of certainty, that
there is very little foundation in history for the conver¬
sion and the pilgrimage of the Perumal. Apart from
this, as pointed out by Professor Sundram Pillai,
antecedent probability is wholly against this theory. It
is not likely in the first place that any nation would
establish an Era to celebrate a national disgrace. To
every Hindu, even after so much of Mahomedan inter¬
course, conversion of a Hindu to Islamism is still not
a very welcome idea, and how much so should it have
been a thousand years ago in the case of the conversion
of so revered a king as the true representative of the
old line of ChgramSn PerumSls. Again it is surpris¬
ingly strange that all Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore
should have united to start an Era exactly at the point
of time when their integrity, according to the very
hypothesis, was irreparably lost- The Chera Empire
is said to have fallen to pieces because of the apostacy
and the disappearance of the Perumal, and yet the
empire was at one, according to the theory, to start an
Era which is still in use throughout its original extant.
It has also to be remembered that the Era commences
in Chingam in Travancore in the south, while in Mala¬
bar in the north it begins only in Kanni, a full month
later, so that these different dates cannot be said to
commemorate the happening of any single event.

Proceeding to the second event, * the suggestion is

indeed plausible. One tradition in Malabar, alleges
that sankarachsrya promulgated the Anacharas or
irregular customs peculiar to the Nambutiri Brahmans
at Kollam on the 25 August 825 A. D., the first day of
the first year of the Kollam Era. The tradition receives
some colour from the Chronogram marking the com¬
mencement of the Kollam Era, viz:—
268 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

jp 6 1 4 3 4 1
/ Ach / Sr / y£ / vs / ks / bhed / yS /
which means “Achsrya’s, i.e. (Sankarschsrya’s) word
or law is unalterable”, or must not be changed. The
syllables represent figures as shown above and these
written backwards give the age in days of the Kali
yuga on the first day of the first Kollam year. The
tradition receives support from what is recorded in
the Keralolppatti 1 which says that when ChSramSn
Perumsl was ruling prosperously after having driven
out the invaders across the ghauts, there arose in
Malabar the great Vedantist Sankara an incarnation of
the God Siva, and he laid down laws and regulations for
the guidance of the various castes and classes of Mala¬
bar. The origin of the Chronogram, referred to, is
itself shrouded in obscurity. But it is significant that,
so far as at present known, all the theories yet advanced
converge in pointing to the early years of the 9th cen¬
tury as the probable period of Sankarschsrya. Mr.
K. B. Pattak has in the Indian Antiquary discussed
the age of Sankara and has come to the conclusion that
the only definite date that can be assigned with any
degree of probability to his death is 820 A. D. which
would be 4 years before the commencement of the
Kollam Era. The date of his birth according to the Slokas
in a manuscript volume in the possession of one Go-
vinda Bhattar of Belgaum is Vibhava Varsha Kali year
3889 (A. D. 787) and that of his death, full moon in
VaikSAi Kali year 3921 (A. D.819) Anyhow the theory
has a great deal of plausibility in it. But there is nothing
to show that Smkara is the author of the Anacharams
or that he promulgated the nr on any particular day or
in any particular year or at a particular place. Much
less is there anything to show any connection between
the promulgation of the rules and the starting of the
Era.
I have already observed that the difference in
months as to the commencement of the Kollam Era in
1 Mangalore edition, Chapter VI, p. 55.
N. 4.] C01 LAM ERA 269

the north and in the south shows that its origin

cannot be attributed to the happening of any single
event.
There is the theory put forward by Mr. Logan
that the two dates mark the acquisition of independ¬
ence of the Perumal by the two Kolattiri families, those
of Travancore in the south and Kolatnsd in the north*
9

Mr. Logan thinks that there is much to be urged in

favour of this view; but is at the same time of opinion
that it is unlikely that the dates of acquisition of inde¬
pendence should have fallen precisely on the first day
of two successive months. The so-called acquisition
of independence by the two Kolattiris rests wholly on
the peculiar view that Mr. Logan takes of the early
traditionary history of Kerala with very little evidence
to support it.
Another theory which attempts to account for the
two dates is that they relate to the founding of the two
Kollams; but we have already seen that one of the two
Kollams, the southern one, had been in existence for
two centuries at least before the date of the commence¬
ment of the Era. A third theory is that the dates
denote respectively the epochs when SankarSchaxya’s
Vedantic doctrines were accepted respectively by the
Brahmans of the southern and the Brahmans of the
northern portions of Kerala. Here again it is
rather curious that these Brahmans proposed to accept
the great teacher’s doctrines on any particular day, and
still more curious that the northerners waited exactly a
month, to a day to become the desciples of Sankara.
Mr. Logan refers to a still another theory which he is
inclined to think “is probably the true explanation of
difference”. He observes that it proceeds on the
assumption “that originally there was but one Era,
that it marked an event in the history of the country ?
and that, as this event fell in the middle of a month, the
initial day of the Kollam year was arbitrarily trans¬
ferred by the respective suzerains of the north and
270 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

south (in all probability the two Kolattiri dynasties),

the one to the beginning of the zodiacal month next
following (1st Kanni), and the other to that of the
Zodiacal month next preceding (1st Chingam) the
exact date of the event.” Mr. Logan does not refer
us to anv authority for the statements that the Era
marked any particular historical event or that this
event did fall in the middle of the month. The hypo¬
thetical event having happened in the middle of the
month, it would be violent to presume that the two
Suzerains, however powerful they were, would arbi¬
trarily transfer the date of its happening to an altogether
different day, the one by drawing it backward by half
a month and the other by advancing it forward by the
same period. In fact there is nothing to make the
theory probable.
Another event generally referred to as marking
the period of the commencement of the Kollam Era is
the institution of the Onam festival, the great national
annual festival of the MalaySlees. With regard to this
theory Mr* Logan observes that “the fact on which
this assumption, for it is nothing more, rests is that
the Onam festival falls on varying days at or about this
time of the year, and that in all title-deeds, horoscopes
and other writings in northern Keralam the year is
still sometimes written as having ended on the day
preceding the Tiru Onam day”. The Oriam festival
is a national institution, the heirloom of ages, and it is
hard to believe that it was instituted on any particular
day or by any particular person- It is supposed to
commemorate an event which goes far back into the
PurSriic ages. It is surprising that Mr. Logan thinks
that this theory is reconcilable with his own favourite
one that the Era had its origin on the day that the last
Perumsl sailed to Mecca—only that it should be assumed
that the Perumsl sailed on the Tiru Qnam day, the day
on which acknowledgments of fealty should have been
made. But why this assumption? Is it likely that
the subjects of the renegade Perumsl, who had brought
Nj 4.] C01LAM ERA 271

disgrace on the MalaySli nation and who was deserting

his post, leaving the country in confusion worse con¬
founded, would have approached him on the eve of his
flight to acknowledge fealty to him? Would not the
act of the Perumal in choosing the day of national
festival to quit Kerala and in summoning his
lieges to attend on him that day be adding insult
to injury? Surely it is somewhat difficult to accept
this theory.
Professor Sundram Pillai, after discussing various
theories advanced on the question, observes “I
can suggest now no other explanation of the
Era than it seems to me to be the modification
of another older Era current in Upper India
under the name of Saptaraskya or Sastra Sam-
vatsara. The peculiarity of this northern Era is
that, though it is to-day 4972 (he was writing in the
year 1897), it is spoken of as 72, so that omitting all
hundreds it will be found to be identical with our
Malabar year except for 4 months beginning with Mesha.
The Cashmlr Calendar calculated in this Era and
other recorded dates in it usually begins with this
formula. Sri Saptarshi Charanumakna Samvat 4972
tat ha cha Samvat, i.e., the year 4972 in agreement with
the course of the Saptar Shayal and therefore the year
72. It would thus appear that, up to the year 99, the
Kollam year is identical with the Saptarshi year.
May it not be then that our Kollam year is simply the
Saptarshi Era with its origin forgotten and therefore
counted on into the hundreds ? It is by no means
extravagant to suppose that the people who lived in the
Kollam year 99 went on to name the next year 100 and
not the cypher year, in spite of whatever astronomical
reminiscences which survived in the minds of the
almanac makers of that age. In fact nothing could
have been more natural: and once the numeration was
permitted, the issue of an independent Era exactly of
the kind we have was inevitable. The only fact which
would then require explanation is why when the
277 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
Saptarshi begins with Mesha, Our Kollam should
commence with Simha. In all probability, the astro¬
nomers of the period who determined on the adoption
of the Era found it necessary so to amend the northern
luni-solar year in order to convert it into a purely
solar one as the Kollam year professes to be. While
agreed as to the necessity of the amendment, the
astronomers of Malabar were apparently not at one
with their contemporaries in Travancore as to the
number of months that had to be left out; and hence
perhaps the divergence we have already noticed as to
the month with which the new year was to begin —
whether it was to be Simha or Kanya”. That the Era
current in the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula
should thus be assimilated with that obtaining in
Kashmir at the northernmost extremity may at first
appear somewhat strange. But it is not certainly
stranger than the similarity in the styles of architecture
obtaining in NSpSl and in Malabar pointed out by
Mr. Ferguson or the similarity in customs and
manners among the Newars of Nepal and the Nayars
of Malabar, not to speak of the close similarity in the
names Nayar and Newar. Prof. Sundram Pillai is
inclined to think that a convention like the one
mentioned by Mr, Shangoonny Menon, the author of
the History of Travancore, was likely to have taken
place and he asks “what need could there have been
for all the ‘astronomical researches’, ‘calculations and
scientific countings’ (mentioned in the History of
Travancore) unless the astronomers of the period
anxious to start a new Era, were adapting and amend¬
ing for their purpose one that was actually current at
the time ? If those scientific men were really adopting
an existing Era, none could have suggested itself with
greater propriety than the Saptarishi year—the Sastra
Samvatsara the scientific year par excellence
There is indeed much to recommend in Prof
Sundram Pillai’s theory. It is very likely that the
N. 4.] COILAM ERA 273
Aryan Namputiris in their migration from the north
brought with them the Saptarishi Era (the Era of the
seven sages) prevalent in their original homes and that
after some time it was adjusted, as we find it now for
local purposes.
Mr* Velsndi Gopala Ayyar in his learned essay
on the Chronology of Ancient India, has started
another theory for the origin of the Kollam Andu. He
thinks that the Kali Yuga and the Kollam Andu com¬
menced in 1177—76 B. C- The Kollam Andu> says
Mr. Gopala Ayyar, is according to approved tradition,
a cycle of a thousand years, and the present cycle is
believed to be the fourth, having begun in the year 825
A. D. He is at one with Prof. Sundram Pillai in
saying that it is identical with the old Saptarshia cycle,
which is referred to by Albiruni (1030 A. D.), Kalhana
(1148 A. D.) and the PurSriSs. But he points out,
that Sundram Pillai has ignored the fact of the Kollam
Andu being a cycle and that he was not correct in
saying that it was adopted in 825 A- D.
Having discussed the question of the beginning of
the Kali Yuga and arrived at the conclusion that it
commenced in 1176 B. C., Mr. Gopala Ayyar argues
“The earliest starting point for the modern Saptarishi
Kala is the ‘birth of Parikshit when the Rishies were
in Msgha, and the Kali Yuga then commenced.1
Thus the PurSnSs identify the Saptarishi Ksla with the
Kali Yuga. As the Kollam Era has been identified with
the Saptarishi Era we may safely conclude that the
Kollam Andu, the Saptarishi Kala and the Kali Yuga,
all commenced in 1176 B. C.” The forefathers of some
at least of the modern Namputiris are said to have
separated from the main body of the Aryan people
about 165 B. C. and settled first in the Andhra
country and, after the lapse of a few more centuries, to
have permanently fixed their residence in Kerala. “It
is thus apparent” continues Mr. Gopala Ayyar
1. Vishnupurana IV—24.
274 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

“that when the little band of the forefathers of some at

least of the modern Namputiris saw the end of the
Yuga of 1,000 years which commenced soon after the
Mahabharata War, they followed it up by another cycle,
lasting for a like period, led no doubt thereto by the
fact, which they seem to| have faintly remembered,
that two such Yugas of j,coo years each had
expired about the time of Mahabharata war. By
the time that this second cycle came to an end
in 825 A. D., they had for some time been settled
in Malabar. The third cycle which began in 825 A. D.
came therefore to be known as the Kollam Era after the
name of a famous town in Malabar.”
We may now refer to the views of some European
scholars also. Till recently European scholars seem
not to have known so much as that it was an Era.
They term it as a cycle. Mr. Prinsep calls it the cycle
of Parasu Rama. So also Dr. Buchanan who says that
“the inhabitants of Malayala reckoned time in cycles of
thousand years from 1176 B. C. and that in Septem¬
ber 1800 A. D. there were two cycles and 976 years
expired of that Era”. Warren, writing in 1824 says in
his learned work the Kalasankalita, “that there had ex¬
pired on the 14th September 1800, two cycles of a
thousand years and 976 of a third cycle.”1 Mr-
R. Sewell in his Indian Calendar says that the years
of the Kollam Andu “run in cycles of thousand years.
The present cycle is said to be the fourth. If there
were three cycles ending with the year 1000 which ex¬
pired 824—5 A. D., then it would follow that the Kol¬
lam Era began in Kali 1927 current or the year 3528
of the Julian period-”2 Dr. Burnell in his Elements of
South Indian Pabography says that it was no cycle and
adds that “it began in September 824 A. D.” and “is
only used in the Tamil country and Travancore.'* In
Travancore and in the Tinnevelly District where the
Era is used, we have already seen that the year begins not
1. Page 374’
2. Page 25.
 N. 5-6.] PAROESE ROMAN CYCLE 275

in September but in the middle of August (Chingam or

Simha) and the province where it begins in September
(Kanni or Kanya) is not Travancore or South Tamil
country but Malabar proper which Dr. Burnell does
not mention as using the Era.1
5* Pudu Vaipum. The Pudu Vaipu Era or the
Era of the new formation is said to have commenced
from the year 1341 A. D. when the PeriySr forced a
passage through the opening into the sea at Cochin,
thus detaching Vaipu from the mainland forming it
into an island. We have already noticed this. The Era
is practically gone out of use at present. 2
6. Paroese Raman Cycle. The cycle mention¬
ed here is used mostly in the Tamil country. In reli¬
gious ceremonies it is the one used by the Namputiri
Brahmans of Malabar also. There is nothing to show
that it was ordained by Para§u Rama, and the fact that
it is used all over the Tamil country tends to cast doubt
on the origin suggested by our author. Each of the 60
years has a peculiar name- These names are:—
Prabhava Pramadi Khara
Vibhava Vikrama Nandana
Sukla Vrisha Vijaya
Pramodata Chitrabhanu Jaya
Prajolpathi Subhanu Manmtha
Angara Taruna Durmukhi
Sreemuk ha Parthiva He vi Iambi
Bhava Vyaya Vilambi
Yuva Sarvajit Vikari
Dhatu Sarvadhari Sarvari
Eswaru Vi rod it i Plava
B ihudhanya Vikrili Subhakrit
1. The following formula, is given to convert the year of th~
Kcllam Andu into its corresp jading year of the Kali-Yuga and
that of the Christian Era;
cai©gj.ooco aaro) d^secruoCo c&e/l aj<&ru«>©
6>;&0£}(fTa))ai> 00ceo dgg') AsrrgS)ca>o«afimo-
If to the Kollam ye<r you add 3926 you get the Kali year;
and by adding to the former 825 you get the year of the Christian
Era. Ed.
2. > See Sri Rama Varma Research Institute Bulletin, No. 4,
for more information about this Era. Ed.
276 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 25.

Sobhakrit Virodhakrit Sidharthi

Krodhi Parithapi Rowdra
Viswavasu Pramodi Durroati
Parabhava Ananda Dundubhi
Plavanga Rakshasa Rudhirolkari
Keelaka Nala Raktaksha
Sowmya P ingala Krodhana
Sadharana Kalayukti Akshaya
7. Division of year. As already observed, ac¬
cording to Hindu ideas, time is eternal. It had no
beginning ; it has no end ; the ages are eternally revol¬
ving. While their division of time at one end shades
itself into an infinitesimally small extent, at the other
end it goes beyond even the wildest imagination of
modern scientific men. The Malabar system is founded
on Aryabhatta’s dictum:—
“All the heavenly bodies enter the sign Aries and
rise above the horizon at one and the same moment on
a certain day, which moment is reckoned as the com¬
mencement of a Kalpam, of a Yugam, of a year, of a
month and of a day. Time is deviation with no begin¬
ning nor end, but capable of being computed by means
of the relative position of the planets and stars.”
It is accordingly by the Sun’s position in the
heavens that the lengths of the Malaysli months and
years are determined. Hence the months correspond
with the signs of the Zodiac:
Malayalam Signs of the Corresponding English months.
months. Zodiac.
Medam Aries April—May
Edavam Taurus May—-June
Mithunam Gemini June—July
Karkadagam Cancer July— August
Chingam Leo August—September
Kanni Virgo September—October
Thulam Libra October—November
Vrischigara Scorpis November—December
Dhanu Sagettarins December—-J anuary
Makaram Capricornus January—February
Kumbham Aquarins February— March
Meenam Pisces March—April
N. 7*] DIVISION OF YEAR 277

The months have no fixed number of days; they

vary according to the Sun’s position.

The Malayalls recognise both solar and lunar

months and years. It is the solar month and year that
is used invariably in transacting business, while the
lunar month and year regulate religious festivals, etc.
The year is divided into months of 365 days 6 hours
i2*-30. The day again is divided into 60 nalikss
(=24 minutes) and each nSlika into 60 vinalikas
(=24 seconds) and each vinslika into 60, what is
called “long letter utterance time” (the time taken to
pronounce a consonant and a long vowel=2/5 of a
second.)
Another division is as follows:—
8 Noti (the snapping of fingers)=i Muhurtha
4 Muhurtha =1 Gunitam
10 Gunitam =1 Vinazhika
60 Vinazhikas =1 Nazhika
60 Nazhikas =1 day
Another division of the day is that which divides it
into (yamas) or watches. The night is divided into four
yamas, so that the first two last till mid-night and the
other two till morning. There is a similar division of
the day also. The hours of the day are not reckoned
(rom mid-night to mid-night or from noon to noon, but
from the rising and setting of the sun. According to
some there are only 6 yamas of four hours’ duration
each, commencing with the rise of the sun and their
names are:—Sri, Arya or Jeshta, Parvathi, Durga,
Bhadra Kali, and Saraswathi. The goddesses, whose
names these watches or yamas bear, are said to preside
at their respective periods.
There is some-difference between the northern and
southern systems of astronomy. If the sun enters
 278 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

a sign of the Zodiac (Samkramam) during the day time,

that day is reckoned in the northern Calendars as.the
first day of the month corresponding to that sign; where¬
as in the south, in order that a day may be reckoned as
the first day of the month corresponding to any Zodia¬
cal sign, the sun must have entered the sign within the
first three of the five parts into which the day is divided.
If the entry takes place in the latter two of the five
parts of the day, the clay next following is accepted as
the first day of the month. According to both systems
the months are of the following duration:
Months. Days. Lazhikas. Vinazhikas. Long letter
utterances.
Med am 30 A t*
O3 30 13
Edavam 31 24 3 3i
Mithunam 3i 36 26 5
Karkadagam 31 28 4 30
C'hingam 3i O 4 59
Kanni 30 27 23 15
Thu lam 29 54 11 55
Vrischigam 29 30 3i 6
Dhanu 29 21 2 13
Makaram 29 27 23 36

Kuinbham 29 48 30 H
Meenam 30 20 19 38

Total .. 365 15 31 15

With regard to the above table, Mr. Logan

observes, “As the fractional parts of the dg^ ^et forth
above correspond to 6 hours 12 minutes and 30 seconds,
it is clear that the Malayali year is too long by 23
minutes odd and this is no doubt due to the omission
in the above calculations, as in all other Hindu astro¬
nomical systems, of any compensation for the error
caused by the precession of the equinoxes. The astro¬
nomers, it is understood, did recognise the fact of
precession {ayanamga/i) but they failed to utilize it to
obtain a correct comoutation of the solar year.”
N. M DIVISION OF YEAR 279

The lunar month is reckoned according to the 27

constellations which the moon passes through every
month* They are:—
I. Aswathi 10. Makam 19. Moolam
2. Bharani 11. Pooram 20. Pooratam
3- Karthika 12. Utram 21. Uttradam
4. Rohini i3- Atham 22. Tiruvonam
5* Makeerarn 14. Chithira 23- Avittam
6. Tiruvatira 15- Chothi 24- Chathayam
7- Punartam 16. Vishakham 25. Pooruruttathi
8. Pooyam 17‘ Anizham 26. Utrattathi
9- Aeelyam 18. Trikketta 27. Eravathi
The moon continues in each of these constellations
during the period of 60 Nazhikas or twenty-four hours.
The Malayalis like other Hindus do not take into ac¬
count, in their calculations the days of new and full
moon, which are called the “black moon” and the
“white moon” but reckon only those of her increase and
decrease. After the new or full moon, the reckoning is
as follows.—
Prathama, the 1st day ; Dwithia, the 2nd day ;
Tretia, the third ; Chathurthi, the 4th ; Panchami, the
5 th ; Shashti, the 6th ; Saptamu the 7th; Ashtamiy the
8th ; Navamiy the 9 th ; Dasamiy the 10th; Ekadesiy the
nth; Dwadesiy the 12th; Treyodesiy the 13th; Chathur-
desiy the 14th. The increase of the moon is called Purvar
pakshaniy the forepart or Veluthapakshamy the ‘white
part’, and her decrease Aparapakshamy the hind part or
Karuthapakshamy the ‘black part.’ According to this
mode of reckoning, a lunar month would seem to con¬
sist of. fourteen days: two such lunar months and two
days make a solar month.
The days of the week are known as follows and
their names are significant;
1. Njayar Azhcha.—The day of N jayar= S un=
Sunday.
2. Tinkal Azhcha.—The day of Thinkal^Aooxitss.
Monday.
3. Chowva Azhcha*—‘The day of ChowvazsNl&xs
=Tuesday. _
2$0 LETTERS FROM MALABAR fL. 25.

4. Bndkan Azhcha.—The day of Budhan=Mer

cury=Wednesday.
5. Vyazhazhcha.—The day of Vyazha=]upiter==
Thursday.
6. Velli Azhcha.—The day of F^//^=Venus=Fri-
day«
7. Azhcha.—The day of ,5V#j=:Saturn=
Saturday.

The Namputiris reckon time for religious pur¬

poses by the Salivahana Sakabdam, a lunar year the
months of which are:

Cliitra (March—April), Vaishaka, Jeshta, Ashada,

Sravana,Bhadrapala,Asvauiya, Kartika^ Margasirsha,
Paushya, Magh and Phalguna. Every three years
or thereabouts there is added another month called
Adhika.
As Malabar is inhabited by people of various reli¬
gions, it will be well to give here the Eras by which
they reckon time and their equivalent Malayalam dates.
1st Medam 1081 of Kollam Era—Beginning of
Kali 5008.
Do do do of Pandavabdam 5008
Do do do l' ikramabdant 1147
Do do do Bhojarajabdam 1147
Do do do Cheraman Peruntalm
abdam 1079
Do do do Beginning of
Sakabdam 1829
Do do do Ramadevabdam 634
Do do do Prataparudrabdam 629
Do do do A rishnarajabdam 378
18th Dhanu Kollam 1081 —A* D. 1906
13th Kumbham do do Hijira 1324
13th Meenam do do Plavanganama
Samvatsara begins Jewish Era.
N. 8.] ANNUAL FESTIVALS 281

The following list shows the names of the months

as used by various classes in Malabar.

Lunar Malaya lam Tamil English Muham¬ Jewish

months months months months madan months
months

Chitra Medam Chithira January Mo ha ram Tisiri

Vysakha Edavam Vykasi February Saphire March*

sthan
>

Jeshta Mithunam Ani March Ravilaval Kaslo

Ashada Karkadagam Adi April Ravisani Tibata

Sravana Chingam Avani May Jamadilval Shevarth

1
1
Proshtapada Kanni Purattasi June Jamadisamni Adar
1

Aswina Thulam Alpasi July Rajub Tisan Abib

Karthika Vrischigam Karthika August Shaban Jyar

Margasirsha Dhanu Markazhi September Eesan Sivan

Pousha Makaram Tye October Shaval Samab

Magha Kumbham Masi November Sikarth Aba

Phalguna Meenam Pankuni December Siharj Eloor

354 36.S 365 354 354 354

days days days days days days

8. Annual Festivals. There are many festivals,

religious and social, celebrated in Malabar, all partaking
more or less of the religious elements.
282 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

Biloo. Our author uses this term for Vishu, a

most important festive day throughout Malabar. It
falls on the 1st day of Medam. Vishu is a purely social
celebration, having nothing to do with religion ; yet it
is observed with religious solemnity. Our author is
not correct in saying that this feast is solemnised in
honour of Vishnu. Unlike other festivals which are
determined with reference to the lunar asterisms on
which they fall and therefore may vary in dates, the 1st
of Medam is the unchangeable day on which Vishu falls.
It is the astronomical new year’s day and is celebrated
as such. Formerly the ruling chiefs of Malabar ex¬
pected their subjects to present them on Vishu day
with large nuzzers failing which they were exacted
with a high hand. The British Government, after the
acquisition of Malabar, prevailed upon the Princes to
forego these forced presents, as they formed a great
burden on the people. But, in some parts, even now,
the tenants of the jenmies visit thok landlords'' on the
day previous to Vishu taking with them plantain fruits,
vegetables.etc., the fruits of their labour,and expect small
money presents in return w'hen they visit them on the
morning of the Vishu day. The Malaysjls believe that
the fortunes of the day depend more or less on the nature
of the object you first set your eyes on every morning.
They also believe that a man’s prosperity for the vear
depends upon the nature, auspicious or otherwise, of the
first thing that he happens to fix his eyes upon on the
morning of the Vishu day—a belief which has its well-
known counterpart throughout Europe- To secure an
auspicious and pleasing object to <:aze on as one opens
one’s eyes in the morning, every family takes parti¬
cular care to prepare the previous night sightworthy
things for the new year’s morning. This is called in
Malayalam haul Vaykkuka. A room in the house is
decorated for the occasion in which lamps are lighted.
A circular bell-metal vessel known as Uruli in Mala¬
yalam is placed in a prominent position in the room
N. 8.] ANNUAL FESTIVALS 28s

between two burnished well-lighted brass or bell-metal

lamps. In this vessel is spread some raw rice, and
over it other things are artistically arranged with the
object of presenting a fine, pleasant appearance. A
Grandha or a book of palm leaves, a gold ornament
finely worked, a newly washed cloth folded up, a
so-called looking-glass made of fine bell-metal, the yellow
flower of the Konna tree (Cassia fistula:), these are
tastefully arranged in the vessel* Inside it are also
placed the two halves of a broken cocoanut containing
oil and lighted wicks. A fine looking painted picture
of the God Krishna, or of the Goddess Lakshmi or
Saraswati, is often placed in the background, and in the
foreground, and on the sides of the vessel will be placed
fruits of a few varieties. In the front of this arrange¬
ment is placed either a long narrow plank or a mat.
Early in the morning of the Vishu day at about half
past four or five, one of the inmates of the house who
has got up first would trim the lamps, illuminate the
room and then, one after another, wake up the others
who are strictly enjoined not to open their eyes. They
wash their faces, put on new cloths, wear ashes on their
forehead, and are led up, all the while blind-folded so
that they may not perchance gaze on something else,
and are seated on the mat or plank in front of the
Rani. Having placed them there, they are made to
hold the sides of the vessel or to place their hands on
the jack-fruits placed on either side of the vessel, so
that they may not miss the sight and then asked to
open their eyes and carefully look at the Rani. They
are expected to look at the picture, the golden ornament,
the fruits and flowers in turn. After this is over comes
the ceremony of Rynettam Maruka or the exchange of
the first gift. A few gold coins or gold rings will have
been previously placed near the Rani and the Karana-
var or the eldest member would take one of them along
with some raw rice and Ronna flowers and hand the
whole over to a junior who reverentially places it on
both his eyes and then returns it to the giver or places
284 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25

it on the ground. In doing this care is taken that the

junior selected is suitable for the ceremony. The suit¬
ability is adjudged according to Poruihaniy i. e., the
conjunction of favourable symptoms between the giver
and the taker, such as Rasi Porutham (agreement of
the nativities), Dina Porutham (of week days), Nal
Porutham (of planets), Gana Porutham (of descent).
The process is gone through between the other members
of the family in a similar manner. Then the Kant is
taken round the garden for the benefit of the animal
and vegetable creation outside the building* Bonfires
are at times lighted round the house and the little ones
make merry, firing away strings of small crackers which
they had stored for the occasion. The next item in the
celebration consists in the giving of money presents.
The Karanavan of the family takes his seat in a promi¬
nent position facing east towards the rising sun. The
junior members of the family, servants of the household,
etc., assemble and approach the Karanavan in the order
of seniority and receive small money presents in silver
or gold according to the affluence of the family; copper
is seldom, if ever, given* After this the seniors distri¬
bute similar presents to their juniors and so on down¬
wards. These presents are received with due reverence
and are taken to be the forerunners of more splendid
incomes all round the year. Similar gifts are also made
to the indigent poor, to those who do work in the
family from outside, according to the status and
financial position of families*
By 9 o’clock in the morning all bathe, put on their
finest clothes, adorn themselves with ashes, sandal
paste, etc., and go to worship in the nearest temple.
The women deck themselves in jewellery. After worship¬
ping and returning home, all the members of the family
sit for a sumptuous breakfast at which, besides rice,
various delicious condiments are served. In some parts
of Malabar, this meal is confined to rice Kanji and its
appendages, of course, on a grand scale in the morning,
N. 8.] ANNUAL FESTIVALS 285

reserving a fine feast for the evening. After the meals

are over, dancing and games of various kinds are
carried on. Out-door game are seldom indulged in and
the merry makings close by the evening.
There is another ceremony in connection with
Vishu by the observance of which it is said one can
ascertain how the year commencing with that day will
fare for him.
On the morning of the Vishu, day after worshipping
God and when your mind is calm, you go to a prominent
Wei place in your house which had been previously
cleaned and adorned by spreading threashed out paddy
grain (Sudha Tandulam) and with well lighted lamps.
Then doing such puja to the soul as you are entitled to
do, take a round cocoanut in your hands, wash it well
in water, adorn its face end with sweet smelling flowers,
dung, etc., and sitting with your face eastwards roll it
towards the east earnestly praying to God that the pro¬
cess rray reveal plainly what good and evil are in store
for you during the course of the year. Note with parti¬
cular care when it stops rolling the point of the compass
towards which its face-end is turned. This will indicate
to you what you desire to know.
If the face-end of the cocoanut is turned towards
the east, the person who rolls the cocoanut will enjoy
throughout the year, success in all his endeavours, suc¬
cess in cultivation, good meals, increased prosperity
and get good cattle. If it turns towards the south-east,
he will be quarrelling, will be subject to wounds from
sharp instruments and illness almost unto death, have
losses in calculation, etc. If towards the south, loss of
life. If towards the south-west, illness, increase of
enemies, loss in cultivation and loss of relatives. If
towards the west, gain in wealth, gain in cultivation,
acquisition of wealth from a distance. If towards the
north-west, sorrow in mind, quarrels with your wife,
fear from thieves and robbers, poverty, fear from fire
and you will be subject to wounds, etc. If towards the
north, attainment of auspicious wealth, presents from
286 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. as¬
king?, life, good cultivation. If towards the north-east,
loss in all endeavours, loss in cultivation and gain of
cattle.
If the face-end looks up or down, death, illness
preceding death and fear from enemies.
9. Pattamoedasjam. This stands for Patta-
mudayam. This festival is not universal throughout
Malabar. In certain temples, such as at TafiAikkotam
near Trichur, it is kept up as a festive day. There
is however little warrant in saying that the solem¬
nities last for 40 days and terminate in the Pattamu-
dayam. The festival is dedicated to the sun, for on
that day the sun attains its meredian and the nights and
days are of equal duration. It falls on the 10th day of the
month of Medam. Hence the name of Pattamudayam,
the tenth rising of the sum or dawn of day. But Patta-
mudayam at Taftiiikkotam comes on in the month of
Dhanu not in Medam.
10. Baawu. Vavu here New Moon.
This is celebrated on the New Moon day or as it is
called in Mahyalamthe ‘Black Moon’ day in the month
of Karkadakam (July—August). On this day oblations
and cakes are offer* d to the manes of the deceased
ancestors, Sradha is performed and the cakes or rice
balls or pinda offered are, after the Sradha, placed in
the yard for the crows to feed on, the belief being that
the spirits of the deceased come in the form of crows to
partake of them. Those who can afford to have a sea-
bath go to bathe in the sea. Bathing in the sea at Rama
Sgfcu, i. e., at Rameswaram on this day is considered
very meritorious.
11. Onam. This is the great national festival of
the Mala}alls, and it is observed with great eclat
throughout the land of KSraJa. It falls in the month
of Chingam (August—September) when nature puts
on her gayest attire in Malabar. The violence of the
monsoon will have abated and the incessant fall of rain
ceased. Nature appears as if assuming a new garb.
N. ii,] ONAM 287

Trees blossom, flowers shoot up, the days are pleasant

and the nights delightful. It is the opening of the spring
season in Malabar. The harvesting of the crops wiU
have been commenced and there is an air of plenty all
around—so much so that Onam has been suppose 1 to
be the celebration of the harvest festival. The Onam
festival is preceded by two other festivals which lend
t

colour to this theory. They are the Illam Nara and

Puttaru The former means the filling of the granary
with paddy recently harvested, and the latter the feed¬
ing on new rice. In an agricultural country like
Malabar where rice is the staple of food, the harvesting
of paddy is an occasion of great rejoicing* Before the
harvest is over and when the ears of corn are still full
ripe, the Nara ceremony is performs 1. Stalks of certain
plants and creepers together with some ears of paddy
are all kept inside a basket at the gate-house. Certain
figures, circular, horizontal and perpendicular, are
drawn in the outer and inner courtyards of the house
and on the floor of the house in pro nin?at places with
rice-flour mixed with water. Then some one who has
bathed early takes the basket in hand and brings it home,
repeatedly muttering in an audible, gladsome tone
the words, nara (fill), nara (fill), Ula n nara (fill the
house\ Kollam nara Till the whole year round), Patha*
yam nara (fill the granary)* Vatti nara, holla n ira
(fill the basket), nara, nciro. nara. He places the
articles in the basket in the inner yard where some
pUjas are performed before they are taken out. Tncn
some ra v rice already prepared from that particular
year’s paddy is cooked and sweetened with sugar, and
all the inmates then par;ake the preparation. The con¬
sumption of new rice (i. e.i that particular year’s rice)
is strictly prohibited before goin^ through this cere¬
mony. For both Nara and Putlari (new rice) auspici¬
ous moments have to be selected. Both these in ly oe
performed on one and the same day or they may be on
different days according to the turning up of the aus¬
picious day and convenience of the people. Considerable
288 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 25.

importance is also attached to the auspicious nature or

otherwise of the first guest or animal or thing that finds
its way to the house immediately after the Nava cere¬
mony, and the prosperous career of the family for the
whole of the ensuing year depends upon the nature of
the first comer. These ceremonies are, however, in
no way connected with the Onam*1
Tradition says that the Onam festival is celebrated
in commemoration of the reign of Mahabali, an Asura
king, who had by his austereties and penances propi¬
tiated Brahms and obtained unlimited sway over Bha-
ratavarsha. His reign is believed to have been one of
uninterrupted peace, plenty and prosperity. In fact, it
is alleged to be the golden age of Malabar, Theft,
robbery, murder and other crimes were altogether un¬
known in his time. A Malayalam couplet describes
his reign thus: —
Maveli natakom vazhum kalam
Kata kketilla kalavu milla
that is, when Mahabali ruled over the land, there was
no bad season, nor dread of thieves.
As a recent writer has put it: —
“The national calm that prevailed was not disturb¬
ed by any acts of cruelty or oppression. The sanctity
of contracts was fully realised. Honesty of purpose
and probity of character were the dominant guides to
every man’s actions. In short men in those days lived
in what has been called ‘a state of nature’. This reign
of nature was brought to a close by Vamana, the fifth
incarnation cf Vishnu, one of the members of our
divine Trinity. Mahabali was an Asura King against
whom and whose prosperous reign the Devas enter¬
tained the deepest class-hatred and jealousy. With
the object of putting an end to Mahabali’s reign, the
Devas repaired to Vishnu’s presence and importuned
him to adopt some means to cripple the increasing pros¬
perity of Mahabali. Vishnu readily acceded to the
i. Malabar and its Folks, p. 189.
N. xi.] ONAM 289

request and appeared as Vamana unto the King in ‘all

the glory and freshness of his youth.* The King was so
madly enamoured of this ‘gilded youth* that he
resolved to welcome him at any cost. He asked the
youth what he wanted; to which the boy replied that he
wanted nothing more than three feet of earth (perhaps
the deluded King thought that what the boy wanted was
enough space for him to be buried). The demand was
at once conceded; when the boy immediately assumed
a gigantic figure and with huge feet began to measure
the earth. It was then found that the whole of the
land measured less than three feet and for the rest of
the proferred earth Vamana trod upon Mahabali*s head
and pushed him down to the infernal regions. But
the popular outcry consequent upon Mahabali's deposi¬
tion was so great that the ex-ruler was eventually
allowed to return to earth once a year. The period of
his visit was fixed for the Malayalam month Chingam
corresponding to about August or September; and
his stay in the country, short though it is, has ever
since been celebrated as a grand national occasion
which is now identified with the (3$am festival*’ *. Such
then is the origin of the festival as popularly accepted.
Speaking of the Onam festival, Fra Bartolomeo
says, “The fourth grand festival, celebrated in Mala-
yala, is called Oriam, and happens always in the month
of September, on the day of New Moon (not always).
About the 10th of September the rain ceases in Mala¬
bar. All nature seems as if renovated; the flowers again
shoot up, and the trees bloom, in a word, this season is
the same as that which Europeans call spring. This
festival seems, therefore, to have been instituted for the
purpose of soliciting from the Gods a happy and fruit,
ful year. It continues eight days and during that time
the Indians are accustomed to adorn their houses with
flowers and to daub them over with cow’s dung;
because the cow, as already observed,[is a sacred animal
dedicated to the Goddess Lekshmi, the Ceres of the
1 Malabar and its Folk—Ibid pp„ gc-i.
290 LETTERS FROM MALABAR L. 25 •

Indians. On this occasion they also put on new

clothes, throw aside all their old earthen-ware and
supply its place by new. The men, particularly those
who are young, form themselves into two parties and
shoot at each other with arrows. These arrows are
blunted, but exceedingly strong; and are discharged
with such force, that a considerable number are gener¬
ally wounded on both sides. These games have a great
likeness to the Cerealia and Juvenalia of the ancient
Greeks and Romans.” I.
The festival lasts at the least for four days. But
in many parts it goes beyond that period and occupies
6—8 or even 10 days, for the Malayalls are generally
a holiday-loving people and seek occasion always to
find a gala day. It commences practically from the
lunar asterism Atkant which comes on ten days before
the asterism Onam or Tim Onam. Atham itself is
enjoyed as a holiday but it is the younger generation
who keep up the mirth and jolity set on foot this day
till the end of the festival. The elders join them only
on the last four days. The children of the village assem¬
ble early morning and set about collecting flowers to
decorate the yards of their houses. As they go about
in parties bent on this pleasant errand, they sing bal¬
lads and make themselves merry. We may extract
here, with advantage an interesting description of
what takes place in the mornings for these ten days
given by a Malayali writer in the Calcutta Review,
for January 1899.
“Having set out at dawn to gather blossoms,
the little children return with their beautiful
spoils by 9 or 10 a. m., and then the daily decorations
begin. The chief decoration consists of a carpet made
out of the gathered blossoms the smaller ones being
used in their entirety, while the large flowers and one
or two varieties of foliage of differing tints are pinched
up into little pieces to serve the decorator’s purpose.
This flower carpet is invariably made in the centre of
1 A Voyage to the East Indies, p. 360.
N. si.] ONAM 291

the clean strip of yard in front of the neat house. Often

it is a beautiful work of art accomplished with a delicate
tcuch and a highly artistic sense of tone and blending.
Among the flowers that contribute to the requisite
design may be named the common red as well as the
rarer variegated, lantana, the large red, shoe flower
(Hibiscus ro$a sinensis), an indispensable feature of the
cultivated vegetation in a Malayali’s homestead, the
yellow marigold, the yellow aster, the scarlet button
flower, the sacred (Tulsi Ocimum Sanctum), the wee,
modest thumber (a vermifugal member of the Nepetac
tribe), the common tagara (yellow wild Cassia), the
beautiful bluebell and another common species of Cassia
which the natives call the “Onam flower’. In addition,
various little violet and purple wildings that adorn the
margins of rice fields, and beautiful specimens of the
lily and allied orders of tropical plants are requisitioned
by the weavers of these remarkably handsome, but alas!
quickly perishable, carpets. The carpet completed, a
miniature pandal, hung with little festoons, is erected
over it, and at all hours of the day neighbours look in,
to admire and criticise the beautiful handiwork. This
object is peculiar to the naturally well favoured
province of Keralam; and it serves to remind us that
the people who possess the refined taste to produce
such a pretty work of art must have long enjoyed a
very high order of civilization’’ •
Speaking of the ballads that are sung at the
Oriam season the same writer observes:— “There are
a great many of these 0$am ballads; but most of them
are of a piece with the specimen given. It is a delight
to hear them chanted in the early morning hours by
bands of light-hearted children with clear bell-like
voices,—
“Chombil house maiden, little maiden,
What did he give you who yesterday came ?
A new dress he gave me, a small dress he gave me.
A lounge likewi .on which to recline,
2$2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR L, 25.

A tank to disport in, a well to draw water from,

a compound
To gambol in, a big field to sing in,
Freshen up flowers, oh freshen for me.
On the south and the north shore, in the com¬
pound of
Kannan, there grew up and flourished
a thumba flower plant.
Out of this plant were fifty boats, gotten; at the
head of each boat a banyan tree grew.
From the banyan there grew a tiny little babe, and
a drum and a stick for the baby to play with,
The drum and the drum-stick, the house hold
domestic, all together they flew away and they
vanis hed.
Freshen up flowers, oh freshen for me.
A measure and a half measure, and elephants’
chains and earings, who goes under the flower
tree beneath which the elephant passes ?
It is no one at all, it is no one at a'l; it is Kutti-
kat baby god; when we went forth to pluck
off ripe fruit, a mischievous urchin sprang
up and bit us.
With bitten foot when we went to the Brahmin’s,
the Brahmin lady, we found, had been injured.
With bitten foot then we went to the house of
Edathil whose lady with fear lay stricken.
At noon of Attam day a bamboo fiesh sprouted,
and therewith w-e made us a good fish trap.
And when to the tank afishirg we went, we baited
a minnow.
By its tail did we hold it, on the ^afdid we dash
it, and of cocoanuts, with milk full, eighteen
we ground.
With elephant pepper we dressed it; with asa-
foetida we filled it, right to the elephant’s
head.
Freshen up# flowers, oh freshen up for me”.
N. 11.] ONAM *93
The important part of the festival opens in some
localities on Tiru Onam day and in others on the day
previous, known as Utradam. The preparations for
the celebration will have commenced from Athani day.
The houses are veil cleaned and made to look nice and
spruce, and food-stuffs for a sumptuous feast to last for
four successive days are collected. Even the poorest
of the poor manage to find something for himself to
celebrate the national festival in his own humble way.
No Malayali will be found to beg for alms on the
Tiru Onam day. Even the poorest family sells its all
to keep the Onam though it comes to begging for the
rest of the year. There is a Malayalam saying Kanam
Vittum Onam unnanam• (The Onam feast must be
enjoyed even by selling one’s Ksnom estate).
The Onam celebrations open early in the morning
of Tiru Onam day when at about 4 or 5 a. m. the
quasi-religious portion of the ceremony takes place.
In the front yard of the house where the flower carpets
are daily formed, a portion is cleaned and smeared with
cow-dung. This done, conical figures made of sticky
clay, painted red, are placed there. These images are
of various forms. While some represent figures of
divinities, others are mere cones. These latter are
known as Trikkakra Appan or the God of Trikkakara.
The tradition is that the festival had its origin at
Trikkakara, now in Travancore,1 where there is a very
ancient temple, now in utter ruin covered with forest
growth2 . it is said to have been of great splendour
at one time, the temple festival lasting for 28 days.
All the Fajas of Kerala came to attend the temple
festival and each of them seems to have had some duty
assigned to him and a separate place of abode there.
The Zamorin’s place is still pointed out. The PujSri
of the shrine was the Nampu{iri Raja of Edapiily and
it is significant that it is that Raja’s nominee who is
still performing pUja at the ruined shrine as his deputy.
1.Formerly, this part belonged to Cochin.
2. A part of it has recently been renovated by the Travan¬
core Government. Ed.
 294 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

The Cochin Raja and the Zamorin still celebrate on

Atham day a ceremony known as Athachamayam. On
that day both these Rajas set out in procession with
the pomp and glitter of oriental panoply, make a round
with great grandeur attended by their ministers and
leiges, after which they return to their respective
palaces and distribute presents to all. This is said to
be indicative of the start usually made by these Princes
in early days to attend the festival at the temple at
Trikkakara. Anyhow it is significant that the Trikka-
kara Appan or the god of Trikkakara is worshipped
throughout Kerala during the Onam days.

These images are adorned with lines tastefully

drawn along and about with rice flour mixed with water
and are kept not only in the front yard, but also in all
prominent places commencing from inside the house
and ending with the gate-way outside. Flowers are
strewn all along and pujas performed to the images
every day morning and evening. On the first day the
puja is an elaborate one. One of the inmates of the
house acts the part of priest or Pujaru He bathes in
the morning before dawn and prepares Ala, a prepara¬
tion of rice flour and molasses for Nivedyatn_offering
for the God. Lamps are lit in front of the images and
the PujSri proceeds to do his puja in the presence of
the family assembled in the yards. He tries to imitate
as closely as he can what the Brahman priests do in the
temple. The Ata is placed in front of the images and
he offers it to them. He strews flowers, pours water,
shows certain signs with his fingers, puts on a solemn
air and closes the ceremony apparently satisfied that
he had fed his gods sumptuously. After the dedica¬
tion of the images, the male members band themselves
together and raise loud rhythmic shouts of joy which
ring the air. This is known as Aarppu Vilikkukal.
It is this that practically proclaims to the outside world
that the great national festival of the Malay alls has
commenced.
N. ii.] ONAM 295
As the day dawns, the inmates of the house, males
and females, bathe and worship in the village temple,
put on their finest clothes and go about in the neatest
possible fashions. Then comes the distribution of new
clothes, as presents, which is perhaps the most distin¬
guishing feature of the Onam festival. The clothes
given as Onam presents should be of yellow colour or
at any rate some part of it, at least, must be yellow.
Generally small yellow pieces of cloth are given along
with larger and valuable ones. Mr. Fawcett conjectures
that this suggests a relic of sun worship in a form
more pronounced than that which obtains at present.
The Malayalls themselves are not aware of any connec¬
tion between the giving away of yellow cloths and sun-
worship. At any rate, the Onam celebration in Malabar
has nothing to do with the sun and sun-worship.
In South Travancore, in addition to yellow cloths, blue
ones are also given away and no one has yet suggested
any particular significance to this.
The K2ra$avan of the Tara wad gives these presents
to the juniors, the servants and dependants of the family
and others. The junior members also sometimes make
such presents to their relatives, etc.
After the distribution of presents, comes the feast¬
ing. The most prominent place in thq house is selected,
and all the members of the family sit in a row, with the
Ksra^avan in the middle of the line. They sit, so far
as they can, facing the east. A bright shining lighted
brass lamp is placed in front of the Kara^avan at a
slight distance. In front of the lamp towards the west
of it is spread a small plantain leaf with its point
towards the. lamp. Plantain leaves which take the
place of plates are also spread before those sitting in a
line. The viands are served on these leaf-platters out
of which the eaters help themselves. Before those who
sit to dinner are served with the viands, a little of every
thing is placed on the leaf spread before the lamp. This
is supposed to be for the god Ga$apa{y to partake.
Sometimes Ganapaty is only allowed to have a plantain
296 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

fruit and pieces of molasses which are taken to represent

the whole Menu. The lamp is removed towards the
close of the meals, always before the diners leave their
places. One of the inmates not engaged in the dinner
approaches the lamp with a basin of water and spills
some part of the liquid round the lamp three times
and then removes it towards the north, never towards
the south, for that is inauspicious. After the lamp is
thus taken away, the diners get up from their seats for
the washing of their hands. The leaf and the viands
placed before the lamp for Ga^apaty go to the
barber whose perquisites they are.
Preparations for the feast will have been com¬
menced from Atham forwards. The tenants of the
family, those holding lands under it, dependants and
hangers-on present themselves before the KjJrariavan
the day previous to Tim Onam with the fruits of their
labour, such as vegetables of divers sorts, cocoanut
oil, plantains, pumpkins, cucumbers, brinjals, etc.
This is called Onakazhcha. The custom of the
country enjoins such presents by tenants to their land¬
lords and every lease or Kanam demise makes pro¬
vision for them. In return for this the tenants have to
be given a sumptuous feast on one of the Onam days
before the festival terminates. Every village artizan
will present the Ksrariavan of each Nsyar Tarawad of
any position in the village a specimen of his handi work.
The carpenter brings an wooden vessel or a top for the
children, the smith a knife, and so on. These are
graciously received and either presents of cloth or rice
and curry-stuffs are given in return.
The feasting on all the Onam days is on a grand
scale. Meat is scrupulously eschewed. Rice of course
is the chief article of food. With it are served prepara¬
tions of various kinds, elaborate and rich. There are
several sorts of curries, Lpperies (things fried in oil),
Pappadams (round crisp flour paste cakes of peculiar
make) large and small, Uppiiittathu (pickles of various
N, ii.l ONAM 297
kinds), Sambhandhi (Chutnies). Payasoms and Pratha-
mans or puddings of various descriptions.
Of curries there are various kinds, such as: —
Erisseri. It is made of raw plantains and yams
sliced and boiled in water with salt and chillies added.
The pulp of the cocoanut is ground with a little cummin
seed added to it, and, when the whole thing is properly
boiled, a few mustard seeds along with scraped cocoa-
nut pulp fried in cocoanut oil, is thrown into it to give
it flavour,
Kalan or Pulisseri. Literally sour curry; it is a
preparation of buttermilk. Sliced plantains, specially of
the class known as nenthra-kayay and yams (chena) are
boiled in water with salt and chillies. Buttermilk
mixed with ground cocoanut pulp is poured in proper
time and the preparation is flavoured by the addition
of mustard fried in cocoanut oil.
Olan. Sliced cucumber and brinjals with peas or
pulse sometimes added, are boiled in water with salt,
but no chillies; when properly boiled some fresh cocoa-
nut oil is poured and for flavour kariveppilay i. e., (the
fresh leaves of Bergera koenigei, is added.
Aviyal. This is a preparation into which all sorts
of vegetables go. The term itself means a compound
of miscellaneous things. These are boiled in water
with salt and chillies. Some tamarind and well
ground cocoanut pulp are also added, in proper time.
So also cocoanut oil and kariveppila.
Thor an. This is no watery preparation. Brinjals
and other vegetables are sliced into very small pieces,
boiled in water with salt and chillies till all the
water dries up, otherwise the water is strained away,
ground cocoanut pulp is added, also mustard fried in
cocoanut oil.
Mulakoshyam. This is somewhat like Olan.
These are all purely Malayalam curries. But of late
other curries have also come into fashion, and they are:—
Kootlukari. In this currry a miscellaneous assort¬
ment of vegetables and some Bengal gram are used.
298 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

The difference between this and Aviyal is that no

tamarind is added and, instead of pouring oil, various
things, such as mustard, beans and other like things are
fried in cocoanut oil with little pieces of sliced cocoanut
pulp and poured into it.
Sanibar. This is highly relished and is purely an
East Coast curry recently introduced into Malabar. The
chief ingredients are dhall and vegetables, such as
brinjals, drum-sticks, pavdkkai (momordica charantia)
etc., boiled in water with salt and chillies. Tamarind
is added, as also certain other things such as coriander,
cummin seed, etc., fried in oil and powdered. Mustard
fried in oil is an invariable element and the whole
preparation is flavoured with a little asafoetida. This is
the same as the Malabar Pulinkari with a slight
variation.
Pachchati I These are different forms of the
Kichchati j same curry in which cucumber,
mustard and sour butter-milk or curds form the
principal elements. In the case of the latter, the
cucumber will not be of the ripe sort but young and
slender and the very small slices into which it is cut up
will not be boiled.
Besides these there are several other minor curries
which do not call for details.
Now to come to the sweet things:—
Payasam, This is a sort of pudding made of boiled
rice to which is added molasses and cocoanut milk.
It is then flavoured with spices. There is another sort
in which rice is boiled with milk and sweetened with
sugar, when it goes by the name of Pal Payasam (milk
pudding).
Prathaman. Of this there are various kinds, such
as Ata% Pazham, Parippu and Palata Prathamans.
The various ingredients used are:—
In Ala Prathaman rice flour mixed with
molasses is formed into a paste cut into small
pieces and boiled in water. To these cocoanut
N. ii.] ONAM 299

milk and molasses are added in proportion. It is then

flavoured with ghee.
Palata is just like the above with the pieces of
flour paste boiled in milk and sweetened with sugar. No
ghee or spices are added exceptp erhaps some carda*
moms.
Pazham. Plantain fruits of a special kind, inde-
genous to Malabar, known as Nentra Pazham are
well boiled in water till the whole water is dried and
the whole thing is reduced to a pulp by constant
pressing. Then it is tempered with ghee. Cocoanut
milk is added and the thing sweet in itself is further
sweetened with molasses• The kernal of a dried cocoa-
nut, cut into small slices, is boiled in ghee and added
to it.
Parippu. This preparation is not unlike the rest.
The main ingredient used being Parippu> i> e., pulse
skinned in water, halved and dried.
Many more kinds of Prathamansare made of other
articles as with Bengal gram, pumpkins, etc.
Besides the above, fruits are served, mainly plan¬
tain fruits of various kinds. The chief among them
is the Nentra pazham• These are not eaten at dinner
without being boiled. They are cut in twos and
threes and boiled in water, and when well boiled
a little molasses mixed with water is poured while yet
on the fire. The pieces are served along with other
articles of food at meals.
At these feasts the eaters vie with one another as
to who can consume the largest quantity and sometimes
they gorge themselves to such an extent that they can
scarcely move from their seats. Those round the good
eaters egg them on and the gourmands excel themselves.
The articles of food most indulged in are Pappadam
and Pazham and the Prathamans. Palpayasam and
Palata are relished very much and the quantity con¬
sumed by some are past belief.
 300 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

By 12 in the noon the meals will be over and then

each one betakes himself to participate in the games
most congenial to him. There are both in-door and
out-door games. The older and more sedate members
of the family have a game at chess, dice or at cards,
while the younger and the more robust join in the noisy
merry-makings outside. The out-door games consist
chiefly in (1) foot-ball matches, (2) personal combats,
(3) archery, (4) boxing, etc.
The foot-ball is par excellence the game for Onam.
It differs altogether in details from its European proto¬
type. Describing our national games, Mr. M. Raja
Raja Varma Raja, M. A., & B. L., speaks of the foot¬
ball thus:—
“Of the several (games) which are played foot-ball,
or adhering to the Vernacular name, head-ball, Tkala-
pandu is the most important out-door game. The foot¬
ball as in the case of its English prototype, is played
with a ball, made mostly of thick leather, occasionally
of woven flax, and stuffed with cocoanut fibre or cotton.
In size it is not more than half that of an English foot¬
ball. The rules of game bear little comparison, except
that there are two parties and a goal on the winning
side. An extensive open space forms the play ground.
There is a boundary marked only at one end, u e., the
playing side, the other three sides being determined
only by the length and breadth of the field. When the
players have all assembled they divide themselves into
two parties by casting lots. There is neither restric¬
tion as to the number of players on either side nor that
the players on either side should be equal in number.
Equality in strength and not in number is the rule.
There may also be players who do not belong to either
party, but assist the party who is in. The two parties
are designated the ‘ins’ and ‘outs’, the former who play
on the winning side and' the latter who play on the
losing. A stick two feet long is planted on the ground
on the winning side, and it marks the boundary there.
N. 11.] ONAM 301

Should any ball thrown by the adversaries hit the stick

or by a kick from them the ball goes behind the stick
unstopped previously by those who play on the winning
side, then they lose and the adversaries gain. The
rules of the game are briefly (1) The party
to begin the game is determined by casting
lot. (2) There are seven minor games each consisting
of three consecutive hits to constitute one round, and
these are:- (a) Talapantu or preliminary game, (b)
Otta or first game, (c) Eratta second game, (d) Kettu,
game with tied hands, (e) Talam or game with inter¬
mediate clapping on the thigh, (f) Kalumkeel> game by
throwing the ball from below the leg, (g) Ittuvettu or
game with the foot. (3) Whichever party is first in
taking collectively the whole round and also repeats
the preliminary game, and wins one blow of the first
game is declared victorious, and the defeat is indicated
by drawing a circle called Pattain round the stick and
derisive hurrahs by the victorious party. (4) Each one
of the players on one side plays in continuation of his
predecessor. (5) When all on one side have played
and lost, the other party is in. (6). For the preliminary
game the adversary can defeat the player by catching
the ball by the hand before it touches the ground or by
hitting the stick with the ball. During all the other
minor games the adversary can use his feet also, by
kicking the ball in motion and driving it behind the
stick. Besides these general rules, there are several
minor restrictions which the reader can understand
only by actual experience. The game gives much
exercise to all parts of the body, and is so exciting that
very often feuds arise in consequence. Betting is freely
made on such occasions by spectators and players”*1
(2) Combats. Combats are of two kinds, viz*,
those that are undertaken singly and those held in
batches. The first is known as Kayyankali and the
1. Malabar Quarterly Review pp. 138-^x39 of Vol. V, See
also the Chapter on Sports in the Progress of Cochin.
 302 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

second as Attakalam. To quote Mr. Raja Raja Varma

Raja “Kayyankali is a violent game. It possesses all
the risks of an ancient duel only no weapons or
horses are allowed. The combatants should only use
their fists in the attack. As in Kondoti the players
form two opposing parties. The number in each
party is equal and well matched. On both sides
stand spectators. When everything is ready, one man
issues from the ranks of one party and advances to the
middle of the field. He does so with certain measured
steps pertaining to the technology of the game. At
once his match from the opposite party goes out to
meet him with thre same measured steps. So far this
game bears resemblance to Kondoti. When the oppo¬
nents have met they come to blows. Blows and counter¬
blows, fists and counter-fists constitute the game. The
left elbow supplies the shield and the right arm the
weapon of attack. If the match is good no single blow
will fall on the opponent, however well aimed. It is
not unfrequently happens that when amateurs play the
game some blow hits on some vital part and kills the
opponent. In the hurry of the game everything else is
forgotten and the spectators stand dumb in expectation
of the final result. Each party shouts at the victory
of their champion, which is indicated by the falling of
the opponent to the ground. Again another couple
continue the game, and in the end victorious party
earns the prize and applause of the spectators’’.1
The second or Attakalam is essentially a boyish
game. It is thus described by Mr. Gopala I anickar:
“A large circle is drawn on the plain sand floor and
people are selected for each of the two sections from
amongst the assemblage. One section is then placed
in a collective body inside the circle while the other
stands around the outside. The latter then try, with
of course as little personal injury, to themselves as
possible, to strike at and bring outside, the former who
are inside, each by each. In the interval between one
1. Malabar Quarterly Review, p. 227 of Vol. IV.,
N. ii.] ONAM 303

outsider getting inside and touching the body of any

one amongst the inside group the latter are allowed to
beat and worry the antagonist. But the moment he
touches the person of the inside man he obtains com¬
plete immunity from voilence at the hands of the rest
of the inside batch. But the person who is caught is
at liberty to strike him and struggle to prevent his
being driven out. If he gets turned out, then he is no
more to remain inside; and when the whole of the inside
section are thus driven out, the first batch has finished
its turn, and is then followed by the other batch; and if
any body is left inside who cannot be driven out, his
party is declared successful. Sometimes presents are
given to the winners as tokens of appreciation of their
training and strength”
Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs gives us a graphic
account of an Onam tournament which he witnessed
in Travancore. In some parts of Malabar, despite
the advancing tide of western education and its depres¬
sing influence on the national sports and the distinctive
characteristics of the Malayali nation, the Onam
games have not yet lost their original rough enjoyable
character. Mr. Fawcett points out that in the south¬
east of Malabar, in the neighbourhood of Palghat, the
tenants of certain jenmies (land-lords) still turn out
under their respective leaders, and engage in sham
fights in which there is much rough play. ‘‘Here
too”, says Mr. Fawcett, “is to be seen a kind of
boxing which would seem to be a relic of the days
of the Roman pugiles using cestus in combat. The
position taken up by the combatants is much the same
as that of the pugiles* The Romans were familiar with
Malabar from 30 B. C. to the decline of their power.
We may safely assume that ‘the 3,000 lbs. of pepper’
which Alaric demanded as part of the ransom of Rome
when he besieged the city in 5th century came from
Malabar”2 .
1. Malabar and its Folk pp. 95—96.
2. P. 295.
$04 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25-
(3) Archery. Fra Bartolomeo writing in the
beginning of the 18th century says that “the men,
particularly those who are young form themselves into
two parties and shoot at each other with arrows. These
arrows are blunted but exceedingly strong and are
discharged with such force that a considerable number
are generally wounded on both sides. These games
have a great likeness to the ceralia and javenalia of the
Ancient Greeks and Romans”. Even to-day the game
is practised in some parts of Malabar at the Onam
season. Mr- Fawcett witnessed it played by the
Nayars in the southern portion of Kurumbarnad during
the ten days preceding Onam» He says, “There is a
semicircular stop-butt, about two feet in the highest
part, the centre, and sloping to the ground at each side.
The players stand 25 to 30 yards before the concave
side of it, one side of the players to the right, the other
to the left. There is no restriction of numbers as to
‘sides’; each player is armed with a little bow made of
bamboo about 18 inches in length, and arrows or what
answer for arrows, these being no more than pieces of
the midrib of the cocoanut palm leaf, roughly broken
off, leaving a little bit of the leaf at one end to .take the
place of the feather. In the centre of the stop-butt, on
the ground, is placed the target, a piece of the heart
of the plantain tree, about 3 inches in diameter, pointed
at the top, in which is stuck a small stick convenient
for lifting the cheppu as the mark which is the immedi¬
ate objective of the players is called. They shoot
indescriminately at the mark, and he who hits it (the
little arrows shoot straight and stick in readily) carries
off all the arrows lying on the ground. Each side
strives to secure all the arrows and to deprive the other
side of theirs. A sort of beggar my neighbour. He
who hits the mark last takes all the arrows, that is he
who hits it, and runs and touches the mark before any
one else hits it. As I stood watching, it happened
several times that as many as four arrows hit the mark,
while the youth who had hit it first was running the
N. 11.] ONAM 305

25 yards to touch the ‘cheppu’. Before he could touch it,

as many as four other arrows had struck it; and, of
course, he who hit it last and touched the mark secured
all the arrows for his side. The game is accompanied
by much shouting, gesticulation, and laughter. Those
returning after securing a large number of arrows
turned somersaults, and insultatory motions expressed
their joy”.1
The bow is still an instrument of reverence on
Onam days. At the installation of the image of
Trikkakara Appan on Tiru Onam day bows and arrows
are stuck behind them. The members of the Royal
Family of Travancore receive from the deity at
Trivandrum through the hands of the officiating priest
bows and arrows along with new cloths on the morning
of the Tiru Onam day, when they go to worship at the
shrine. They are of elaborate and artistic workman¬
ship well painted and looking exceedingly beautiful.
There is yet another sort of bow used during the
Onam for an altogether different purpose. These are
made of slightly elastic wood or bamboo splits with a
small cord of bamboo materials and attached to both
ends of the bow by means of two knobs which when
played by means of a small stick produces a very
dulcet musical tone- The children have a peculiar
liking to it and they form themselves into a sort of bow
parties and go about singing and playing on these
instruments. It is the function of the Vilkurup tc
supply these bows and arrows.
Mirth and hiliarity mark the life of the female
members of the Tarwad during the Onam season;
young maidens decked in their gayest and finest attire
and wearing beautiful and costly jewels spend the days
in dancing and singing- The dancing is peculiar.
They stand in a circle and dance. The evolutions are
pretty and in keeping with the harmony of the vocal
music. One of them leads off by singing the first
1. Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. 3» PP- 293—29\
3°6 letters from malabar [L. 25.

couplet of a song which is caught up by the others in

equally melodious and profuse strains* The leader
then sings the second couplet followed by others as
before and so on until the whole song is exhausted.
When one strain is over another is set up and so the
singing and dancing continues till the shades of evening
fall when the company breaks up. Thus the whole
surrounding atmosphere of many a leading household is
filled by the vociferous yet dulcet melody of the
charming choir of lady singers adding to the jollity and
attractiveness of the occasion all round. In South
Travancore where the Onam is not kept in such a
grand style as in the northern parts of Malabar, the
ladies enjoy themselves in swinging on swings made
of coir ropes and by singing in the meanwhile songs
of a melodious character.
The festivities continue for four and in some parts
for eight or even ten days. On the last day the images
set up are removed at an auspicious moment. Preli¬
minary to this puja is offered and the removal is an¬
nounced by the rhythmic shouting with which they
were installed. This does not actually close the Onam
festivities. For the holiday loving Malayslls love to
linger on with the feasts and games and look forward
anxiously for Makam which falls on the 16th day after
Onam.
12. Magam.—It is known as Ay illy am-Makam.
It is in fact the tail end of the Onam and has nothing
to do with Parameswari or Parwati as observed by our
author. Parameswari means the ‘supreme woman’.
She is but Nature personified under the figure of a
woman. Parameswari is not Vishnu in another form.
Parwati is the wife of Siva or Maheswara the third
head of the Hindu Trinity while Vishriu is the second
head.
These were neither transmigrations nor is the
number 13 correct. Our author is evidently referring
to the Dasa Avatar or the ten incarnations of Vishnu.
N. 12. | MAGAM 307

Avatar means a descent. It has been remarked that

“the three principal powers of the Deity, their consorts
and offspring, the inferior deities, and almost the whole
host of mythological personages have had their Avatars
or descents on earth, for various purposes, of punishing
tyrants and sinners, rewarding the good or reclaiming
the wicked”. But when we speak of the Avatars it is
generally meant to be confined to the ten incarnations
of Vishnu, of which nine has already appeared, as dis¬
tinguishing them from others of a less important or less
potent nature. It is said that “Brahma, the creator,
after finishing the creation has not much to do and, so
long as the creation is to last, the destroyer Maheswara
has no work, but it is otherwise with the preserver
Vishriu. He cannot remain idle or cease to work so
long as the creation is to be preserved and maintained
intact. So in the mythological books is found a great
deal of literature devoted to Vishnu and his doings
and incarnations, Even in the Bhagavat Gita, it is to
be read that Vishriu informed Arjuna that whenever
truth is clouded and untruth spreads on earth, Vishnu
has the necessity to incarnate himself for the protection
of saints and destruction of evil-doers in every age”.
The Dasa Avataras are usually arranged in the
following order:—
(1) Matsya or Fish; (2) Kurma or Tortoise;
(3) Varaha or Boar; (4) Narasunha or Man-lion;
(5) Vamana or Dwarf; (6) Parasu Rama or Rama with
the axe; (7) Rama of the Ramayana\ (8) Krishna of the
Mahabharata\ (9) Buddha or Goutama.
These 9 are past; the tenth that of Kalki is yet to
come.
The Malayalam version of the Mahabharata by
Thunchat Ramanujan Eluthachan, said to have been
composed in the 17th century A. D., gives the follow"
ing description of these incarnations.
(1) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishnu, thou who
didst conquer Hayagrlva (the ringleader of the wicked),
3&S LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

and who with a view to free us from our first terror

(occasioned by the flood), didst assume the form of a
fish and bring us back the lost Veda.
(2) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishnu, thou who
in the sea of milk, in which the world with its mon¬
strous burden had sunk and was near being plunged
to the bottom, didst assume the form of a huge tortoise
and didst raise it up, and save it from apparent des¬
truction.
(3) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishnu, thou who
didst assume the form of a boar, and in that form didst
destroy Hirartnya, who through malice threw the world
from its equilibrium, and hurled it to destruction, but
which thou didst save by thy wisdom, and hast again
fixed on its centre.
(4) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishnu, thou who
didst assume the mixed form of a lion and man, in
order to destroy Hirarinya, the leader of the wicked
demons who wished to force mankind to worship him.
(5) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishriu, thou who
didst assume the form of a dwarf and didst give thyself
out as a son of the goddess Didi, to deceive King Bali,
the prince among the sons of the goddess Didi and
punish him.
(6) “Thine is the victory, O! Vishriu, thou who
didst assume the form of a hero> who called himself
Parasu Rama> thine is the victory, thou preserver of
the world, thou who didst destroy twenty-one of those
Kings who rebelled against the celestial gods, and who
didst free the earth from their oppressive burthen.
(7)“Thine is the victory, O! Vishriu, thou who
was born as man, of the race of King Raghu,
under the name of Raghava, who didst destroy the
Panktikanta (the giant Rsvaija), and didst free the
world from that pest.
(8) “ These apparitions of Vishnu were over—
He now appeared in the from of a child produced by
Vssudgva (the name of the father), and Dgvaki (the
N. 12.] mag am 309
name of his mother), and thereby fulfilled the desire
of the gods, who, as soon as they were informed of it,
raised themselves together to heaven.He was
born in the form of Krishna* and so Vishrtu became
lord of the world, honoured and worshipped by all the
upright to the present day.
(9) “The ninth apparition of Vishriu was made in
the person of Buddha, the attentive, cunning, and vigi¬
lant god, who observes the good and bad actions of
men, in order to punish or reward them, when the
tenth apparition of Vishnu shall take place.’5
We shall now proceed (o notice in some detail the
various Avataras.
(1) Matsya or Fish. In the first, second, and
third Avataras European critics profess to find a re¬
ference to the Deluge. Speaking of tht Matsya Avatara
Professor Monier Williams says, “The next episode I
selected is one (from the Vana-parva) illustrating in
a striking manner, the wide diffusion of the tradition
of the Deluge. Month the Noah of the Hindoos,_
.is represented as conciliating the favour of the
Supreme by his penances in an age of universal depra¬
vity. The earliest account of him is in the Satapatha
Brahmana. It is so interesting to compare the simple
narrative of this ancient work (which represents the
tradition of the flood as it existed in India, many cen¬
turies B. C., perhaps not much later than the time of
David), with the poetical embellishments of the Epic
version, that I commence by translating an extract
from the Brahmana, as literally as I can.
“It happened one morning that they brought
water to Manu, as usual for washing his hands. As
he was washing, a fish came into his hand- It spoke
to him thus:—‘Take care of me and I will preserve
thee. Manu asked, ‘IHrom what wilt thou preserve me?’
The fish answered, ‘A flood will carry away all living
beings; I -will save thee from that.’ He said, ‘How is
my preservation to be accomplished ?5 The fish
3IO LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

replied ‘While we are small, we are liable to constant

destruction, and even one fish devour another, thou
must first preserve me in an earthen vessel; when I
grow too large for that, dig a trench and keep me in
that; when I grow too large for that, thou must convey
me to the ocean; I shall then be beyond the risk of
destruction.” So saying it rapidly became a great fish
and still grew larger and larger. Then it said, ‘After
so many years, the Deluge will take place* then con¬
struct a ship and pay me homage and when the waters
rise, go into the ship and I will rescue thee.’ Manu,
therefore, after preserving the fish as he was directed,
bore it to the ocean; and, at the very time the fish had
declared, he built a ship and did homage to the fish*
When the flood arose, he embarked in the ship and the
the fish swam towards him and he fastened the ship s
cable to its horn. By this means he passed beyond
this northern mountain. The fish then said, ‘I have
preserved thee 1 now do thou fasten the ship to a tree.
But let not the water sink from under thee while thou
art on the mountain. As fast as it sinks, so fast do
thou go down with it.’ He therefore so descended,
and this was the manner of Manu’s descent from the
northern mountain. The flood had carried away all
living creatures. Manu alone was left* Wishing for
offspring, he diligently performed a sacrifice. In a
year’s time a female was produced. She came to
Manu* He said to her, ‘Who art thou ? ’ She answer¬
ed ‘Thy daughter,’ He asked, ‘How, lady, art thou my
daughter?’ She replied ‘The oblations which thou
didst offer in the waters, viz., clarified butter, thick
milk, whey and curds, from these hast thou begotten
me. I can confer blessings.’ With her he laborious¬
ly performed another sacrifice, desirous of children.
By her, he had offspring, called the offsprings of Manu,
and whatever blessings he prayed for were all granted
to him./1

1. Lectures on Indian Epic Poetry, p. 34.

N. 12.] MAGAM 3ii

In the Mahabarata account, the fish which is an

incarnation of Brahma, appears to Manu whilst engag¬
ed in penance on the margin of a river, and accosting
him craves his protection from the larger fish. Manu
complies, and places him in a glass vessel which he
soon outgrows and requests to be taken to a more
roomy receptacle- Manu then places him in a lake,
still the fish grew, till the lake, though three leagues
long, could not contain him. He next asks to be taken
to the Ganges but even the Ganges was soon too small
and the fish is finally transferred to the ocean. There
the monster continues to expand till at last, addressing
Manu, he warns him of the coming deluge.
Manu, however, is to be preserved by the help of
the fish who commands him to build a ship and go on
board, not with his own wife and children, but with the
seven Rishis (Saptharishis) or patriarchs, and not with
pairs of animals, but with the seeds of all existing
things. The flood comes: Manu goes on board and
fastens the ship as he is directed to a horn in the head
of the fish. He is then drawn along.
W hile the vessel was thus resting, a monster
named Hayagrlva stole the Vedas and mankind had
consequently fallen into the depths of ignorance and
impiety. To recover the Vedas Brahma and Vishnu
together fought the monster, slew him and recovered
the Vedas after which the world was progressively re¬
peopled.
(2) Kurma or the Tortoise. As the Devas and
A suras were churning the ocean for the recovery of
Amrita or beverage of immortality, Vishnu beca ne in¬
carnate in the form of a tortoise to sustain the mountain
Mandara placed on its back as an axis, the vast serpent
Vasuki serving as a rope. Besides the Amrita or water
of life, this churning of the ocean is said to have pro¬
duced 14 gems which may be enumerated as follows:—
Lakshmi, the goddess of beauty, (2) Dhanwantari,
the physician of the gods, (3) the Apsarases or nymphs
312 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

of Indra’s heaven, (4) Sura, the goddess of wine, (5)

the Moon, (6) the jewel worn by Vishnu, Kaustubham,
(7) the all bestowing tree, Asoka, (8) the cow of abun¬
dance, Kamadhenu, (9) the elephant of Indra, Ayra-
vatham, (10) His steed, Uchaisravas, (u) Poison,
Halahalam, (12) Ambrosia or Amrita, (13) the bow of
Vishnu Sam gam and (14) the chank of Vishnu
chajanyam.
The following observations of Mrs. Annie Besant
on the “Churning the milk ocean”are of peculiar interest.
“In speaking of the genesis of the elements Sir William
Crookes takes protyle as a starting-point, which is
really Vayu in its form on this physical plane—Prithivi
Vayu—and out of that builds one atom after another-
making all the chemical elements to the bodies aggre¬
gated together by the action of a positive and a negative
force. If you had read your Vishnu Purina, with
your brain and not merely with your eyes through
modern spectacles, you might have learnt that theory
of Sir William Crookes, long, long, before he gave it.
He has drawn a picture, and that picture shows an im¬
movable axis, and around it a special coil, and at points
in that coil are atoms of chemical elements, generated
by that coil which represents a swinging and cooling
force. That spiral is in the great ocean of protyle or
primeval matter, and as that spiral goes round and
round the immovable axis it generates chemical ele¬
ments one after another, and so brings into existence
the material out of vhich the world is to be formed.
That is the dry scientific statement summarised from
his own address. But I have read in an ancient book
of a mountain—which is the emblem of stability of an
axis round which everything is to revolve—thrown into
a mighty ocean; and I have read of a great serpent
turned round that mountain in spiral coils ; on the one
side the Surss are pulling, and on the other side the
Asuras are equally busy. Between the two—the posi¬
tive and negative of modern science—evolution is
started and the serpent spiral begins to turn and turn
N, 12.] magam 313
round that axis. They call the axis Mount Mandara,
and they call the spiral coil the serpent Vssuki, while
the axis rests on Hari as a pivot ; they call the positive
and negative forces, the Gods and Demons ; and their
churning the ocean gives rise to the materials of the
universe, 1
(3) Varaha or the Boar. Two etherial warders
of Vaikuntah or Vi§nu’s abode were banished from
the God’s presence and doomed to eternal exile on earth
for insolence shown to certain Rishis who were ap¬
proaching to reverence Visriu. The sentence was
afterwards commuted to transmigrations, during which
they were enjoined to faithfully serve Vi*§qu, after
which they would be restored to their old place. They
were further told that, if they would prefer to be
enemies of Vi§$u during the transmigrations and take
the consequences, they would be taken back after their
third unholy lives. They of course preferred this and
became DaytySs or AsurSs of the 3rd and 4th AvatSrSfs,
Hiraijysksha and HiranyakaSipu.
Hiranysksha had by his rigorous religious penances
propitiated Brahma and secured from him the right of
universal domination. After this, he became inordi¬
nately overweening and oppressive to such a degree that
he did not hesitate to seize the earth itself and carry it
with him into the depths of the ocean. The Devas com¬
plained to Vi$nu who, assuming the form of a boar,
dived into the depths of the ocean and, after a dreadful
contest of a thousand years with the Asura, slew him and
brought up the earth on its tusks. In this AvafSra also,
certain critics.profess to find a reference to the Deluge.
It is said “that this as well as the two former Avataras
seems to be a repetition of the story of the Deluge: the
second combines with it a portion of astronomical alle¬
gory: and none of the former Avataras have any
apparent reference to the universal catastrophe, so
pointedly indicated by the three first, which are
1, Esoteric Hinduism^ p. 62.
314 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

understood to have occurred in the earliest ages of

Hindu history; if such a chaotic mass as their fabulous
records may be dignified by such a term”.

(4) Narasimha. The Asura Hira^iyakaSipu also

propitiated Brahma by severe penances and obtained
not simply the boon of universal monarchy like
HiranySksha but secured also immunity from death at
the hands of man or beast; either by night or by day;
within doors, or without; on earth or in the heavens.

After this, he became extremely arrogant and

impious, ordered cn pain of death that his subjects
should no longer worship God but that they should
transfer it to himself* All were enjoined to repeat
Hiranyaya Nam ha, i. e., adoration to Hiranya! He
had a son called Prahlsda a devout, virtuous youth who
was always absorbed in contemplation of Visrtu. The
father became furious that of all his subjects his son
should so openly set at naught his authority, and tried
his utmost to ween him from his pious ways. The son
stood stubborn and publicly professed his devotion to
Visniu. Incensed at his contumacious conduct, the
king one day admonished him when Prahjsd protested
that the God he worshipped was omnipotent and omni¬
present. “Is then thy deity here?” roared the irate parent,
pointing to a pillar that stood just on the threshold of
the palace. The virtuous youth answered firmly in
the atfirmative, whereupon in blasphemous defiance the
wicked king cut assunder the pillar with his sword, and
behold! wonder of wonders!! from the rent thus made
there emerged a fierce being, half man and half lion—
Narasimha—which sprang furiously upon Hirartya-
kaSipu and tore him with its claws. It was just dusk
The doomed king was dragged by the hair to the door¬
steps and there torn to pieces at- the moment when the
day ends and night begins. Thus the blasphemous
king met with his death at the hands of a creature
neither wholly man nor wholly animal, at a time which
was neither day nor night, and at a place which was
 N- I2-] MAGAM 315

neither within doors nor without, neither in the

heavens nor on bare earth.
(5) Vamana or the Dwarf. We have already
referred to this Avatara in our account of the Onam
festival. Vi§riu is said to have condescended to be¬
come the son of Kasyapa and Aditi for the purpose of
checking the influence of Mahabali. He took the form
of a Brahman Dwarf and, as we have seen, deprived
Mahabali of his kingdom on earth.
(6) Parasu Rama or Rama with the axe. This
Avatara requires more detailed mention as ParaSu
Rama is the reputed reclaimer of Kerala or Malabar
from the ocean and is universally acknowledged as its
hero-saint.
Parasu Rama was born in the Treta Yuga on the
banks of the Jumna. He was the son of Jamadagni, one
of the Rishis and of his wife the virtuous Renmka.
King Kartavlrya in the course of a hunting excursion
visited the hermitage of Jamadagni who regaled the
king and his followers sumptuously. The king wondered
how a poor Rishi as his host could give such a magni¬
ficent reception to him in this wilderness. He soon
learned that the secret lay in the Rishi’s possession of
the all-bestowing cow Surabhi or Kamadhenu which at
once existed his avarice. He felt no shame in demand¬
ing the cow from the Rishi, and on refusal an attempt
was made to wrest it by force which resulted in the
death of the holy saint. The animal itself disappeared.
Jamadagni’s wife became a Sati, that is, burnt herself
on her husband’s funeral pyre, charging the king with
the guilt of double murder, imprecating fearful curses
on his head and abjured her son Parasu Rama to take
vengeance on the inequitous and murderous king.
Parasu Rama was absent from home at the time. On
his return, he came to know of what had happened and,
being endowed with a portion of Visnu’s divinity, he
challenged Kartavlrya to battle and slew him. The
military race of K§hetriyas was annihilated and the
316 LETTERS FROM MALABAR o 25

world delivered from its oppressors. After accom¬

plishing this, Rama gave away all his conquered
countries in alms to the Brahmans who required him
to quit their land. Having no place to rest, Rama
retired to the Western ghauts, reclaimed Kerala from
the sea and is still supposed to be living in the wilds
of the Konkan.
The above story has its variants; In the Vishnu
Purana it is said:—“Once when her sons were all
absent to gather the fruits on which they fed, Re$uka,
who was exact in the discharge of all her duties,
went forth to bathe. On her way to the stream,
she beheld Chitraratha, the prince of Mrittikavati with
a garland of lotuses on his neck sporting with his
queen in the water, and she felt envious of their
felicity. Defiled by unworthy thoughts, wetted but
not purified b) the stream, she returned disquited to
the hermitage, and her husband perceived her agita¬
tion. Beholding her fallen from perfection and shorn
of the lustre of her sanctity, Jamadagni reproved her
and was exceeding wroth. Upon this there came four
of her sons from the wood and each as he entered was
successively commanded by his father to put his
mother to death; but amazed and influenced by natural
affection none of them made any reply; thereupon
Jamadagni was angry and cursed them and they became
as idiots, and lost all understanding, and were like
unto beasts or birds. Lastly, Rama returned to the
hermitage when the mighty and holy Jamadagni said
unto him, ‘Kill thy mother who has sinned, and do it,
son, without repining.’ Rama accordingly took up
his axe and struck off his mother’s head whereupon the
w.:ath of the illustrious and mighty Jamadagni was
assuaged, and he was pleased with his son, and said,
‘since thou hast obeyed my commands and done what
was hard to be performed, demand from me whatever
blessings thou wilt and thy desire shall be fulfilled* •
Then Rama begged of his father these boons; the
restoration of his mother to life, with forgetfulness of
N. 1.2.J MAGAM 3i7
her having been slain, and purification from all defile*
ment, the return of his brothers to their natural
condition, and for himself invincibility in single
combat, and length of days; and all these did his
father bestow1 .”
The following account, extracted from the Maha-
bharata, differs from that in the above text:— “It
happened on one occasion that, during the absence of
the Rishi’s sons, the mighty monarch Ksrtavlrya, the
sovereign of the Haihaya tribe, endowed by the favour
of DaJtStreya with a thousand arms and a golden
chariot that went withersoever he willed it to go, came
to the hermitage of Jamadagni where the wife of the
sage, received him with all proper respect. The King,
inflated with the pride of valour, in return to her
hospitability, carried off with him by violence the
calf of the milch-cow of the sacred oblation and cast
down the tall trees, surrounding the hermitage; when
Rama returned, his father told him what had chanced
and he saw the cow in affliction and he was filled with
wrath. Taking up his splendid bow Bhsrgava, the
slayer of hostile heroes, assailed Ksrtavlrya who had
now become subject to the power of death and over¬
threw him in battle. With sharp arrows Rama cut off
his thousand arms and the king perished. The sons
of Ksrtavlrya to revenge his death attacked the hermi¬
tage of Jamadagni when Rama was away and slew the
pious and unresisting sage who called repeatedly but
fruitlessly upon his valiant sons. They then departed
and when Rama returned bearing fuel from the thickets,
he found his father lifeless. * * * * Thus lamenting
bitterly and repeatedly, Rama performed his father’s last
obsequies and lighted his funeral pyre. He then made
a vow, that he would extirpate the whole K§hetriya
race. In fulfilment of this purpose he took up his
arms and with remorseless and fatal rage singly
destroyed in fight the sons of Kartavlrya and after
then whatever Kshetriyas he encountered, Rama the
first of warriors, likewise slew. Thrice seven times
i» Wilson’s Vishnu Furana% p, 401.
3 18 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

did he clear the earth of the Kshetriya caste and he

filled with their blood the five large lakes of Ssmanta
Panchaka, from which he offered libations to the race
of Bhrgu.” The object of this incarnation is said to be
the destruction of the insolvent and oppressive race of
Kshetriyas.
(7) Rama and (8) Krishna. These incarnations
are well known and their story is related in the great
epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. They need
not therefore detain us here.
(9) Buddha or Goutama. The PurSnas have
appropriated Buddha to their side and he is represented
in them to be an incarnation of Visnu. The spread of
Buddhism was a patent fact which cannot be denied and
it was a protest against the system of caste which Hin¬
duism was advocating at that time. This required
explanation and the Puranic writers cleverly adopted
the method of treating the new teacher Buddha as an
incarnation of their own deity. The Vishnu Parana
relates how the Devas complained to Visnu of the
seizure by the Daityas or Asuras of the three worlds,
their appropriation of the offerings which were the
rightful portion of the Devas, taking care however not
to transgress the precepts of the Vedas. They besought
the aid of Visnu saying “Do thou whose wisdom is
immeasurable, instruct us in some device by which we
may be able to exterminate the enemies of the Gods.”
“When the mighty Visnu heard their requests,
he emitted from his body an illusory form which he
gave to the gods and thus spake. ‘This deceptive
vision shall wholly beguile the DaitySs, so that, being
led astray from the path of the Vedas, they may
be put to death; for all gods, demons or others who
shall be opposed to the authority of the Veda, shall
perish by my might, whilst exercised for the preserva¬
tion of the world. Go, then, and fear not, let this
delusive vision precede you; it shall this day be of great
service unto you; oh Gods!’
N. 12.] MAGAM

“After this, the great delusion, having proceeded

to earth, beheld the Daityas engaged in ascetic penan¬
ces upon the banks of the Narbada river, and approach¬
ing them in the semblance of a naked mendicant, with
his head shaven, and carrying a bunch of peacock’s
feathers, he thus addressed them in gentle ascents:
‘Ho! lords of Daitya race! wherefore is it that you
practise these acts of penance, is it with a view to re¬
compense in this world or in another?’ ‘Sage’ replied
the Daityas, ‘we pursue these devotions to obtain a
reward hereafter, why should you make such an en¬
quiry?’ ‘If you are desirous of final emancipation’,
answered the seeming ascetic, ‘attend to mywords, for
you are worthy of a revelation which is the door to
ultimate felicity. The duties that I will teach you are
the secret path to liberation, there are none beyond or
superior to them; by following them you shall obtain
either heaven or exemption from future existence. You
mighty beings are deserving of such lofty doctrine’. By
such persuasions and by many specious arguments, did
this delusive being misled the Daityas from the tenets
of the Vedas, teaching that the same thing might be for
the sake of virtue and of vice; might be and might not
be; might or might not contribute to liberation, might
be the supreme object, and not be the supreme
object, might be effect and not be effect; might be
manifest and not be manifest, might be the duty of those
who go naked, or who go clothed in much raiment,
and so the Daityas were reduced from their proper
duties by the repeated lessons of their illusory precep¬
tor, maintaining the equal truth of contradictory
tenets, and they were called Arhatas from the phrase
he had employed of ‘Ye are worthy (Arhata) of this
great doctrine;’ that is of the false doctrines which he
persuaded them to embrace”. 1

It is thus that Buddha came to be regarded as an

Avatara of Vi§nu.

i, Vishnu Parana, Book III, section XVIII,

320 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

(10) Kalki or Horse. This Avatar a is yet to come.

When the Kali age has debased and degenerated society,
Vi§$u, mounted on a white horse and armed with a
drawn sword, blazing like a comet, will appear and punish
the wicked. The fourth book of the Vishnu Puranay after
giving a striking description of the increasing degener¬
acy of the Kali age prior to the tenth Avatara, pro¬
phecies as to what will happen in exact terms. It says,
Property alone will confer rank, wealth will be the
only source of devotion, passion will be the sole bond
of union between the sexes; falsehood will be the only
means of success in litigation; and women will be
objects merely of sensual gratification. Earth will be
venerated for its mineral treasures, the Brahmanical
thread will constitute a Brahman; external types (as
the staff and red garb) will be the only distinctions of
the several orders of life; dishonesty will be the uni¬
versal means of subsistence, weakness will be the
cause of dependence; menace and presumption will be
substituted for learning; liberality will be devotion;
simple ablution will be purification; mutual assent will
be marriage; fine clothes will be dignity; and water
afar off will be esteemed a holy spring*
“When the practices taught by the Vedas and the
Institutes of law shall nearly have ceased and the close
of the Kali age shall be nigh, a portion of the divine
being who exists of his own spiritual nature in the
character of Brahma, and who is the beginning and the
end and who comprehends all things, shall descend
upon earth; he will be born in the family of Vi§$u-
yaSas, an eminent Brahman of Sambhala village, as
Kalkh endowed with the eight superhuman faculties.
By his irresistible might he will destroy all the Mle-
chchhas and thieves and whose minds are devoted to
iniquity. He will then re-establish righteousness upon
the earth, and the minds of those who live at the end
of the Kali age shall be awakened and shall be as
pellucid as crystal. The men who are thus changed
N. 12.] MAGAM J2I

by the ritual of that peculiar time shall be as the seeds

of human beings and shall give birth to a race who
shall follow the laws of the Krija age or age of purity.
As it is said, ‘when the sun and moon and the lunar
asterism Tishya and the planet Jupiter are in one
mansion, the Krija age shall ret urn’* 1 .
According to Mr. R. C. Dutt the very idea of
divine incarnation is modern and was unknown to
Vedic Hinduism or even to Manu, and Wilson
has pointed out that “it is very doubtful if these
incarnations are adverted to in the Vedas> at least in the
text. They are mentioned in some of the Lpanishads*
supplementary treatises of the Vgdas, but these com¬
positions are evidently from their style of later date
than the Vgdas, and some of them especially those
referring to Rama and Krishna are of very questionable
authenticity” l. “Vedic gods” says Dutt “are described
as descending to earth and sharing libations offered to
them, and departed spirits and manes are similarly
described as sharing the offerings made to them. But
the idea of a deity being born as man, and living among
men, like Rama and Krishna, belongs to modern
Hinduism. It is impossible not to suspect that the idea
is borrowed from the Jataka stories of the Buddhists” 2 .
In the Isis—Unveiled Madame Blavatsky, after
enumerating the Avataras in the order of their alleged
appearance, remarks, “In this diagram of Avatars, we
see traced the gradual evolution and transformations of
all species out of the antesilurian mud of Darwin and
the ilus of Sanchoniathon and Berosus. Beginning with
the Azoic time, corresponding to the ilus in which
Brahma implants the creative germ, we pass through
the Palocozoic and Mesozoic times, covered by the first
and second incarnations as the fish and tortoise; and the
Cenozoic, which is embraced by the incarnations in the

i. Wilson’s Works, Vol. 2, p. 65,

2 Vol. 3, p. 277.
322 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

animal and semi-human forms of the boar and man-

lion, and we come to the fifth and crowning geological
period, designated as the *era of mind, or age of man*
whose symbol in Hindu Mythology is the dwarf-the
first attempt of nature at the creation of man. In this
diagram we should follow the main idea—not judge the
degree of knowledge of the ancient philosophers by the
literal acceptance of the popular form in which it is
presented to us in the grand epical poem of Mahsbhsrata
and its chapter the Bhagavatgfta” *.
The following extract from the Theosophic Thinker
makes an attempt to explain the Avatars in a rational
manner.
“The AvatSra stories might seem absurd and
illogical but there is no doubt that the Purmas contain
some absolute truth?, which according to ancient
practice, are expressed esoterically as stories; but if
the key is once secured which would explain them, their
meanings are fully realised, and the truth understood
and followed* One fact, however, becomes apparent
from the stories even to a cursory observer that these
incarnations or AvatSrs follow the law of evolutions.
In the first incarnation the god appeared as Matsya,
because there wras then only one element, water, and
when the second element appeared as earth, god as¬
sumed the shape of a tortoise or an amphibious creature
which can reside in both the elements. Then when
the 3rd element, air, was formed, whose quality is
scent, the form of a boar, which has the strong sense
of smell, was taken. When fire, the fourth element
appeared, which is the same as intelligence, the shape
assumed was that of an intelligent lion, which is to
kill the prey in such a way as not to spill any blood on
earth. And in the fifth incarnation, the Dwarf is said
to have taken hold of all the AksSa with his feet,
thus showing the appearance of the fifth element the
ether.
* EsoUric Hinduism pp, 44—45,
 N. 13.] MAGAM OR ONAM
“ The bodies assumed also became denser and
denser and more complex at each successive incarna¬
tion, thus showing the descent of spirit in grosser
matter which is to be evolved again gradually to
higher and purer state as will be shown in the later
incarnations.
“The last incarnation was that of Buddha, whose
followers now number nearly a third of the whole
population of the world.
“The tenth incarnation is expected to come at the
end of this Kali age. It is prophesied that the shape
would be of a man riding on a horse. Then he is to
collect all the true believers and rescue them from the
hands of infidels, who it is said, would oppress them,
and so these infidels would be killed.
“It will be seen that from the fifth incarnation all
the shapes are human, thereby proving clearly that in
evolution a superior being cannot revert to something
below its ranks; and so in re-incarnation there cannot
be retrogression. As in the physical plane gradual
development from the simple to complex and higher
forms of life is seen; so in the nine incarnations, from
that of a fish to Buddha, gradual development is the
result and likewise in the mental plane great im¬
provement is seen to take place gradually from the
life led by Para$u Rama in the jungles to that of
Ramachandra in his wanderings and nomadic life, and
then settling down in kingdoms and principalities, and
cultivation in Krishna and Balarama. In the spiritual
plane, similarly, the same development is seen from the
anger or the prevalence of 'Jamasa in Para§uram to
the mixture of Tamasa and Rsjasa in Rama of Da$a-
ratha and of Jamasa, Rsjasa and Sajwa in Krishna, to
the full display of sSfwic qualities in the last incarna¬
tion of Buddha.” 1
13. Magam or Onam. We know of no second
festival called thus in September or October. Our
i. Esoteric Hinduism, op. 45—46.
324 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L* 25.

author is simply repeating the one already noticed

by him in the previous para. He says that this one is
in memory of Patrakali or more correctly Bhadrakali
called Pagodi or Bhagavati• If his reference has any¬
thing to do with what is known as the Mandalam
ceremony in Bhagavati temples we can understand
him. It lasts for 40 days during which special pujSs are
offered to the goddess. It generally lasts from the 1st
of Vrischigam to the middle of Dhanu (November—
December).
14. Tirawedira. Our author has thoroughly
misconceived the scope and the raison de etere of this
national festival. The “new woman” has not to show
herself in Malabar to assert equality with man in every
respect, for she is already the re . The position of
woman in Malabar is altogether different from that of
her sister on the eastern coast. She is practically
mistress of her house, whether as mother or sister of
the karnavan. She has a recognised legal position.
The principle of Malabar law is that the whole tarwad
property belongs to her and the karnavan is simply
the manager on her behalf. She has no reason to
bewail that she has “not been equally endowed intel¬
lectually with man”, for she does not admit her in¬
equality. Her general education is on a par with her
brothers and her intellectual capacity in the matter of
special studies is in no way inferior. There have been
and there are ladies of remarkable attainments in
Malabar.1
The Jiruvapra festival has been so well des¬
cribed by Mr. Gopala Panikkar, himself a Nayar, that
I need only quote it here in extenso from his work
Malabar and its Folk, already alluded to: “TiruvS-
pra is one of the three great national occasions of
1. “The three Native States of Cochin, Travancore and
Baroda take rank (in matters educational) above all British pro¬
vinces except Burma*, while, in aspect of female education, Cochin
divides with Burma the honour of the first place.” South India
Census Report of 1911.
N. 14.] TIRUVATIRA 32S

Malabar. It generally comes off in the Malayalam

month of Dhanu (December or January) on the day
called the TiruvStira day. It is essentially a festival
in which females are almost exclusively concerned and
lasts for but a day. It has got behind it a traditional
antiquity streching back to time almost out of mind.
The popular conception of it is that it is in commemo¬
ration of the death of Ksmadevan, the Cupid of our
national mythology. As recorded in old PuranSs,
KSmadevan was destroyed in the burning fire of the
third eye of Siva, one of the chief members of our
Divine Trinity. Hence he is now supposed as having
only an ideal or rather spiritual existence, and thus
he exerts a powerful influence upon the lower passions
of human nature. The memory of this unhappy tragedy
is still kept alive amongst us, particularly the
female section, by means of the annual celebration of
this important festival. About a week before the day,
the festival practically opens. At about 4 in the morn¬
ing, every young female member of the Nayar families
with pretensions to decency, gets out of her bed and
takes her bath in a tank. Usually, a fairly large number
of these young ladies collect themselves in the tank for
the purpose. Then all or almost all of these plunge in
the water and begin to take part in the singing that is
presently to follow. One of these then leads off by
means of a peculiar rhythmic song chiefly pertaining
to Cupid. The singing is simultaneously accompanied
by a curious sound produced with her hand on the
water. The palm of the left hand is closed and kept
immediately underneath the surface of the water. Then
the palm of the other is forcibly brought in a slanting
direction producing a loud deep noise. This process
is continuously prolonged together with the singing.
One stanza is now over along with the sound and then
the leader stops awhile for the others to follow her in
her wake. This being likewise over, she caps her first
stanza, with another at the same time beating on the
water and so on until the conclusion of the song. Then
 326 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
all of them make a long pause and then begin another.
The process goes on until the peep of the dawn when
they rub themselves dry and come home to dress them¬
selves in the neatest and grandest possible attire. They
also darken the fringes of their eyelids with a sticky
preparation of soot mixed up with a little oil or ghee,
and sometimes with a superficial coating of antimony
powder. They also wear white, black or red marks
lower down the middle of their foreheads close to the
part where the two eyebrows near one another *. They
also chew betel and thus redden their mouths and lips.
T hen they proceed to the enjoyment of another promi¬
nent item of pleasure: viz*, swinging to and fro, on
what is usually known as an uzhinjal. A long bamboo
piece is taken and rent asunder from the root end of it
leaving the other end whole untouched. Then two
holes are bored, one on the cut end of each one of the
two parts into which the bamboo is split. Now another
but a small piece of the same material about a yard in
length is divided along the grain in two equal parts.
One of these is taken and its both ends are cut into
points which are thrust into the two holes of the long
bamboo pieces spoken of before. This is securely
nailed and strongly attached to the long bamboo, which
is then hung by means of a very tight strong rope to a
horizontal branch of a neighbouring tree. Then the
player seats herself on the small piece attached between
the split portions which are firmly held by her two
hands, and then the whole thing is propelled amain by
some one from behind. These ladies especially derive
immense pleasure from this process of swinging back¬
wards and forwards, sometimes very wide apart so as
to reach the other and higher branches of the tree.
Nevertheless, accidents are few and far between. This
as well as the songs and early bath all close on the
festival day when still greater care and scrupulousness
are bestowed upon the various elements of enjoyment.
On the festival day, after the morning bath is over,
they take a light chota and, in the noon, a family-dinner
l- Next they go to the teaapie for worship;
N. 14.] TIRUVATIRA 327
is voraciously attacked, the essential and almost
universal ingredients of which being ordinary ripe
plantain fruits and a delicious preparation of arrow-root
powder purified and mixed with jaggery or sugar and
also cocoanut. Then till evening dancing and merry¬
making are ceaselessly indulged in.
“The husband population are inexcusably requir¬
ed to be present in the wives’ houses before evening, as
they are bound to do on the Orjam and Vishu occasions;
failure to do which is looked upon as a step or rather
the first step on the part of the defaulting husband
towards a final separation or divorce from the wife.
Despite the rigour of the bleak December season dur¬
ing which commonly the festival falls, heightened
inevitably by the constant blowing of the cold east wind
upon their moistened frames, these lusty maidens
derive considerable pleasure from their early baths and
their frolics in water. The biting cold of the season
which makes their persons shiver and quiver like
aspen-leaves before the breeze, becomes to them in the
midst of all their ecstalic frolics an additional source
of pleasure. In short, all these merely tend to brace
them up to an extent the like of which they can scarce¬
ly find anywhere else. Thus at the stated season of
the year the morning hours are invariably filled with
the melodious warblings of certain indigenous birds
diversified by the sweet cheering songs of our country
maidens and constantly disturbed by the rough crowing
of the domestic cock; all of which drag their pleasing
length long until the morning dawns upon them and
bathes them in the crimson effulgence of the orb of the
day, driving off the country’s face the mist of night
which enveloped them in its hazy cover: thus forming
the signal of the party to retire to their accustomed
abodes for the day’s festivities.
“The two items described above, viz., the swinging
process and the beating on the water, have each its
distinctive significance. The former typifies the attempt
which these maidens make in order to hang themselves
328 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

on these instruments and destroy their lives in conse¬

quence of the lamented demise of their favourite deity,
Ksmadgvan. It is but natural that depth of sorrow
will lead men to extreme courses of action. The beating
on the water symbolizes their beating their chests in
expression of their deep-felt sorrow caused by their
Cupid’s death. Such in brief is the description of a
Na^ar festival which plays a conspicuous part in the
social history of Malabar. Naturally enough, while
within the Christian fold the festive pleasantry and
mirth of the Christmas season are going their jolly
round, within the limited circle of the Nayar Society a
mournful occasion which time has completely altered
into one of mirth, constitutes one of the best enjoy¬
ments of our national life.” 1
At this national festival the tenants of Malabar are
required to present their landlords with ten cocoanuts
for each paramba or garden held by them. This gift is
known as Thiruvatirappattu. In return for this the
tenants are given plantain fruits, rice, etc.
Mr. Gopala Panikkar has in his fine description
of the celebration of the festival failed to notice certain
details which are worth mentioning. On the TiruvS-
tira day the women divert themselves by a peculiar
kind of dance. Young bejewelled maidens in their
gayest attire join together, stand in a circle and perform
evolutions to the accompaniment of songs, keeping tune
in the meanwhile by the clapping of their hands. This
is called Kaikottikaji (also Tiruvstirakaji) and the
songs Tiruvstirappsttu 2. In the night they keep
vigils for Siva, It will be observed that the festival is
celebrated in commemoration, not simply of the con¬
sumption of Ksmadgva, the God of love, in the fire
proceeding from Siva’s eyes, but also of the restoration
of the God to life at the intercession of Psrvati. Hence
1, Malabar and its Folk% pp. 105 to 107

2. See Folksongs of Kerala in the Jubilee Souvenir of the

Oriental Mss. Dept. p. 65—Trivandrum.
N. t4.J TIRUVATIRA 329

it partakes of the nature both of a mourning and a

rejoicing ceremony which accounts for the prevailing
mirth. The story of the death and restoration of Kama
Deva is worth telling and is as follows:—
Kama, the God of love, is said to be the son of
Maya or Lakshmi. Maya is described “as the general
attracting power; the mother of all, the Sakti or
energy, of Vi§nu, the personification of spirit, she is
attraction, unites all matter, producing love in animat¬
ed nature, and in Physics, the harmonization of atoms.
Kama or love is her offspring, and is united in marriage
to Re tit or Affection, the inseparable attendant on the
tender passion; and in friendship to Vasanta or spring,
denoting Love’s season, both literally in regard to the
time when most animals are impregnated and vege¬
tables burst into existence, and metaphorically, touch¬
ing the early portion of man s passage through life .
In the words of Sir William Jones, he made “the bold
attempt to wound the great God Mahsdsva, for which
he was punished by a flame consuming his corporeal
nature, and reducing him to a mental essence, and
hence his chief dominion is over the minds of mortals
or such deities as he is permitted to subdue”.
The incident has been thus described : —
“Mah5d?va and PSrvati while once playing with
dice at the game of Ckaturanga, disputed, and parted
in wrath; and severally performing rigid acts of devo¬
tion to the Supreme Being, kindled thereby such
vehement fires and threatened a general conflagration.
The D5v5s in great alarm hastened to Brahma, who
led him to Mahsdgva, and supplicated him to recall
his consort; but the wrathful god answered, that she
must return to him of her own choice. They accord¬
ingly deputed Ganga, the river goddess, who prevailed
on PSrvati to return to her husband, on the condition
that his love for her should be restored. The celestial
mediators then employed KSma Deva, who wounded
Siva with one of his flowery arrows; but the angry
deity reduced the god of love to ashes. PSrvati, soon
 330 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L, 2 5 •

after, presented herself before §iva in the semblance

of a Kirsti, a daughter of a mountaineer; and seeing
him enamoured of her, assumed her own shape, and
effected reunion: and in the place of reconciliation a
grove sprang up, which was named, from the impres*
sion which her appearance then made on the uxorious
deity, Ksmavana, or the wood of desire. The relenting
Siva consoled the afflicted Re(i, the widow of Ksma,
by assuring her that she should rejoin her husband,’
when he should be born again in the form of Pradyum-
na, son of Kri$ija and put Ssmbara to death. The
favourable production was in due time accomplished;
and Pradyumna was seized by the demon Ssmbara, who
plated him in a chest and threw it into the sea. The
chest was swallowed by a large fish, which was caught
and carried to the palace of the tyrant; where the
unfortunate Reti had been compelled to menial service-
it fell to her lot to open the fish, and finding the chest
and its contents, she nursed the infant in private and
educated him until he had sufficient strength to deltrov
the malignant Ssmbara. He had before considered
Rep as his mother; but their minds being now irradi
ated, the prophetic promise of Mahsdgva was remem-
bered and the god of love was reunited to the goddess
of pleasure.” 8 ucss

e Ramsya^a notices the same event thus:—

Kandarpa, the wily one, wounding Sfhanu, the lord
of the gods, while, u ith uplifted arm, he was engaged
in sacred austerities, met the desert of his crime from
the eye of the great Rudra, all his members beiZ
scorched with fire fell from his body; he was’thend
called Ananga (bodiless), and the place where ?t
happened, Kama 1 (Desire)”

15- Parany Mai. Bharani. The

second asterism,
supposed to be specially dedicated
the goddess. to Bhagavati—

i. Book r, Sect. 22.

N. 15.] BHARAN1 33i

Sri Couroumba. The goddess presiding over

the temple at Cranganore or Kodungalore is known as
the Sri Kurumba Bhagavati and the Devaswam or the
endowment is known as Sri Kurumbct Kavu Devaswam.
The temple at Cranganore is an ancient one and is
dedicated to Bhadrakali. We have notices of it by
European travellers of the 17th century as also in
books on Malabar by Spanish and Portuguese writers
of the period. The annual sacrifice of cocks with its
accompanying orgies are also referred to by some of
them. Baldeous states that “the heathens considered
Bhadraksli to have her chief residence in the great
Pagoda of Cranganore. It was in 1662 known as the
Pagoda of Pilgrims from the vast number of zealots
that flocked thither, and brought a revenue of many
thousand fanams to the Hindu Raja. Ixora; they say,
gave to his daughter Kali, the name of Basitri (or
rather Vasuri) which to this day is the common name
for small-pox:\ It is significant that the word Kuruppa
in Malayalam denotes small-pox and that it has some
affinity with the name by which the goddess at Cranga¬
nore is known. Faria-y-Sousa while not mention¬
ing the temple of the goddess itself, notices the
adjacent one of Kshetvapala which forms part of the
main building. He says, “That of upper Cranganore
has an idol on whose head one of the Brahmans gives
several strokes of a hammer every day. For they think
if these were not done, he would by this time touch
the stars with his head/’1 The strokes are, as we have
already said, given with a piece of sandal wood even
to-day but not with a hammer.
The ancient Tamil poems, the JVlanimekala and
the Chilapatikaram give us an account of the origin
of the Bhagavati Temple at Cranganore. It is said
that a certain loving couple known as Kovatan and
Kannakay belonging to the famous city of Kaveripoom-
pattam having had to leave their home under certain

J, Vol. 2, Chap. 4.
332 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

distressing circumstances reached the city of Madura

where, while Kovalan, the husband of Kannakay, was
attempting to sell one of her rich anklets, was set upon
by the king’s goldsmiths and accused of having robbed
one of the Queen’s anklets. He was doomed to death
and was executed. Hearing of the murder of her
husband, the high-spirited and disconsolate wife rushed
into the royal presence and proved her husband’s
innocence by producing the other anklet which was in
her possession and comparing it with the one seized
from her husband. At this, the king was amazed, and
struck with the inequity he had unwittingly committed,
fell down and died. The bereaved widow left the
royal presence and in her determination to put an end
to her miserable existence, and at the same time
to take vengeance on her wrong-doers, she twisted round
and plucked her left breast and threw it over the
house of the court jeweller who had brought about the
arrest and execution of her husband. The irritable
mob that had collected round the place, lynched the
jeweller and set fire to his house. She subsequently
died in the territory of the Chera King Chenkuttuvan.
The story was carried to the King who was greatly
moved at the sad end of the King of Madura while the
Queen was interested in the account of the heroine.
At the request of the Queen, Chenkuttuvan built the
temple at Cranganore, their capital, in honour of Kanna¬
kay who was supposed to be an incarnation of Bhadra-
kali to whom the temple was dedicated.
The goddess Kali or ‘the black one’ known also as
Bhadrakali or ‘the strong Kali’, is said to have been the
wife of Iswara. She is also known as Durga, Chamundu
Chandika, Bhavani, etc. Faria-y-Sousa writing of
Malabar Hindus in the 17th century speaks of “Patra-
kali” as “Ixora’s daughter”. She “is black; she has
eight laces, and 16 arms, great round eyes, hog’s teeth,
two elephants for tendants. She is clothed with snakes,
her hair like peacock’s tails, has several things in her
hands, particularly arms, the Devil Medala waits on
N. 15.J BHARANI 333

her; she seeing her father could not overcome the

giant Daridabaxada, conquered him by Policy”.1
Sacrifices are but too common to the goddess in
her character of Kali and human sacrifices too used to
be offered in former days though not in Malabar. The
religious rites that accompany the sacrifices to Kali are
detailed in a chapter of the Kalika Pur ana*
Our author’s description of the Bharani festival is
not correct. What he calls Par any stands for
Bharanuwhich however is not reckoned as the birthday,
of the goddess presiding over the shrine of Sri
Kurumba at Cranganore. The temple there is called
Sri Kurumba Kavu and we have already given an
account of its origin.
We have accounts of the annual Bharani festival
given by Mr. Logan in his Manual of the Malabar
District, as also by Mr. Gopala Panikkar in his Mala¬
bar and its Folk. Mr. Fawcett quotes Mr. Logan in
his account of the Nayars of Malabar and improves
upon it by adding what he obtained from his informant.
These accounts are, however, but hearsay, and some of
them are so garbled as to throw a lurid and unsavoury
light on the whole festival. What takes place in con¬
nection with it and under its shadow and in its name is
shocking enough. But it is rendered to appear more
repulsive than it actually is by the addition of filthy
particulars which exist only in the wild imagination of
informants who trade on such nasty stuff.
The festival comes on, not in the month of January
as observed by our author, but in the Malayalam month
of Meenam which corresponds to March—April.
Bharani is the second asterism of the lunar month and
that is the most important day of the festival. Hence
it is known as the Bharani festival of Kodungallur. The
temple is held by the people to be dedicated to Kali or
Sri Kurumba, the goddess who presides over that fell

1 Chapter x, Pt. 4, Vol. 2.

 334 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [1**25.
disease, the small-pox, and she and her satelites are
supposed to revel in their greed for blood. Hence the
shedding of blood by the sacrifice of a large number of
cocks forms a distinguishing feature of the revolting
adjuncts of this horid festival.
Pilgrimages to the shrine at Kodungallur for the
Bharani•> festival are undertakan from one end of Mala-
bar to the other. As the festival approaches, immense
bodies of all castes except the Brahmans flock to
Kodungallur from all parts of Malabar. Most of them
make their offerings and return home before Bharani
day. Mr. C. Gopala Panikkar gives us a substantially
correct, though gruesome, account of the doings of the
pilgrims. He says, “Pilgrimages undertaken to the
temple on this occasion are potent enough to safeguard
the pilgrims and their friends and relations from the
perilous attacks of cholera and small-pox. Hence
people resort thither annually by the thousands from
almost all parts of Malabar; and the more north you
go the stronger will you find the hold which the
goddess has upon the popular imagination. The chief
propitiatory offering on the occasion is the sacrifice of
cocks. In fact, every family makes a point of undertak¬
ing this sacred mission. People arrange to start on it at
an auspicious moment on a fixed day in small isolated
bodies. Of course all the necessaries they take
care to carry about their persons. Preparations are
made for the journey* Rice, salt, chillies, curry-
stuffs, betel leaves and nuts, a little turmeric powder
and pepper and above all a number of cocks form an
almost complete paraphernalia ol: the pilgrimage.
These are all gathered and preserved in separate
bundles, inside a large bag. When the appointed hour
comes they throw this bag on their shoulders, conceal
their money in their girdles, and with a native fa¬
shioned umbrella in the one hand and a walking stick on
the other they start, each from his own house, to meet
the brother pilgrims at the rendezvous. Here a foreman
is selected practically by common consent.
N. 15.] BHARANI
335

“Then commences the vociferous recitation of

that series of obscene songs and ballads which charact-
erises the pilgrimage all along. The foreman it is
that opens the ball* He is caught up by others in
equally loud and profuse strains. This is continued
right up till the beginning of their homeward journey.
Nobody whom they come across can successfully es¬
cape the course Billings-gate of these religious
zealots. Even women are not spared. Perhaps it is
in their case that the pilgrims wax all the more elo.
quently vulgar.. A number of cock-feathers stuck or
tied upon the tip of a stick, and with this as a wand
they begin to dance and pipe in a set style which is
extremely revolting to every sense of decency.

“Some of the pilgrims walk out all the distance

down to the temple, while others go by boat or some
other common conveyances; but in neither case do they
deign to spare any passer-by. They usually cook
their own meals on the way; which consist of the ordi¬
nary rice preparations plenty of fish and flesh. Hund¬
reds of gallons of arrack and toddy are consumed
during the festivals. In fact you can hardly find a single
sober pilgrim during their continuance. The pilgrims
reach the tempie in their dirty attire. Thier very words
smell strongly of a mixture of arrack and undigested
animal food. They bathe and have their meals ao-ain.
The temple premises are crowded to overflowing.°The
worship of the goddess is then commenced. The of¬
fering consists of the sacrifice of cocks at the temple-
altar, turmeric powder, but principally of pepper, as
also some other objects of lesser importance. A parti¬
cular spot inside the temple is set apart for the distri¬
bution of what is called ^iau'jalprasadam (turmeric
powder on which divine blessings have been invoked).
The work of doling it out is done by young maidens
who are also during the process subjected to ceaseless
volleys of vile and vulgar abuse. With surely stoical
endurance they submit to attend to their work.
336 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
‘‘Now leaving out of account the minor ceremonies
we come to the principal one, viz., the sacrifice of
cocks.
“The popular idea is, the greater the number of
cocks sacrificed, the greater is the efficacy of the
pilgrimage. Hence men vie with ?one another in the
number ot cocks that they carry on their journey. The
sacrifice is begun and then there takes place a regular
scramble for the sanctified spot reserved for this but¬
chering ceremony. Now one man holds a cock by the
trunk and another pulls out its neck by the head, and
in the twinkling of an eye, by the intervention of a
sharpened knife, the head is severed from the trunk.
The blood then gushes forth in a forceful and conti¬
nuous jets, which is poured directly on a granite piece
specially reserved. Then another is similarly slaugh¬
tered, and then as many as each of the pilgrims can
bring. The same process of butchering is also taken
up by thousands of others, and in no length of time the
whole of the temple-yard is converted into one horrible
expanse of blood, rendering it too slippery to be safely
walked over. The piteous cries and death-throes of
the poor devoted creatures greatly intensify the horror
of the scene. The stench emanating from the blood
mixing with the nauseating smell of arrack renders the
occasion all the more revolting.”1
Mr. Logan adds a few more particulars. He says,
“of what takes when the pilgrims reach this spot per¬
haps the less said the better. In their passage up
to the shrine the cry of ‘nada*a nada-a’ (march,
march away; is varied by terms of unmeasured abuse
levelled at the goddess (a Bhagavati) of the shrine.
This abusive language is supposed to be acceptable to
her. On arrival at the shrine, they desecrate it in
every conceivable way, believing that this too is
acceptable; they throw stones and filth, howling
volleys of oprobrium at her house. The chief of the
1 Malabar and its Folk, pp. 130 to 132.
N. 15.I BHARANI 337

fisherman caste, styled Kuli Muttatta Arayan, has the

privilege of being the first to begin the work of pollut¬
ing the Bhoot or shrine. Into other particulars it
is unnecessary to enter.” Quoting this passage
Mr. F. Fawcett remarks, “It is a pity Mr. Logan is
reticent—my information is that the head-man of the
Mukkuvans (fisher caste) opens the festival by solemnly
making foecal deposit on the image. Here again there
is the same strange union of everything that is filthy,
abusive, foul and irreverent with every mode of ex¬
pressing the deepest religious feeling.1 ”
The excesses committed by the pilgrims on the
way and their doings on arriving at Kodungallur,
especially of the lower classes, are really revolting.
But there is no warrant for some of the statements
contained in the above extracts, and it is indeed sur¬
prising that Mr. Fawcett should have been too easily
gulled into believing the gross travesty of the festival
given him by his informant. The pity of it is, that he
should have given currency to his informant’s account
bv making a record of it in a Government publication
without taking the trouble of testing its correctness by
making local enquiries, especially, when the truth could
have been easily ascertained by making a reference to
the Devaswam Department (z* e.> the Department of
Religion) of the Cochin State. The danger of leaving
such*statements uncontradicted is great, very often they
are made the basis of theories as to the leligion and
manners of the people. I have therefore taken care to
ascertain the truth of Mr. Fawcett’s informant’s state¬
ment. Mr. K. Raja Rama Row, B. A., who was for
sometime Tahsildar and Magistrate of Cranganore and
who had, in his official capacity superintended the
celebration of the festival, gives me the following ac¬
count:
“It is true that the Koori Kuzhi Aravans (not the
Koob Mattuth Aravan) have the privilege of polluting
i Madras Museum Bulletin,Yo!. V, No. 3, p. 272.
338 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

the shrine. But how do they do it ? Generally, they

(200 in number) run up from the KSvil Kadavu (the
landing place for boats at a slight distance from the
temple) to the northern side of the temple, and stand
with long clubs in their hands in 3 or 4 rows one be¬
hind the other, at a respectable distance from the
northern door-way of the temple. After the special
puja (Tri Chandana podi Charthi pooja) is over, the
Cranganur Chief, the Tahsildar and his subordinates
leave the temple house through the eastern door-way,
unobserved, if possible, by the large concourse of the
polluting classes that stand on the northern side of the
temple. ‘Unobserved’ I say, because the exit of these
folks through the eastern gate is the signal for them to
approach and run round the temple. The impatience
of these classes is simply indescribable. Those that
stand in the forefront are generally pushed forward,
but they, from consciousness of the impropriety of ap¬
proaching the temple before the puja is over, every
moment, will be receding. The men in the forefront
may be aptly compared with the waves of a stormy sea
which beat up against the shore and then recede into
the foamy waters. These Aravans make no foecal
deposit on the image. Curiously enough, they have not
been allowed even the privilege of having a look at the
image, for the northern door-way will be closed for
about a fortnight, from the fowl-cutting day to the Nata
Thurappu or opening day. The various door-ways are
fastened before the polluting classes approach the
temple. I have superintended the festival from the
beginning to the end for four consecutive years and /
have not noticed the deposit adverted to by Mr. Fawcett.
I may also observe that the Bharani pilgrims compris¬
ing Nayars and other classes are bodily very clean
though their tongues know no bounds.”

I may now proceed to give an accurate account of

the festival as it takes place on the authority of those
who take part in it.
 N. iS-| BHARANI 339

The festival opens on the Bharani asterism of the

month of Kumbham (February—March) with a Mala¬
bar gold-smith of the polluting caste, going round the
temple three times, ringing a bell, at about 7 in the
morning. He is supposed to have polluted the temple
and the act is called Kavu Teendal or polluting the
temple. A few minutes after, the eldest female member
of the PilSppiiiy house attached to the temple, appears
and announces that the temple has been swept clean,
the process having been gone through previous to
announcement. Upon this, the Namputiri priests enter
the temple, proceed to the sanctum and conduct the
usual services. The trees standing near the temple,
specially the banyan and the peepul, are decorated by
hanging flags on their boughs. The porticoes of the
pagoda on the north and the east are also similarly
decorated.
From this day forward till after the Bharani day
of the next month of Meenam is over, and the temple
is opened to public worship after the closing of the
festival, certain offerings such as Satassatam (a kind
of pudding in the preparation of which 25 measures and
1 nazhi of rice, 101 cocoanuts, 101 palams of Malasses,
101 kadali plantain fruits and 101 tavi of ghee are
required) for the goddess, Guruti (an offering of water
mixed with chunnam and turmeric along with other
adjuncts) to Vasurimala, i. e. the goddess of small-pox
whose idol is placed in a building outside the main fane,
and Chamayam (another offering consisting in the
de coration of the idol to Kshetrapalan or the guardian
angel of the shrine, are prohibited. In the village of
Kodungallur people desist during the period from hav¬
ing dramas (Kathakali) performed.

Nsyar pilgrims from north and south Malabar

begin to arrive some 10 days before the Bharani day
in Meenam, while those from the south come some
days before. The sacrifice of cocks commence on the
Avittam or Chatayam asterisms, i. e., six or seven days
j4o LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

before the Bharani day. The cocks are sacrificed by

their heads being severed by a sharp knife and the
blood split on the two stones that stand covered with
sand outside the line of circumambulation round the
temple (pradakshana vazhi). Thus the sacrifice takes
place outside the pagoda precincts though within its
outer boundary. The pagoda is from this day forward
regarded as polluted. The sacrifice goes on till Aswciti
or the first asterism. The sacrifice is commenced by
a Nctyar belonging to a house known as Kodungallur
Bhagavati Veetu* i.e.,‘the Cranganur goddess’s house,’
and the cocks sacrificed by him are brought from the
Tarwads of Tacholi Otenan and Karampilty Kurup in
British Malabar. On that day the eastern portico of
the pagoda is decorated by hanging strings of flags and
festoons. It is on account of this sacrifice of cocks
that the Kodungallur Bhararii is also known as the
Cock Festival of Cranganore.
The Tiyya or Hava pilgrims begin to come from
Eravati and A swath i. e.,the twenty-seventh and the
first asterisms. On the Aswati day the pilgrims throw
into the inner precincts of the temple, over the roof of
the quadrangle, small packages containing turmeric,
pepper and other articles together with some coins,
a cocoanut and a live cock. Mr. Logan’s story as to
the throwing of filth and stones is of a piece with
Mr. Fawcett’s account of the foecal deposit. On
the same day the Pulayars commence their sacrifice of
cocks; at a place called Pulappatam or ‘the Pulayas
field’, situated at about a furlong to the east of the
pagoda. The sacrifice is set on foot by a Pulaya hold¬
ing thesjhsnam or dignity of Kottu Kovilakathay Vatik-
karatiy i. e., the rod-bearer of the Palace of the Raja.
The Pulayas continue their sacrifice till the forenoon
of the Bharani day.
Meanwhile on the Aswati day, that is the day pre¬
vious to Bharani, the ordinary services of the day are
all closed by 10 a. m. At 12 o’clock the Atikal, a
N. 15. j BHARANi 341
priest who is not a Brahman but who belongs to a
peculiar sect and whose occupation is offering puja to
Bhadraksli, enters the sanctum and performs the ser¬
vice of Trichchandanappoticharthal which means liter¬
ally ‘the smearing of the idol with holy sandal powder*.
This is done with shut doors and lasts till about half
past three. The doors of the sanctum are then opened.
As soon as the above service of the Atikalis over,
all within the inner precincts are ordered to come out,
and the doors all round are locked up. The Valia or
senior Raja of Cranganur then gets on the platform
round the peepul tree standing on the east of the eastern
portico of the Pagoda and spreads out a green colour¬
ed umbrella. The moment the green coloured umbrella
of the Raja is spread, a rush is made by the surging
crowd which till then is kept back by the Velichappaa
who is venerated by the pilgrims; and Palakkal Velan
(a low caste washerman or mannan) approaches the
shrine first, with great eclat, and formally and osten¬
tatiously pollutes the temple by touching it. He is
followed by the surging mass of Tiyyans and Aravans
who in a frenzy circumambulate the temple in a wild
manner and then retire. The Koari kuzhi Aravans,
and not the Kooli mutta Aravan> have the privilege
of polluting the temple by approach, besides the
Palakkal Velan s right to do so by touch*
Early next morning at about 3 a. m., the Atikal
goes into the temple and serves Payasam or sweet
pudding made of vdri ari or wild rice, and molasses to
the goddess. The Atikal, it should be noted, could
not perform such service on any other day of the
year.
A carpenter who is designated Veerasari or the
brave carpenter hoists a flag on an arecanut tree
planted to the east of the column of lights standing on
the eastern side of the temple
At 6 a. m. on the Bharani day cocks are
sacrificed in front of the western gate of the
 342 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

pagoda and Palakkal Velan once more approaches

and pollutes the shrine, as if it had not been already
polluted. After this, men of all castes approach the
temple and throw into the inner quadrangle offerings
of coins, cocoanuts, pepper, turmeric, live cocks, etc.,
but never stones and filth. Towards evening the Sirkar
authorities go into the inside quadrangle opening the
eastern door alone of the pagoda and collect and
secure the offerings thrown in by^ the pilgrims. The
collections amount from ten to fifteen thousand Rupees
and the people that congregate come to more than
twenty or thirty thousand men.
On Kartika day, i. e., the next day after the Bharani>
the premises of the pagoda and its vicinity are swept
clean, and the wells purified. In the evening, the
eastern door is opened, and the inner precincts also
are swept clear. The Nampnjiri priests now go in and
perform the punnyaham or purificatory ceremony, and
give away Pasu Dhanam or gift of cows as an adjunct
of the purificatory ceremony. After this, the usual
services commence. At about 8 in the night, the
eastern door of the inner shrine is opened, and pujas
performed. As soon as these are over, the door is
closed once more and locked up* The next day, that
is on the Rohini asterism, at about 9 p. m., the
eastern door of the inner shrine is opened, puja per¬
formed and locked up again. The next pGja is
performed at 6 a* m. on the subsequent day, in, on
the Makeeram asterism. On the next day, i. e., the
Tiruvatira asterism, service takes place at 9 a. m. On
the Punartham asterism, i.e., the day following, service
is performed at 6 p. m. The usual daily services
are resumed from the next day forwards, i. e., from the
Puyam asterism when as usual the northern door is
opened for worship* A large number of devotees
attend this and it is esteemed a great merit to worship
when this door is opened after the festival.
The pilgrims make their return journey in a quiet
noffensive manner and take home the Prasadct which
N. 16.] PALLURUTHI 343
consists of sandal paste mixed with turmeric, and a
black paint of burnt rice, etc., known as Chantu.
16. Paldurti. There is a temple of Bhagavati at
Pailuruthi just a couple of miles to the south of
Mattancherry in Cochin. The celebration of the
Bharani here is called Vela.
At Chertalay in Travancore also there is a simi¬
lar celebration in the month of Meenam on the day of
the Pooram asterism though not on the day of Bharani.
Both at Pailuruthi and at Chertalay, huge figures,
worked in wicker and painted and decked in gaudy
colours and tinsel drapery, to represent the PSndava
brothers and the stories and incidents of the Mahs
bhsrata and the Rsmsyana, are constructed and placed
in front of the temple. They are lighted during the
night and on the Pooram or Bharani day are either
carried on men’s shoulders or are dragged on huge
wheels round the temple. There are also figures
known as Annam (a kind of huge bird-like figure) of
beautiful workmanship carried round the temple some¬
times on wheels and sometimes on the shoulders of
men. There is the Paddayani (literally patayani)1 or
Vela in which the devotees who come to take part in
the celebration carry torches by night and advance
towards the temple in a body with drums beating, fifes
playing and with shouts. A similar party advances
from the opposite direction and the two come face to
face at the temple. Much noise is made and, amidst
this tumultious revelry, pop guns are fired, rockets let
off, and other fire-works exhibited. The votaries are
often the worse for liquor and ganja. Very often it
ends in a free fight between the opposing factions.
Obscene songs and vile abuse are freely indulged in.
Long established custom is made the excuse for this
unedifying freedom.
At Chertalay this sort of revelry is allowed on the
Pooram day only. The other days of the temple festival
are celebrated as in other temples. Fra Bartolomeo
x. The word means a military formation in warfare.
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
344
has given us a description of the festival as he
saw it in March 1777- “l had an opportunity of see¬
ing the image of this deity (Bhagavati) during the
celebration of her festival. It was exhibited to the
populace, amidst the sound of various musical instru¬
ments, by a Brahman, who sat upon an elephant, and
held an umbrella over it. Some Indian dancing gills1
preceded the statue and the procession was closed by
an immense multitude of people, who seemed frantic
with joy, and who sing all kinds of indecent songs, on
the subject of generation which they say is effected by
the influence of this female deity, combined with that
of her husband Siva or the son*”2
At the celebration of Bharani and Puram, all
cistes, high and low, are alike allowed to approach
the temple but get no admission into it.
17. Causes to be suspended by an iron. This
is known as Tookkam or hook-swinging generally held
in certain Bhagavati temples but not in all. For instance
at the Chertala temple there is no hook-swinging.
Vows are taken when a person is dangerously ill
or in some other bad way that he would subject himself
to hook-swinging or some other self-mortification to
gratify the dreaded goddess Kaii under the deluded
impression that the evil is caused by the anger of Ksii.
Frair Jordanus in the 14th century tells us that in
Greater India meaning Malabar, “Many sacrifice them¬
selves to idols in this way: When they are sick or in¬
volved in great mischance, they vow themselves to the
idol if they should happen to be delivered, then, when
they have recovered, they fatten themselves for one or two
years continually eating and drinking fat things, etc. and
when another festival comes round they cover themselves
1. The writer evidently mistook the Talam bearers or females
carrying lights before the image for dancing girls. The Malabar
temples have fortunately no dancing girls attached to them as on
the East Coast. .
2. p 121- 2.
N. 17.] TOOKKAM 345
with flowers and perfumes and crown themselves
with white garlands and go with singing and playing
before the idol when it is carried through the land; and
those men who are sacrificing themselves to the idol
carry a sword with 2 handles like those (knives) which
are used in currying leather; and after they have shown
off a great deal they put the sword to the back of the
neck cutting strongly with a vigorous exertion of both
hands and so cut off their own heads before the idol”.
We do not, of course, now hear of this sort of self-
immolation, but hook-swinging, such as is mentioned
by our author (perhaps a substitute of what is des¬
cribed by Jordanus), is still prevalent though the
Government has prohibited it for some time past.
Hook-swinging is performed in fulfilment of vows
made to Kali to propitiate her and gain her favour
with a view to avert mishaps. The performance takes
place in the Kali temple in the presence of the goddess.
The performer has to prepare himself early by under¬
going some sort of preliminary penance. He should
for the period of 41 days attend the temple early morn¬
ing after bath and worship the goddess, abstaining from
animal food, intoxicants as also from association with
women. His body has to be prepared for the hook.
For this, during the morning hours, the body is rubbed
with oil and is shampooed particularly on the back, a
portion of the flesh is by manipulation stretched and
made thin by constant rubbing, so that the integument
may be somewhat pulled out. The instructor teaches
him to perform various feats in addition to this. This
sort of preparation goes on reguhrly till the appointed
day arrive?.
There are two kinds of Hook-swinging known as
Garudan Thookkam or kite-swinging and Thony Tkook-
kam or boat-swinging. For the former a sort of car is
constructed which will rest on two axles with four
wheels. On this is set up a horizontal beam resting
on two vertical supports. The hook which is inserted
346 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 2S-

through the integument on the back of the performer

is connected with a ring attached to the beam by means
of a strong rope. He is then raised or hauled up.
Over the beam there is a small decorated roofing made,
and beneath this the performer swings. In some parts
this arrangement is simplified by having only a small
pole on which rests a horizontal beam provided with a
metalic ring at one end. The beam acts as a lever so
that one end of it can be either raised or lowered so as
to give some rest to the swinger. The rope tied to the
ring is connected with thi hook and the waist-band of
the performer. For boat-swinging the same kina of
apparatus is used only that it is not set up on
wheels.
For kite-swinging the performer has his face
painted green, with a red coloured beak, as that of the
kite, attached to his mouth, and is supplied with arti¬
ficial wings so as to simulate the bird, Garuda, the
Brahmani kite. He wears long locks of artificial hair
and performs the feats taught him by his instructor,
from his perilous position on the swing, to the ac¬
companiment of music, with which the car is drawn or
the pole or the frame work is carried round the temple
3> 5, 7, 9 or 11 times. In boat-swinging the man has
not to put on the false wings and beak. In both forms
he carries sometimes a sword and shield in each hand
which he flourishes aloft while swinging. He has to
put on a pleasant countenance despite the excruciating
pain he must naturally be suffering from, The swing¬
ing is often done by proxy. The man who has taken
the vow engages a professional swinger, of whom there
are many, who swing for some remuneration. In the
case of children for whose benefit the vow has been
made the swinger carries the child in his arms while
swinging. The remuneration given does not go beyond
a few rupees, and it is surprising that people offer them¬
selves to swing in this risky fashion for such paltry
consideration. At present in many of the temples the
victim supports himself not simply on the hook attached
N. ig.J POORAM 347

to the ring, but also on a strong waist-band attached to

the poles or the frame work. Any way it is a wonder
that civilised Governments should countenance such
performances to be exhibited in public.
The origin of this form of worship is thus ac¬
counted for by the Cochin Ethnological Surveyor.
“In the fight between the goddess Kali and the demon
Darika the latter was completely defeated, and the
former, biting him on the back, drank his blood to
gratify her feelings of animosity. Hook-swinging
symbolises this incident and the blood-shed by the inser¬
tion of the hook through the flesh is intended as an
offering to the goddess’ *. However this may be, one
is inclined to think that it is but a substitute for the
self-immolation described by Frair Jordanus. Of course
it is performed to propitiate the dread deity Kali who
it seems is never satiated with the blood of her victims.
In the place of the self-ordained and self-committed
human sacrifice of the olden days, she now, perhaps,
satisfies herself with this form of simulation of it—the
shedding of the victim’s blood.
18, Sister of Pagodi* There is not even the
support of tradition for the statement that the pagoda
at Palluruthi is dedicated to “the sister of the goddess
Sri Couroumba called Assagia1The name itself is
not known in the locality; nor does it appear in the roll
of the names of the Hindu gods and goddesses* It is
probable that the word Assagia stands for “Azhakiya"
or theMalayalam namQ Azhakiya Kavu, i. e., ‘the hand¬
some temple* by which the pagoda, and not the
goddess, is known.
19. Oel Fottram. There is no Malayalam
equivalent to the first word OeL The other stands for
Poor am a festival celebrated on the Piiram asterism at
“Arad Pokla*\ i.e., ArSt-puIa, which means literally
“the river where the god or goddess is bathed.'
Our author says that the “feast” of Poor am is
celebrated, in memory of the visit of the sea god to the
34g LETTERS FROM MALABAR LL* 25‘

pagoda at Aratlu Puzha• The local tradition is

different. We gather the following information from
a Report submitted by the Oorakam Devaswam autho¬
rities to the Raja of Cochin, for the year 1073 M. E.
(1898 A. D.)
After the reclamation of Kgraja from the sea,
Paragu Rama brought several colonies of Brahmans
from the East Coast to people his land. One of these
colonies came from the Choja country and from the
vicinity of the great Siva shrine of Tiruvalur. These
Brahmans were averse to leave their homes and to
migrate to a distant country as they had hitherto
enjoyed prosperity under the auspices of the god
MahsdEva of Jiruvalur. Paragu Rama, however,
persuaded them to accompany him promising that
similar, if not greater, prosperity and affluance would
attend them in their; new abode. He settled his
colony at Peruvanam (otherwise PooruAr Vanani) the
consecrated forest-ground where the renowned Rishi
or ascetic Pooru performed his penances. Vanam
literally means forest, and it is in forests or secluded
places that these ascetics perform their Tapasy medi¬
tation and penance* Having established his colony of
Brahmans there, the sage installed the Sivalingam
and Salagramam left by the Riski Pooru at his death,
on a stone-built pedestal rising as high as the tree
on which the Rishi had deposited them. These were
solemnly consecrated and pujas performed there. The
two together, i. e., the Salagramam and the Sivalingam
form one deity still known as Madathilappan i. e., the god
sitting on the high pedestal wherein was installed the
combined forms of Vi§$u and Siva representing the
god Mahadfcva of JiruvSlur, now known as Eratta
Appan, the double deity, and a little to the east but
inside the same shrine, was set up the goddess Sri
Parvathiy the spouse of the god Mahsdeva, Paragu
Rama then instituted an annual festival in exact imi¬
tation of its proto-type at Tiruvalur to be celebrated
in the month ofMeenam (March-April). His Brahman
N. 19.] ROORAM 349
colonists were exceedingly pleased at this and the festi¬
val continued to be celebrated for a long time on a
very grand scale. In course of time, dissensions set
in, The Brahmans and the Rajas quarrelled, and the
festival ceased to be performed for about 200 and odd
years. At length in the Kali year expressed by the
cryptogram Ayathu Siva Lokarn, i. e., 1326 years ago,
the Brahmans and other Yogakkar assembled at Peru-
vanam and resolved to resume part of the ceremonies
in connection with the annual festival by having the
various deities of the Peruvanam1 gramam or village
brought in procession to the Peruvanam temple on the
Puyam or 8th asterism and by taking the god at Peru¬
vanam in procession to Arattupuzha1 on the Pooram
day for Arat or bathing*
In pursuance of this resolution, various deities
are carried in procession to Arattupuzha and bathed at
a sacred spot in the river known as Man tar am. The
more important of the deities that take part in this
celebration are the gods of Peruvanam and TrippuraySr
and the goddess of Oorakam1 and Cherpu1 . There are
a number of minor deities too that are taken there dur-
ing the celebration* All the processions start from the
temples of the respective deities and converge towards
the broad fields on the banks of the river* Here they
meet and arrange themselves in a row of about 50 or
60 elephants gorgeously apparelled with elaborately
worked shining gold facings carrying on their backs
priests holding the idols in front, with others behind
holding gold, silver and silk umbrellas with gold or
silver fringes, broad pea-cock feather-fans and milk-
white yalk tails. These latter are waved from time to
time in unison. A large and extending array of lighted
lamps and torches and clusters of lights lend an impos¬
ing appearance to the scene. The air is rent by eternal
drumming accompanied by the play of various musical
instruments and the firing of pop-guns. A large con¬
course of sight-seers gather numbering almost 25,000
as our author estimated in his time. Men and women,
1, All these are in the Trichur taluk of the Cochin State.
3So LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

mostly of the NSyar class gather in holiday attire, and

there is no lack of Nampupri gentlemen. The crowd
though large is orderly, clean and pleasant. 1 he gods
are '.bathed in the river and it is considered a great
merit to bathe along with them. The proceedings at
Arattupuzha last till day-break when the gods wend
their way to their respective homes, of course not
with the same splendour with which they had come.
20. Oelsagam. Utsavam means feast and festival
specially in temples whether of Siva, Vi§$u or of any
other deity, male or female. These generally last gener¬
ally from five to ten days. They do not take place in
March invariably in all temples- Each temple has its own
period of Utsavam. But generally they never come during
the rainy season. There is a saying in Malabar, “when
the Maran (drummer) stops, the Makkan (frogs) begin’*.
When the monsoon rains set in, the large frogs in the
tank have a gala time of it, and begin to make an un¬
earthly noise in the nights. By this time the temple
feasts will have been closed on account, apparently, of
the inconvenience caused by the rains, and the loud
drumming in celebration of the festivals will also have
stopped.
There are three sorts of Utsavams known as—(1)
Patahadi, (2) Dhwajadi and (3) Ankuradi. In temples
where all the three are celebrated the festival lasts for
27 days, 9 days being set apart for each.
In Purchas we read of a feast which he calls the
feast of the Ganges which is not known now or appears
to have been known at any time unless it has some
hazy reference to Maha MSgha or Mamamkam.
“The King of Calicut and the other kings of
Malabar keep a solemn feast every twelve years in
honour of this river. Because that long since a certain
Brahman(lalsely accused)Oed into Ganges, and there led,
an austure life 12 years, worshipping that stream and his
idol, to whom when he proposed to return home, after
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 35i

those twelve years expired, that image of Ganges ap*

peared, and said, that on the last day of February he
would appear in a river of his own country, and cause
the waters thereof to arise, and run backward of his
innocency and bade him assemble all the Lords o£
Malabar to the sight, which accordingly came to pass,
and the memory thereof is by this feast solemnised.”
Our author’s list of Malayali feasts and festivals
is not exhaustive. There are a few which he has left
unnoticed and are of importance such as—
Ashtami Rohini; VinayakaChaturthi', Navaratri\
Deepali ; Trikkattika ; Sivaratri ; Ekadesi ; Prado-
sham ; Shashti; Amavash etc.
Some of these have been noticed by Faria-y-Sousa
and Fra Bartolomeo. The former observes “They have
several Fasts, one called Ekadesi which is kept the
nth day of every Moon ; on this feast they eat nothing
but fruit ; that called Giveraseri (Sivaratri) begins by
night in February and they neither eat, drink* nor sleep,
in twenty-four hours. They walk round the pagoda re¬
hearsing stories out of their scripture. If any haopen
to shut his eyes, overcome with sleep, he washes him¬
self as oft as it happens, and continues his former ex¬
ercise. In the morning they offer some money to the
idol: The fast Tirivadira belongs only to the women.
That for the dead 1 which the kindred of the deceased
keep, lasts a year, during which time they do not eat
fish, flesh* eggs, drink wine, or chew betel
“The Fast MIsa Upisa is the most religious of
them all, and few account themselves so happy as to
observe it. He that does begins the last day of October;
he washes himself, puts on clean cloths, and visits the
pagoda of Vi§riu. On the first of November, he goes
round it one hundred and one times, (the devoutest
one thousand and one) at each turn, in the nature of a
prayer, repeating the name of Vi§9Us one hundred and
one times; this must be done every day of November
and the ten first of December. He must eat only
i. Deeksha,
352 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L 25-

eggs and milk, not look upon women: he must think on

nothing but that name, and praises of it. Next year
he must do the same, beginning the first of December,
and ending the tenth of January, so he must go on
every year till twelve be over ; and then begins again
the first of November, and fasts the forty days ; after
this he is canonized for a saint, in such a manner, that
only the sight of him gives forgiveness of sins” L
Bartolomeo also refers to the fast of masopavasa
which he describes as “a festival observed by the de¬
vout every month, and in which they use nothing but a
little fruit, herbs, and roots. (He does not mention
eggs which are not used and are not allowed for fasts).
By means of this festival, they hope to obtain forgive¬
ness of their sins, and pave the way for a tranquil and
happy passage into the other world” 2. This fast is but
seldom practised at present having apparently gone out
of fashion.
Ashtami Rohini. Otherwise known as Gokul-
ashtami and Krishna Jayanti or Jenmashtami. It is
celebrated as the birthday of Krishni a and falls on the
fourth lunar asterism Rohini and the 8th quarter of
the moon Ashtami. Krishria was the son of Vssudeva
and DSvaki, the sister of the reigning king Kamsa
who had been foretold that he would meet with his
death at the hands of his sister’s son. The king had
resolved to avert this by killing his sister’s children as
soon as they were born. He had accordingly cast her
in a dungeon along with her husband, chaining them
with irons, and had also guards set over them.
“Krishna was born in his four armed form shining out
for the moment in the dungeon. At His birth he came
as Vi§nu, for the moment showing Himself with all the
signs of the Deity on Him, with the discus, with the
Shrivatsa on his breast, with all the recognised emblems
of the Lord. But that form quickly vanished, and only
1. Vcl. 2, Part. IV, Chap. VI.
2. P. 362.
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 353

the human child lay, before his parent’s eye’’. The

birth took place in the middle of the night, and the
father, whose chains had been miraculously removed,
eluding the vigilance of the guards, conveyed the infant
over the Jumna, the river itself giving way for the pur¬
pose and entrusted it with Ya§oda,the wife of an honest
herdsman Nan4a> w^° ac^e<^ as foster mother.
During the journey the child was protected from rain
by the spread hood of the serpant Ananji or s5§ha. It
is in honour of this incident that Asktami Rohini is
observed as a fast. On this day, women, specially,
refrain from food and keep vigil in Krishna's temple
till after mid-night when, after the pujas are over, they
partake of things that have been already offered to the
god. The temple is illuminated with myriads of oil fed
lamps and worship goes on almost till the early hours
of the morning.1
Navaratru This is the Durga puja of Bengal,
Dussara of Bombay and the Saraswati puja, and the
Ayudha puja of Malabar. Though its entire course
runs over 9 days, it is the last three that are most import¬
ant. These are known as Durga Ashtamu Maha-
navami and Vijaya Dasamu On the night of Durga
A§htami day, there is the ceremony known as Puja
Vayppu• It consists in decorating a room splendidly,
illuminating it with many lights and arranging on a
platform raised in the middle of the room, the things
necessary for doing puja to Saraswati, the goddess of
learning. Books and weapons of various kinds are
tastefully arranged and a picture or image of the goddess
placed in the centre. The worship then commences
with accompaniment of music, etc. This is kept up
night and day till the morning of the third day when
takes place Puja Eduppu or the breaking up of the
pUja. At an auspicious moment, after the performance
of special religious services, the arrangements on the
platform are formally removed and the puja broken up.
1. For Vmay aka Chaturthi see note 23, Letter XXII.
3S4 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [T • z 5 •

Then follows Vtdyarambham or the beginning (renova¬

tion) of learning. For, on the three days of the puja,
all sorts of learning are kept in abeyance, no one will
read or write or do any handicraft, or work with any
materials, every sort of business is at a standstill.
After the removal of the puja, work commences anew.
During the Puja Vayppu people generally fast. In
Travancore the Navaratri is a State ceremony celebrat¬
ed with great magnificence. We have from Fra
Bartolomeo an account of its celebration as he witnes¬
sed it at PadmanSbhapuram in 1783 A. D.
"Saraswathi is the wife of Brahma, the creator of
the universe, and the harmony proportion, and order
observed in it, are according to the doctrine of the
Brahmans, to be ascribed to her influence alone. Her
opponent is the goddess of disorder and contention,-
named Mudevi. A tabernacle had been constructed
for Saraswathi under a large tent and a great number
of Brahmans were busily employed in waiting upon her.
After many libations, the statue of the goddess was at
length carried round in procession, strewed over with
flowers, and then placed on an altar. After this the
King approached in great magnificence and with the
most devout respect presented to her his dagger as an
offering. During this time all gates of the city were
beset with soldiers, and no one was suffered to go out
or enter. The festival continued eight days, and when
it was finished, the King distributed presents to
Brahmans. Each received a rupee, though more than
4,000 were sometimes assembled. The high-pnest
presented io the King a Vastram, that is a piece of
silk or cotton stuff, a viraghen, worth about three
scudi, and, a cow, as the support of life, because
these people live chiefly upon milk and butter. Such
a present is called Go dan am (gift of a cow). It
has been usual in India since the earliest ages, and no
greater favour can be shown to a Brahman by the King
than to give him a cow”.1 The learned Carmalite is
1. Pp. 184—185.
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 3 gg
evidently not correct in saying that the Godanam or
gift was made A? the King by the High Priest. It is the
other way. The gift must have been made by the King
to the High Priest. That this is but an unconscious
mistake is clear from the concluding sentence.
On Vijaya Desami day the Maharaja goes in state
accompanied by the State officers and escorted by the
military to a place called Puiappura a couple of miles
from the fort at Trivandrum, and shoots an arrow into
a consecrated tender cocoanut placed for the purpose.
After this the procession returns and His Highness
standing in the verandah of the KarivElappura Msjika
in front of the Trivandrum temple strews money
amongst the crowd collected below.i
The origin of Navaratri Puja is to be found in the
Skanda Parana It is briefly as follows: —

In the Krfayuga there lived a famous king named

Sukgju. He was well versed in politics and his only
pleasure was to attend to the welfare and comfort of his
subjects. The name of his queen was SuvEdi. She was
young, beautiful and much attached to her lord. It so
happened that SukEju was defeated by his enemies and
compelled to fly for his life with his queen. The royal
pair wandered in a forest for several days without food
and unable to bear the exhaustion, fell ill. SuvEcli car-
ried her weak lord on her shoulders and was trying to
find her way out of the woods when she was met by the
sage Angiras who said: “Who are you that have ven¬
tured alone into this deep forest? You seem to be much
afflicted. Relate your history and I shall try my best
to relieve you.” SuvSdi related her history and Angiras
was extremely moved on hearing it. Ihe sage at once
recommended to SuvEdi, a pilgrimage to Panchavati
and the worship of Durga there, during the Navaratri
days. The queen with SukE$u reached Panchavati and
worshipped the goddess Durga very devoutly. First
SukE{u was restored to perfect health; then SuvEdi gave
i, See also Note sg, Letter XXII.
356 LETTERS FROJVt MALABAR [L. 2$.

birth to a son whom Angiras named SuryapratSpa.

This prince in due course became very powerful. He
defeated his enemies and got back his kingdom and
reinstated his father in it. 'I he current belief is that
everyone will attain his object by the Saraswati Pu'jd
as SuvSdi did by the observance of this pUja.
The esoteric meaning of the Durga Puja has seen
thus explained. “When therefore Durga or §ak|i
means supreme Sakti or wisdom, it is easily conceiv¬
able after the nine dark nights of conflict of good or
evil, all arts and learning and knowledge and work and
sport should receive their light and life at the puja to
MahsdCv ; Mahalekshmi and MahSsaraswaji and
weapons and tools (Ayudha puja), etc., should be cele¬
brated. This was originally celebrated in the spring,
when after the death and darkness and misery of water,
nature herself put on her best and freshest robes and
everything assumed beauty and life and light* But it
was changed from spring to Autumn as Rama worship¬
ped Durga in this season before commencing his great
fight with Ravana and Arjuna invokes her aid in the
famous battle of Kuruk§hetra. 1 ”
Deepali. DlpSvali or a cluster of lights. The chief
feature in the celebration of this festival in Malabar is
that all bathe early in the morning rubbing their head
and body with oil, though an oil bath is prohibited on
the new-moon day on which the festiva 1 generally falls.
After bath they take sweets and enjoy themselves. The
children fire off crackers. All this is done as a thanks-
offering for ridding the world of the oppression of the
known as Naraka by the god Krishna. 2
Trikartika, Is celebrated in honour of Bhagava^i.
It falls on the day of the 3rd lunar asterism and is the
birthday of Bhagavati. The houses are all well light¬
ed and lights are also left burning in the verandah,
front yard and at the gates. There is general illumination
1. Esoteric Hinduism % pp, 133—134*
2. See also Note 26, Letter XXlI.
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 35>

throughout; offerings are made at the temple of

the goddess and women turn out in the evening for
worshipping the goddess.

Maha Siva Ratri, means ‘the great night of Siva’,

and is celebrated in the month of March. On this day
the people fast. Some abstain from any kind of food
whatever for the whole day, while others content
themselves with one meal. Strict vigil is kept in the
night. The people cluster round the Siva temple, and
after bath smear their bodies with holy ashes, and keep
on reciting prayers to Siva. Enthusiasts, more devout
than the rest, perform rolling circumambulations round
the temple, while the ordinary worshippers go round
it on foot a number of times. Puja to the image of
Siva is kept up all the night. Early next morning
people bathe once more, worship Siva and return to
their ordinary avocations. The celebration of this
festival at the Siva temple at Alwaye on the banks of
the PeriySr River is attended with great eclat. The
Lingam of Siva rises out of the sand on the sand bank
by the river. There is only a temporary shed to serve
as a temple, as the whole place will be flooded during
the rainy season. The sand bank here is extensive
and the pilgrims repairing to the place amounting
to many thousands congregate here. All classes, castes
and creeds come up for this festival. Some for worship,
some for merchandise, some for mere sight seeing.
The fair held is on a very large scale. There are rows
of sheds built where merchants expose every kind of
merchandise for sale. There are shows, dramas, dances,
etc., supplied for the pilgrims to keep them away from
sleep. There are a number of small sheds spread about
the sand banks where the devout Siva worshipper sets
up his own Sivalingani for worship. In all not less
than io or 15 thousand people attend the festival at
Alwaye.
35§ LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

The following is a description of the Sivaratri by

Fra Bartolomeo: —
“Besides these grand festivals, there are several
others; such as Sivaratri, or the night of Siva\ in which
the Phallophoria ceremonies that relate to the worship
of the Lin gam, are celebrated. This festival, on the
coast of Malabar is held always in March, when the
sun enters the last sign of the Zodiac or Pisces. On
this occasion all the inhabitants of both sexes hasten
in great numbers to the temple of Shiva or Mahadeva;
remain there the whole night, sing all sorts of indecent
songs in honour of the Lingam S go a hundred times
in solemn procession either round the temple or around
a tree under which the Lin gam is placed; and carry
about with them, at the same time, a wooden repre¬
sentation of the Lingam, 1 amidst dancing and singing.
These circular perambulations have an allusion to the
circle which the sun describes in his course through
Zodiac, and the Litigant represents the creative power
of that luminary”2 .
The Scanda Parana thus relates the origin of the
celebration of Siva-Ratri\—*
“1here is in Jambu-Dwipa a large town known
by the name of Varanasi, where dwelt a man belonging
to the boya or huntsman caste, who was short of stature,
very dark in complexion, and of a most violent and
passionate temper. One day when out hunting in the
woods, as was his wont, he killed such an enormous
quantity of birds of all kinds that he was hardly able
to carry them, and was obliged to sit down and rest at
almost every step. Dusk was coming on while he
was still in the middle of a thick forest, and anxious
not to lose the spoil of his day’s hunting or to become
a prey to the wild beasts that infested the place, he went
up to a vepu (it should be the bilva, not the vepu—Ed-)
or margosa-tree, hung his game upon one of the
1. These are absolutely incorrect.
2. Page 361,
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 359

branches, and climbed up into the tree, intending to

spend the night there. Now that night happened to be
the night of the new-moon of the month of Phalguna
(March), a time of year when dew falls heavily and the
nights arc chilly. The hunter, benumbed with cold,
tormented by hunger (for he had eaten nothing during
the day), and half dead with terror, passed a very miser¬
able night. At the foot of the tree was a tingam and
this circumstance proved to be the salvation of the
hunter. The discomforts that he was enduring obliged
him to change his position frequently, and the shaking
of the branches of the vepu 1 caused some drops of dew,
together with some leaves, flowers, and fruit to fall on
the lingam. This fortunate accident was sufficient to
win Siva’s favour and to obtain for the hunter absolution
for all his sins. For Siva, to whose worship this night
was specially consecrated, was much gratified at the
offering thus made to his adored symbol, and he ordain¬
ed that he who had made it, involuntary though his
offering was, should be rewarded, and that his long fast
and attendant anxieties should be reckoned in his
favour. The hunter regained his house the following
morning, and died a few days afterwards. Yama, King
cf Hell, on hearing of his death, immediately sent his
emissaries to secure him and bring him away. But
giva, on hearing of this, also sent his own emissaries
to oppose those of Yama and to claim the dead man.
Yama’s messengers declined to yield, and a violent
quarrel ensued between them and the emissaries of
Siva. From insults they quickly proceeded to violence,
giva’s party, being the stronger, put the agents of
Naraka to flight, after severely punishing them. The
latter, in shame and bitterness, went and told their
story to their master, and to excite his wrath snowed
him the wounds that they had received in the combat.
Yama, beside himself with indignation, went at once to
Kailasa to make complaint to siva in person. At the

i. It should be bilva% not the vepu.

zGo LETTERS FROM MALABAR fL. 25.

gate of the deity’s palace he found ^[andi, the prime

minister, to whom he explained the object of his visit,
at the same time expressing his surprise that Siva
should thus declare himself the protector of a common
boya, a hardened sinner, whose trade necessitated the
slaughter of many living creatures.
“‘King of Hell', replied jyandi, ‘It is true that
this man has been a great sinner and that he has not
scrupled to shed blood* but before he died he, fortu¬
nately for himself, fasted, watched, and offered a
sacrifice to the lingam during the night consecrated to
Siva. This meritorious action has obtained for him the
remission of all his sins, the protection of giva, and an
honourable place in Kailasa\

“When Yama heard Nandi’s words, he became

thoughtful, and withdrew without uttering another
word.
“This is the origin of the feast of Sivaratri or
Night of $iva. In commemoration of the fortunate
boya the devotees of giva spend the night and the pre¬
ceding day in fasting and without sleep, entirely absorbed
in worshipping the god, in offer’ng him sacrifices, and
presenting him with the bitter leaves of the vepux or
margosa-tree as naiveddya, which they afterwards eat.”2
Ekadesi. The fast comes on twice every month and
falls on the nth day of the moon. It is not observed by
all and is optional. Both men and women observe it* It
is in honour of Vishnu. People bathe in the morning,
worship in the Vishnu temple and fast the whole day.
There are those who do not take anything but a few
drops of water poured over a Tulasi plant, sacred to
Vi§hnu, and dripping from its leaves. Others content
themselves with one meal and that not of rice, their
daily food, but of what, vari, or chama. Early next
morning, i. e., on Dwadesi, the 12th lunar day they
1. It should be the bilva% not the vepu.
2. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies by Dubois, Vcl. II
pp. 711—12.)
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 361

bathe, worship in the temple, obtain Prasadam or leav¬

ings of offerings, such as sandal paste and Theertham
or holy water with which the image is bathed. They
drink the water and apply the paste to their forehead,
breast and arms and then break the fast. The more
devout feed a few Brahmans and make them money
presents. Fra Bartolomeo’s account of Ekadesi is
altogether incorrect. He says, “On this day, all
women who have been delivered in the course of the
week, or who approach the time of their delivery; all
barren females or those who suffer from a suppression
of the menses; likewise all patients who have been
cured of the small-pox, and all fishermen and farmers,
mu£t observe a strict fast in honour of the goddess
Bhagavatu All these people are fully convinced that
the moon assists women in labour, expels the fever of
the small-pox, promotes the growth of the fruits of the
earth, is propitious to fishing, and has an effect on
menstrual purification. They repair, therefore very
early, as I had an opportunity of seeing several times
at Feirada9 Alva and Barcale% either to the sea, or, as
circumstances may serve, to some river or pond, where
they perform their usual ablutions, and then cause a
half-moon or some other sacred mark which has sym¬
bolical relation to the moon, to be painted on their
foreheads. When this is done, they hasten to the tem¬
ple of Bhagavathi, bring her an offering of cocoanuts,
rice, butter, pepper, flowers and other vegetables, de¬
posit all these before the door of the temple, and pray
to the goddess with uplifted hands. On this day they
are not allowed to take the least nourishment before
sunset; and even then they must use nothing but boiled
rice, fruits, pulse, and water. Milk, fish and betel
are strictly forbidden during these fasts”1. The learned
Carmelite has evidently mistaken the observances he
witnessed at Alwaye and Varkalay with respect to some
other ceremony for that of EksdeSi, which has nothing

T- ^P* 357—
362 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

to do with the goddess Bhagavathi. Neither is it a

feast or fast for women specially.

As already observed,the Ekadesid i. e., the eleventh

day of the moon, is religiously observed as a day of
strict fast in honour of Vi§$u. The following is what
the Vishnu Purana says on the subject:—
“The Ekadesi is a day specially set apart for the
worship of Vi§$u; those who offer him puja on this
day ensure for themselves immortality. Even before
the creation of the world, the ‘Man of Sin* was created
by Vi§$u to punish mankind.2 He is of enormous sta¬
ture, with a terrific countenance and a body absolutely
black; his eyes are wild and glaring with rage; he is
the executioner of mankind. Kri§ija, having seen this
‘Man of Sin’, became thoughtful and pensive. Touched
by the woes with which mankind was overwhelmed,
Kri§^a resolved to remedy the evil. With this end in
view, he mounted the bird Garuda, son of Binota, and
went in search of Yama, the King of Hell. The child
of the sun, delighted at this visit of Nsrsya^a, who was
master and guru of the world, hastened to offer him
p^ja, and placed him on a massive throne of gold. No
sooner had Kri§$a seated himself thereon than he
heard the most piteous and plaintive cries. Moved
with compassion, he asked the King of Narakci whence
these lamentations proceeded, and what caused them.
‘The lamentations that you hear, O Lord of the
World’, replied Yama, ‘are the tears and groans of the
unfortunate beings who, having spent their whole lives
in sin, are now suffering the tortures of Hell, where
they are treated according to their deserts’.
Then , said Kri§ija, ‘let us go to this place of
torment, that I may see for myself what these sinners
are enduring’.
i; Rao Bahadur A. C. Mukerji, M A.t I E. S., has an in¬
teresting book on Ancient Hindu Fasts end Feasts. There he refers
to Uthana-Ekadesi. Ed.
2. oee the description ;n the chapter on the Sandhya.
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 3^3

And he did see, and his heart was softened.

‘What!’ cried he, overcome with grief, ‘is it pos¬
sible that men, who are creatures and children of mine,
are enduring such cruel agony! Shall I be a witness
of their sufferings and do nothing to help them? Can¬
not I give them some means of avoiding them in the
future?*
“Thereupon be considered how he might bring
the reign of the ‘Man of Sin’ to an end, he being the
sole cause of all mankind’s misfortune. Accordingly,
to preserve henceforth the human race from the tor¬
ments of Naraka, he transformed himself into the Eka-
desu or eleventh day of the moon* This is, therefore,
the blessed day that Vi§niu has selected in his mercy
to redeem and save mankind. It is the happy day that
procures the pardon of one’s sins; it is the day of days,
since one must look upon it as being Kri§$a himself.
“The inhabitants of Hell, full of gratitude for the
kindness that Vi$$u had showed towards them,
worshipped him and chanted his praises loudly. There¬
upon Vi§$u, being much pleased by their prayers and
praises, wished to give them an immediate proof of his
goodness* Turning to the ‘Man of Sin,’ he addressed
him in the following words: —
‘Begone, wretched being, begone! Thy reign is
over. Till now thou hast been the tormentor of man¬
kind; I command thee to let them live in peace for the
future. They are my children, and I desire them to
be happy. I wish, nevertheless, to assign to thee a
place where thou mayest live, but thy place shall be
unique; it shall be here. The Ekadesiy or eleventh
day of the moon, is myself in another form. It is the
day that I have chosen, in my mercy, to save men and
deliver them from their sins. Nevertheless, in order
that they may be worthy c so great a favour I express¬
ly forbid them to eat rice on this day. I ordain that
thou shalt dwell in this rice. This is the abode that I
assign to thee. Whoever shall have the temerity to
364 T ETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 45.

eat this food, thus defiled by thy presence, will incor¬

porate thee with himself, and will forfeit all hope of
pardon’.
“Thus spake Vi$£u; and the following is the
sentence of life and death which is pronounced, and
which cannot be too strongly impressed on the attention
of mankind:—
T repeat, therefore, again, because I cannot say it
too often; do not eat rice on that day; whoever you
are, be your position and condition what they may, do
not eat rice. Once more I say, do not eat rice’.
“To fast on this holy day and to offer puja to
Vi§nu is to ensure the forgiveness of sins and the
gratification of all one’s wishes”.1
Pradosham. This is an optional fast to pro¬
pitiate the God Siva. It falls on the evening of the 12th
or 13th lunar day, when special pujas are offered to siva
in his temple which will be illuminated for the occasion.
The devotees who observe the fast bathe and worship
the god early in the morning and keep fasting till
the evening when they take a second bath and attend
the temple smearing their body with holy ashes. They
wear also rosaries of Rudavkshct. They circumambu¬
late the temple reciting prayers to Siva till the puja is
over which will be by half-past y or 8 p. m. They will
have supplied the temple with tender cocoanuts as
offerings to the image. The priest will return these
to their owners who break their fast by opening them
and drinking the water in them. After this they leave
the temple taking along with them rice offered to the
image. They partake of this and nothing else that day.
The Vilva or Koovalci (Cratoeva religiosa) sacred to
Siva which is offered to no other deity is the chief
article of puja to Siva. Siva or Mahsdgva alone wears
a chaplet of its flowers. Its leaves are always employed
. Hindu Manners, Customs% and Ceremonies by Dubois,
t
Vol. pp. 706—708.
•N. 20.J UTSAVAM 365

in his puja. If a pious Hindu should see its flowers or

leaves fallen on the ground, he would remove them
reverently to a temple of MahsdSva. What the sacred
Tulasi is to Visnu that the sacred Vilva is to Siva.
• *

Shasthi. An optional fast in honour of Subramariya,

the son of siva. Here also the fast is broken in the
evening after doing puja to the god. This fast is gener¬
ally observed by those who are siibject to diseases such
as leprosy, etc. There are elaborate rules for the
observance of the Shashti fast.
Amavasi and Pournamu The ‘white moon* and
the ‘black moon’ or the full-moon and the new-moon.
These days are also observed by the Hindus as fasting
days. But the fast is in the evening. In the morning,
after bath, the ordinary meal is taken, but in the evening
either no supper is taken at all or only some gruel or
Kanju In all fasts abstention from flesh, fish, eggs,
etc., are strictly enjoined. Fra Bartolomeo gives us an
account of the celebration of the Pournima or full-moon
which he witnessed in Malabar.
“In Pourriima, in the month of March, the festival
of the goddess Bhagavathi is celebrated, which, next to
that of the sun, when a ram is sacrificed, is the most
celebrated of all. The principal part of the solemnity
is, that the Brahmans, in honour of the moon, present
a large offering, which they call Somayaga (the moon¬
offering) on this occasion they bruise certain aromatic
herbs, and prepare from their juice a particular kind of
beverage, which they partake of, repeating at the same
time a great number of private forms of prayer, called
Mantra. These Mantras always end with the words
Om or Svaha, which signify, Be it so, or Amen!
Happiness, health and prosperity, be chine! For
example: Pranani Svaha', A bane Svaha' Samane Svaha)
Vyana Svaha:—that is: Profit, May it do thee good,
spirit of life (Prana). Profit, etc., spirit of those
below (Abana)l Profit, etc., spirit of breaking! Profit|
etc., spirit of sight! Profit, etc. spirit of hearing!
366 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25*

These in all probability, are the five spirits which the

Egyptians worshipped, as we are informed by Origen
in his fifth book against Celsus; and to which they
added, besides others,
“Crepitus Pentris. This festival is always celebrated
in the month of March on the first Monday after the
equinox. I had an opportunity of seeing it at Muttam
Trivandrum, and Cranganore. The concourse of people
on these occasions is immense. Through religious zeal,
the Indians bring with them a great many cocks, and
give them to the Brahmans, who slaughter these ani¬
mals before the door of the temple of Bhagavathi* and
besprinkle the earth with their blood”.1
The learned Carmelite Father pledges his personal
testimony for the correctness of the description he is
giving. Otherwise it would be difficult to accept it
in toto» For the Soma Yaga is a vedic sacrifice of some
importance which very few Brahmans (they alone are
entitled to perform it) undertake to perform; and when
undertaken, it is performed only once in the course
of one’s life. It does not form part of a festival. The
sacrifice is not made to Bhagavathi. It is difficult to
believe that the Carmelite Father has correctly under¬
stood the nature of the sight, he says, he saw at
Muttam, Trivandrum and Cranganore. One can safely
assert, despite the testimony of the Carmelite
Father, that the Brahmans never soil their hands or
have ever soiled them with the blood of animals or
birds sacrificed to the grosser divinities of the Hindu
Pantheon. Ahimsa paramo dharma (the supreme duty
of preserving life) is one of their greatest tenets to
which they have clung tenaciously. The very assertion
that the Brahmans “slaughter these animals before the
door of the temple of Bhagavathi and besprinkle the
earth with their blood” gives the lie to the statement.
Indeed there is a temple of Bhagavathi at Muttam
(Chertalay) and another at Cranganore; but no sacrifice
of cocks takes place in the first while at the second
1. p. 356—57.
N* 20.] UTSAVAM 367

cocks are sacrificed outside the temple by non-Brahman

votaries, never by the Brahmins and by them only at
the annual Bharani festival. We know of no temple of
Bhagavathi of any note at Trivandrum. Anyhow there
is no trace at present of any ceremony or sacrifice of
the sort mentioned by Bartolomeo either at Muttam or
at Trivandrum, while at Cranganore there is no cock-
sacrificing ceremony except at the annual Bharani festi¬
val. It should also be remembered that there is no
animal scrifice at a Soma yoga.
There are a few local festival which require men¬
tion, such as Guruvayoor Ekadesi, Trisivaperoor
Poor am, Kottiyoor bisavam, Kalpathi Thent, Ochira
Kali Kongappata 2, Thai Pooyam, Pisharikavu cere¬
mony, Vykat Ashtami.
Guruvayoor Ekadesi.
GuruvSyOr is a village
near Chowghat in the collectorate of Malabar about 30
miles to the south of Calicut. There is an important
temple located there dedicated to Kri§$a which
is held in great reverence and resorted to largely
by the Hindus throughout Malabar, Cochin and
Travancore. Those who are ill make vows to this
1. Ochira Kali. Ochira is a village in the Karunagapilli
Taluk, Quilon District. Ochira Kali is a mock fight exhibited
during the annual festival, in commemoration of battles fought on
the spot by the Kayankulam and Chembakasseri Rajas. The
festival falls about the 15th of June and lasts for two days when a
cattle fair is also held.
Nagam Ayyar’s Travancore State Manual, Vol, III,
p. 592,
2. Kongappata is an yearly festival conducted at Chittur in
the Cochin State. It is reminiscent of a fight and victory which
the Chittur Nayars had over the army of the Chola Ruler,
Rajadhiraja, who ruled before Parantaka (895—946), in the 18th
of Kumbham 71. Mr. M. P. R. Menon has written a very interest¬
ing booklet on this subject. Even the ladies took part in the
actual fight. The tradition is that even the Chittur Bhagavathi
assisted the Chittooreans, for which even to this day their descend¬
ants express their devotion and gratitude to the goddess in an
unbounded degree. Ed,
368 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
temple, specially rheumatic patients. The festival of
Ekadesi is celebrated here in the month of Vrischigam
(October—November). Besides the devotees who
crowd to the temple in thousands, there are those who
congregate there to take part in the annual fair. Mer¬
chants erect booths in front and behind the temple and
carry on trade in various articles. The celebration
within the temple consists in pujas and processions.
The gathering is very large amounting to ten to fifteen
thousands. Mr. Fawcett says in connection with this
festival—
“Near Chowghat about 30 miles to the southward
of Calicut, on the backwater, an arm of the sea and
separated from it by a thin stip of land between the
rivers, at a place called GuruvSyoor, is a very import¬
ant temple the property of the Zamorin, yielding a
very handsome revenue. I visited this festival on one
occasion and saw there much which was of interest,
but which must find place in the account of regions of
others than Nayars. Here purchase was made of a few
offerings such as are made to the, temple in satisfaction
of vows. A very rude representation of an infant in
silver, a hand, a leg, an ulcer, a pair of eyes, amd, most
curious of all, a silver string which represents a man—
the giver. Symbolisation of the offering of self is
made by a silver string as long as the giver is tall!
Goldsmiths working in silver and gold are to be
seen just outside the gate of the temple ready to
provide at a moment’s notice the object any person
intends to offer, in case he is not already in possession
of his votive offering .
Trisivaperoor Pooram. This takes place in the
month of Medam (March—April). It is like the Utsa-
vam processions of other temples but on a more magni¬
ficent scale. There is a grand display of fireworks.
There being two parties representing the two divisions
of Trichur, Paramelkavu and Tiruvampadi% each puts
forth its best exertions to make its display grander than
Is P. 226;
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 369
that of the other. The crowds that gather to witness it
is very large. Commencing one morning the celebra¬
tion goes on to late in the morning of the next day.

Kottiyoor Utsavam. This festival partakes in

part of the nature of Vela and Pooram as already no¬
ticed. The temple is situated at the foot of the Wynad
hills rising 3,000 to 5»o0° from the sides of the
little glade where it is situated. Though the festival is
attended by all classes they do not mix together. The
Nairs go first, and after a few days, the Nairs having
done, the Tiyans, and so on. The pilgrims like those
bound to the cock-festival at Cranganore, indulge in
the vilest and filthiest abuse and feel that they have a
right to do so. They also use personal violence. to
person and property all along the road. Returning
they are mild as lambs. The festival is held not in the
temple which is a low thatched building but in the
forest about a quarter of a mile away frorn it. There
is a stream between the spot where the festival is held
and the temple. About a hundred yards beyond the
stream is a little glade in the forest which is the sacred
spot. It is held extremely holy and the very idea of
visiting it except at the festival is deemed dreadful. In
the centre of the glade is a circle of piled stones, 12
feet in diameter and in the middle of the pile of stones
is a rude lingam. Temporary sheds are put up for the
occasion. Pilgrims carry with them offerings when
they go up for the festival.

Kalpathi Theru. This is the usual car festival

of the East Coast and is not a Malayali institution. It
is celebrated by the Pattar Brhamans of Palghat. A
beautifully decorated car conveying the deity is drawn
along the four streets of the village. There is a sum-
lar festival on a grand scale performed in the South at
Suchindram in Travancore, and but for these there is
no instance of such celebration in all Malabar. Ex¬
cept that these places, Palghat and Suchindram, are
 370 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

situated within the bounds of Kgraia, there is nothing

to indicate that the car festival has anything to do with
the Malayalis. At both places a large fair is held
where merchants congregate.
Pishari Kavu Festival1
Thye Pooyam. The celebration of this festival in
Malabar is of recent growth. The god Subramaijya,
the son of Siva, has been popular in Malabar for a long
time past, and there are many temples dedicated to him*
The worship in these temples differs in no way from
worship in temples to other deities. But of late the
festival of Kavati abhishekam has been imported into
the Subramariya temples of Malabar. It used to be
confined to the temple of the god situated on the Palni
hills, whither the Malayalis used to take their
Kavaties. At present a large number resort to local
temples of Subramariya, and one of the most important
of these is situated at Vykam in North Travancore.
The festival comes on in the month of March on the
Pocyam asterism which coincides with the full-moon
day. More than a thousand pilgrims take their
Kavaties to the temple on the morning of the day.
Their contents are emptied either on or before the im¬
age and the devotees return contented that their vows
have been fulfilled and accepted. We have already
given a description of these Kavaties. The devotee
who has to take a Kavati has to serve a period of pen¬
ance before he undertakes the task, during the course
of which he has to fast and attend the temple of Subra-
ma^ya. He carries in his hand peacock feathers, the
peacock being the vehicle of Subramanya and a rattan,
smears his body with ashes, wears strings of beads
round his neck and arms and dresses in ochre colour¬
ed cloth and grows his hair. During the period of
penance he waits eagerly to get a revelation in a dream
as to what article, ghee, milk, rose water, sandal paste,
I. For the festival of Pishari Kavu near Quilandy, the
readers are referred to a detailed description of it by Mr. Fawcett
3n No. 3 of Vol. Ill of the Madras Museum Bulletin, pp, 255-265,
N. 20.] UTS A V AM 37*

etc. he is to take as an offering fo the god. His fixed

idea is realized in his dreams, the god comes to him
and gives directions and he starts with his Kavati so as
to reach the temple on the due date. These pilgrims
undergo various mortifications. One vows silence and
ties a handkerchief over his mouth; another has an oval
band made of metal over the lower portions of the fore¬
head so as to cover his eyes; one has his tongue pro¬
truding between his teeth and kept in position by a
silver skewer through it; another has a mouth lock,
the mouth being covered up by a silver band, the ends
reaching over the cheeks, a skewer through both cheeks
keeping the ends together and so on. They march in
parties and reach the well-known Siva temple of Vykam
the previous evening. There they fast within the tem¬
ple walls keeping vigil through the night. At dawn
they proceed to the Subramanya temple at Udayana-
puraniy a couple of miles to the north amidst the din of
drum and fife accompanied by bands of devotees calling
out Haro! Har5! Haro! Hars! Velayudhaswamikku
Haro! Hars ! etc. Those who carry the Kavalie*
jump and dance, delerious with excitement, uncons¬
cious of all but the spiritual frenzy which seems to
overtake them. They enter the temple by the eastern
door, deposit their Kctvaties before the idol and look as
if they have wakened from a trance. 1 he contents of
the Kavaties are then emptied by the officiating priest
either on the idol or before it according to the nature
of the articles—all liquids being poured on the idol
while the solids are placed before it. If the articles
presented—milk, honey, oil, rosewater, sandal paste,
sugar, sugar-candy, molasses, etc.—are in their original
state and not decomposed or deteriorated, the devotee
retires in great peace of mind. But if it happens that
they are in any way the worse for time, the offer is not
simply taken as not accepted by the god but the devotee
becomes distressed as he believes that the god is dis¬
pleased and angry towards him and would soon punish
him unless early measures are exerted to avert the
372 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.
doom. The temple authorities serve the devotees with
their meals after which they disperse. They have of
course to pay a fee for admission of their Kavaties.
This is paid the previous evening at the Vykam
temple to the Sirkar authorities who issue tickets
to those who pay and only such as those who
produce these tickets are allowed admission the next
day at the Udayanapuram temple, a rather up-to-date
prosaic arrangement for an antique ceremony. Kavati
abhishekams take place in other Subrama^ia temples
also such’as Eiangunnapula and Vayatftfela in the Cochin
State and Ma^nath and Ullur in Travancore.
Vykathu Asktami. This festival is celebrated in
the month of Vrischigam (October—November) in the
well known Siva shrine at Vykam in Travancore.
Though Malayalls take part in it, the majority of
pilgrims come from Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly,
Tinnevelly, etc. The pilgrims generally amount to 15
to 20,000. It is a purely religious affair and the little
sight-seeing provided for is but a mere accompaniment
of it. The chief part of the festival consists in the
pilgrims worshipping Siva early in the morning before
day-break, and in order to accomplish this, they rush
into the temple, and there have been occasions on which
people have been trodden to death. Of late the Sirkar
has made excellent arrangements to let in the worship¬
pers in batches at one gate while they are let out
through another after worship. This worship goes on
till morning . The Brahman portion of the pilgrims
is given a grand feast, and in the night the God is
carried in procession round the temple on a richly capa¬
risoned elephant with all the temple paraphernalia used
on such occasions. It is considered highly meritorious
to worship the God before the Sun’s rays fall on the
copper plate roofing of the temple. Merchants congre¬
gate from distant places and all sorts of wares are for
sale.
Ochchira Kali. This is an annual festival celebrat¬
ed at Ochchira, a village near Ksyamkuiam in
N. 20.] UTSAVAM 373

Travancore, in memory of a hard fight between the

Rajas of Quilon and Kayamkulam. As usual to add a
religious significance to it stories of miracles having
taken place in the locality have also been invented.
What actualy takes place is thus described by a writer
in the Malabar Quarterly Review.
“Only Nairs could take part in it; of course it is
not open to women. It is now conducted on the first
and the second days of Mithunam or Auny (June—July).
For seven days beginning with the first, it is popularly
believed that there will be incessant rain. On. the
first day the fight is conducted from 8 a. m. to n a.
m. and on the second from 12 to 3 p. m. The appear¬
ance of a kite hovering in the air summons the players
to arms. But in these ‘degenerate days’, no such
divine appioval is shown. Each player is well dressed
in the native fashion and armed with the apology of a
sword and a shield. The combatants do not fight in
pairs, but in sets. The parties advance towards each
other; they perform a number of movements, forwards
and backwards, commencing with a single individual
on each side. The movements are first slow, but they
become quicker and quicker. These resemble the
movements of assault and retreat in regular warfare.
The kite appears again and this time it is the signal for
the tournament to stop. The same programme is
repeated on the second day. Stones were thrown from
slings to the detriment of public peace”1 .
Modern requirements necessitated a change in the
manner in which the festival is celebrated and the Tra¬
vancore Government has stopped all sorts of violence and
has given it a turn in a new direction. In addition to the
mockfight which still takes place, a fair is also held at
which merchants from all parts of Cochin and Travan¬
core bring their wares for sale. Recently a cattle show
and an industrial exhibition with popoular lectures on

1. Volume 4, page $oi.

 374 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

agricultural subjects have also been started and ere

long the whole thing bids fair to become an institution
of material advantage to the country.
Now for the religious element we may once more
quote the writer in the Malabar Quarterly Review:—•

“The games are attended by an immense throng

from all the neighbouring country. To the east of the
play-ground stands a roofless enclosure of wooden
frame work set with hundreds of primitive brass or iron
lamps. Those are lighted on the two festive days. It
might rain cats and dogs; the heavens might thunder;
the wind might blow a hurricane and tear down the
neighbouring trees; but not a single lamp would go out
on these days; at any rate, that is what credulous
old folk would make us believe. This, they hold is an
infallible proof of the sanctity of the Bhagavati, the
presiding deity of the neighbouring temple. It is
worthy of note that no image is enshrined in that room¬
like wooden frame-work. On a raised floor in it are
placed a conch-shell, the horns of a deer and a drawn
sword. The offerings to the deity consists of heaps of
pori (fried paddy), bunches of plantain fruits and pieces
of burning camphor. This is perhaps the only instance
of a place of worship among the Hindus on the
West Coast where veneration is paid to no image.
Among the worshippers might be found all sorts
and conditions cf men, from the Brahman to the Pan-
chama. Several sets of native musicians assemble
and wait for custom in the neighbourhood. By way
of propitiating the deity, any votary might order a party
of them, for a trifle, to play a course of music to the
accompaniment of the drum. If you be an ardent Bhakfa
you pay some one for a “holy roll” round the sacred
enclosure. Pandarams or professional Chaktas could
be hired for half an anna to lay by religious merit on
your behalf. Religious fervour makes up for all the
inconveniences caused by the gnawing winds and the
beating rains which are characteristic of the season of
N, 20.] UTSAVAM 375

the year on the Malabar Coast in which the festival is

celebrated. Farmers and tradesmen of the neighbour¬
hood take advantage of this occasion to hold an
annual fair on an extensive scale "1 .
The KeralolpalhU after mentioning the various
religious institutions established in Malabar by ParaSu
Rsma, gives the names of the festivals to be celebrated
in connection with them. These are:—
Oottu. Feasting of Brahmans.

Pattu• Singing hymns in praise of Bhagavati at the

temple of the Goddess during Mandalam (41 days) in the month
of Vrischikom (October—November).

Utsavam* Annual temple festivals in honour of its in¬

auguration.
Vela. Dancing ceremony at the Bhagavati temple such
as has been already described.

Vilakku* Holy services in the temple. Illumination—

lighting of lamps. It is also used to denote processions of the
image in the night during utsavam.

Thira. An offering; an inferior feast, in which Malayar,

Vannan, etc., dressed like Gods and demons. It also means a
dance in burning dress to the honour of.Bhagavati.

Tiyyatlu. The ceremony of jumping through fire be¬

fore temples.

Bkarani Vela. Feast such as at Kodungaloor already

described.

Arattu. The ceremony of bathing the idol on the last

day of utsavam.

Kaliyattam. The performance of religious plays.

Poora Vela. The Saturnalia of Malabar. A feast in

Meenam (April) in memory of Kama’s death called the day of
license.

Daivamattam. A ceremony in which a person clothed

in the attributes of a lower deity acts the chief part.

Thannivamritam. A cake offered to the Gods. Literally

liquid nectar.

1. l’p. 301—302.
376 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

Talappoli. An annual feast of Bhagavati when girls offer

in procession a large dish of rice on which is placed the two
halves of a broken cocoanut with lighted wicks, etc. It is said
that the girls make this kind of offer to get good husbands.
Barbosa speaking of a ceremony at the Zamorin’s
Palace says that a thousand Nair women assemble at
the King’s house “very much adorned by jewelry, gold
belts, pearls, and many bracelets of gold, and many
rings with precious stones, and ankle rings of gold on
their legs and dressed from the waist downwards with
very rich silk stuffs, and others of very fine cotton, and
from the waist upwards bare, and anointed with sandal
and perfumes, and their hair wreathed with flowers,
and rings of gold and precious stones in their ears, the
feel bare, as they always are accustomed to do. These
thousand women have each got a brass dish full of rice,
and oi> the top of the rice, lamps full of oil with many
lighted wicks and between chandaliers are many flowers,
etc. (These are the Talams.) The nobles, their
admirers, go along with them talking to them with much
courtesy and they remove the perspiration from the
ladies’ faces and from time to time put into their
mouths the betel which both men and women are con¬
stantly eating; and they fan them with fans, because
their hands are fully occupied with salvers”. This is
a fair and accurate description of the Talapoli as it was
in the palmy days of the Zamorin’s rule at Calicut, At
present the young women who carry the Talams or
salvers, have become few and though they go bejewel¬
led in front of the image of the goddess, borne on an
elephant with all the paraphernalia that usually accom¬
pany such processions; they are not accompanied by
their admirers; neither are they ‘fed’ with betel, nor
the perspiration wiped off their faces, nor fanned from
time to time. But we see occasionally rose-water
sprinkled on them from silver sprinklers. The proces¬
sion starts from the temple of the goddess, goes a certain
distance and returns or goes to a neighbouring temple of
Siva, takes a round and then comes away. Illuminations
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 377

at both temples and all along the line of procession

with constant display of fire-works from a prominent
feature. The ceremony generally comes on in the
month of Dhanu (December—January).
Of the festivals mentioned in the Keralolpathu the
Mamankam requires special notice *, and has been
dwelt upon.
Games and Amusements.2
Supplemental Aote. Before leaving the subject of
festivals, it will be well to say a few words on the
national games of Malabar. Mr. Raja Raja Varma
Raja, M. A., B. L., had in the pages of the Malabar
Quarterly Review begun a series of articles on “Our
National games**, which, if continued and completed,
would have given us a comprehensive idea of what they
are. He points out that there are festivals in Malabar
which partake of the nature of serious religious obser¬
vances, but which at the same time have the charac¬
teristics of games. He instances the Utsavams in
temples and the Dassara carnivals, the Bharani and
Puram carnivals, etc. “Looking into the history of
games**, remarks Mr. Raja Raja Varma, “it will be
observed that they had their origin in religious obser¬
vances, or were connected with the worship of God.
The Grecian games formed part of religious obser¬
vances, and were held near a shrine or other consecra¬
ted spot. Not unusually they were connected by some
myth or legend, with some hero, demigod or local
deity’*. The Ludi Publici of the Romans wear a similar
religious aspect. The Hindus, if anything, are a
religious nation par excellence* No institution of theirs
exists, but is in a manner dubbed with the ecclesiastical
sword. No wonder then that in course of time secular
and religious elements imperceptibly blended together
into an undefined whole wherein gradually the former
lm See Note 17 of Letter XI in Vol. II of this work,
pp. 85—4©4»
2. See Malabar Quarterly Review, Vol. V and Progress of
Cochin, Ch. XXIX.
378 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25,

sank into insignificance by the side of the latter which

has the stronger hold*
Malabar games may be looked at from different
standpoints.
They may be classed as :—
A (1) Physical,(2) Intellectual and (3) Aesthetic; or
B (1) Military, (2) Civil; or
C (1) Religious, (2) Civil; or
D (1) Indoor, (2) Outdoor; or
E (1) Games played on land, (2) Those played
in water; or
F (1) Masculine, (2) Feminine, (3) Infantine.
A few of the games and amusements may be named
hereunder with short descriptions of some of them.
(1) Yatrakkaii or Samghakkali; (2) Psna;
(3) Elamuftikkali; (4) Ka{hakali: (a)
Kf§h^Sttam, (b) Ramanattam; (5) Uftam Tullal;
(a) Ottan, (b) Sitankan: (c) Parayan; (6)
Kura|pyattam; (7) Mohiniyattam; (8) Andiyattam;
(9) Ulappakkuttu; (10) Kolamjuilal; (11) Ma-
chankali; (12) Kallyanakkali; (13) Aivarkali;
(14) Pavakali; (15) Chakkyarkuftu; (a) Angull-
yamgam; (b) Kutiyattam; (16) Pathakamparayuka;
(17) Tnkkam: (a) jo^itfukkam, (b) Garudan*
jukkam; (18) Ammanattam; (19) ftaiiinmSl Da^-
dippu; (20) ValSru, KunfSru; (2i) Valayatfil cha-
tfam; (22) KaviijaySfu; (23) Katunjutiygru; (24)
Kolati; (25) Cheppatividya; (26) Panjukali. (a)
Jalappanju, (b) Kulippan^u, (c) Pgyppanju;
(d) Panjabi; (27) Kondoti; (28) Kutftfiyimkolum;
(29) Elunayum Puliyum; (30) Kampitfayam; (31)
Tayam; (32) Chutukali; (33) Pa^ikali; (34)
STttukali; (35) Chajurangam; (36) Vattukali;
(37) Golikaii; (38) Uppukaii; (39) Massukali;
(40) Puiikaii; (41) Kallukali; (42) Pallankuli;
(43) Tu^ukaii; (44) Valakali; (45) Velakali;
(46) Aiftu; (47) Kayyamkali; (48) Gusti;
 s. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 379

(49) Kasarstfu; (50) NsySttu; (51) TiruvSfirakali;

(52) Ulufislattam; (53) Ninfal; (54) 'Mungsnkujfi;
(55) Mufalakkujtu; (56) Vanchikaii.
(1) This is an aesthetic-military indoor, mas¬
culine amusement peculiarly religious and has been
already described in this work. 1
(2) This too is a religious ceremony classed as
an amusement because it consists of a man’s dancing
in a peculiar dress with bells, etc., attached to his ankles
and waist, with a bunch of cocoanut flower in his hand,
round a lighted lamp in front of which is placed the
Nandakam or sword of the goddess Bhagavaji to the
accompaniment of songs and drumming in a peculiar
manner. The place is decorated with hangings of red
cloth, flowers, etc. The Veiichappsd, the Deity’s
representative, takes a prominent place in the perform¬
ance. It is an indoor masculine amusement.
(3) This is an aesthetic, civil, indoor, masculine
amusement already described.
(4) This is the pure Malayalam Drama—a dumb
show. It is an aesthetic, civil, indoor, masculine
amusement already described.
(5) This too is anaesthetic civil, indoor, mascu¬
line amusement already noticed.
(6) This is the dancing by Korava women or by
men in the guise and habit of a woman of the Korava
caste to the accompaniment of songs and symbols. It is
a feminine, indoor, civil, aesthetic amusement. Persons
of other caste also have taken to this dance.
(7) This the counterpart in Malabar of the per¬
formance by dancing girls on the East Coast. It is an
aesthetic, indoor, feminine amusement. It has of late
gone much out of use.
__ (8) This is a dance by a man in the guise of an
Audi or Pantjsram to the accompaniment of songs
1. Sec also the Chdthu Panikar Memorial Lecture on
Sankakkali by H. H. Appan Thampuian on p. 239 et seq Vol. II
of the AH'Kerala Paris hat Journal.
3So LETTERS FROM MALABAR lLt *S‘

sung in a peculiar tone. “It resembles Ramansttam.

The difference consists in this, there is only one pan¬
tomime without the usual headgear and there is less of
hand symbols and expression. In this respect it
resembles Tullal." It is played in the night before a
lamp. An indoor, aesthetic, masculine amusement
(9) This is an imitation of No. 4. The performers
are mere dolls dextrously moved by means of strings
held by men, experts at it, from behind the screen.
The dolls dressed in the way suitable to the puranic
characters they represent are placed on the stage and
perform their pantomimie shows according as the string
is pulled from behind. There are the usual accompani¬
ments of songs, which are partly in Tamil and partly
in Malayalam, drum, finger drum cymbals, gong, etc.
An indoor, aesthetic amusement.
Nos. (10 )to (13), are masquerading games.
(10) This is generally played by KaniySns.
“Kolamtuiiar’ says Mr. Raja Raja Varma, is a
game played for a whole night. It is believed to have
a propitiatory effect in warding off the evil influence
of devils and demons. and is often vowed by the devout
for the removal of hysterics and similar maladies. By
eight or nine at night, for it must be noted that it can
be celebrated only after the first quarter of the night,
a number of Kaniyans, men and women, gather and
begin the preliminary incantations and songs. A
metallic bow with a number of bells attached is blown
with a stick to supply the music, and a burning faggot
to give the light. This occupies a good two hours- By
midnight, mask after mask begins to appear. These
masks represent the several demons of the forest and
glade, Marutha or the spirit of small pox, Al&dciyi or the
demon of the woods, and the rest of the horrible crew
in quick succession. Their terrible appearance with
torches in their hands and mouths, fierce gestures,and
fearful roarings make the scene indeed so weird, that
the weak-minded are frightened out of their wits. To
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 381

the beating of the drum, these, pantomimic ghosts and

spirits dance their horrible rounds of midnight revelry.
Powdered dammar is often thrown into the flambeau
to give a flash and make the scene horrible. Blood
scenes are got up by preparing a boiled solution of
chunam and turmeric. This is a demonaic game, en¬
joyed mostly by the unrefined rural population, whose
imagination soars no higher than the appreciation of
vivid and fantastic representations of strong pas¬
sions”1 .
(11) This is much the same as No. (10). It is
generally played by the barber caste. The players put
on the mask of various animals and birds and mimic
their habits, their voice, etc.,to the delight and laughter
of the spectators.
(12) “Kalyanakali as the name indicates”, says
Mr- Raja Raja Varma, “is a game played during mar¬
riage festivals in Nayar families. The players are
Nayars of the village, who clad themselves in neat
white cloth and a head-dress of the same stuff in the
antique fashion and adorned in sandal paste, sing
merry songs and dance to the tune in many merry-go-
rounds. There are several harmonious steps, measures
and symbolisms to be acquired of a Ch attorn pi (teacher)
lest the performer should be hooted out by his com¬
rades. This game is most prevalent now in Chirayan-
kizh and some Southern Taluks of Travancore” 2.
(13) “Aivarkali is a two days" game performed
during the day-time only, the actors being Elavas or
'I'iyas. It is a mimic representation of the story of the
five PSndavSs, each of whom is represented by one
person. The whole story of the Mahsbharata is epi¬
tomised in songs, and they are sung and acted to the
accompaniment of hand-drums called Tappu. The
Asan sits on a raised platform and on the closing
day a big piece of jaggery is hung in the middle of the
1. Malabar Quarterly Review Vol, 5, pp. 142-3-
2. Ibid.p. 143-
382 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

dancing ground and is divided according to custom

among the players and their kinsmen assembled. This
pastime also is mostly confined to the Southern Taluks
of Travancore.” 1
(14) This is something like No. 9 but on a small
scale. The dolls are made to dance being held in the
hand.
(15) This is a strictly religious amusement. It
has already been described in this work. 2 It can be
performed only in temples. It is an aesthetic, indoor,
masculine amusement.
(16) This is very much like the previous one.
All castes above the Nayars perform this and the reli¬
gious element is but slight if any at all. No peculiar
dress is worn by the performers and the performance
is not confined to temples. It may take place in pri¬
vate houses also. The performer repeats appropriate
slokas from Champ us, dramas, etc., in Sanskrit and
expounds them in Malayalam to the delectation of the
audience. The performer has not the same license as
the ChakkiySr. Still he is allowed to indulge in good
humoured railleries which are not of a personal cha¬
racter* In the course of his expounding Purapic stories,
he is allowed to digress by way of illustration to pas¬
sing events, and this affords him occasion to make
caustic remarks on men and things about him. It is
an aesthetic, indoor, masculine amusement' very much
liked by the literate class.
(17) This partakes of a religious character and
has been already described. It wo/dd be hardly correct
to class it as a game or amusement unless for the
occasion affording an opportunity tur people to gather
together and indulge in amusements and sight seeings
of various kinds. Left to itself it is a somewhat cruel
observance which ought very much to be discounte¬
nanced.
1. Malabar Quarterly, p. 143.
2. See also Chattu Panikkar Memorial Lecture on Kutiyattam
etc., by Profr. Kerala Varma Tampuran, B. A„ B. L., Lekshmi
Bhai Publication, Trichur.
Si N. ] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 383

(18) This is a throw and catch play with a number

of balls, in which six or even more than six balls are
used by the player at a time. These balls are some¬
times made of bell-metal; but more often they are of
some heavy wood and coloured. They are in size
slightly less than cricket balls. The players perform
wonderful feats with these balls. The player throws
the balls up in pairs or one after another in rapid suc¬
cession from his hands to the measure of the drum and
the cymbal and never misses catching the balls when
they come down and throwing them up again into the
air with a dexterity and ease that can be attained
only by a life-long practice of the play. According
to ^ie Travancore State Manual which gives
a description of it, the players are generally
Ampalavasies or temple servants. They need not
necessarily belong to that caste. The play is held at
utsavams in important temples and affords one of the
most favoured of recreations to the people. Mr. Raja
Raja Varma Raja informs us that “Not unfrequently
the player of this game shows other tricks, such as
turning a brass plate on the tip of a long cane. Hold¬
ing one end of the cane in his hand he turns the plate
so swiftly at the other end that it appears almost
motionless; then bending the cane gradually he brings
the plate down and again by unbending it, he takes it
up. Then he throws the plate up and catches it at the
tip of the cane. Another trick which he exhibits is
making two paper butterflies fly like living ones by
blowing with a fan.” 1
This is an aesthetic, indoor, masculine game.
Sometimes females also amuse themselves by this game
inside their houses.

(19) We have the following description of this by

Mr. Raja Raja Varma:
“Rope-dancing or dandippu partaks more of mili¬
tary games than civil, involving as it does, several of
1. Malabar Quarterly, Vol. V, page 142.
384 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

the physical feats pertaining to the former. It would

have been classed as such had it not been for the
purely civil purpose of diversion for which it has ever
been practised and exhibited. A strong thick rope is
tied tight end to end on the ground and raised by
propping it on cross bamboos at both ends to not less
than eight feet above the ground, or even higher when
experts play. The play begins with the beating of the
drum and clanging of cymbals, which supply music to
the game. The dancer is attired in tight trousers and
a waist-cloth with a number of superfluous ball thread
hangings reaching up to the knee, a decorated tie at
the lower end of each of the legs and a head-dress
similar to that of the velakalikaran described in the
previous paper. After paying reverence to the Power
above, the melakar or drummer and cymbal sounder
who represent his gurus, and also the audience, the
performer jumps upon the rope and perching thereon
as on horse-back tries the strength of the rope by
swinging up and down, to and fro. This done, the real
game commences. The melakars ask him a number of
questions as to whether he is capable of oerforming a
certain feat. He answers them first pointing out the
dire consequences of falling down, and the easy way in
which those who stand on safe terra firma can ask one
on a flimsy small rope to perform break-neck feats*
These questions and answers are often full of wit and
humour and afford food for laughter to the audience
besides giving them an idea as to what will be the next
item of the performance. After some argument the
performer consents to show the feat by crying out
thithai or “here goes”, and he does it to the astonish¬
ment of the spectators. In this wise the game goes on
for an hour or two. High jumping, walking and somer¬
saults on the rope, jumping through rings and on swords
from the rope, mounting the loads on a pole supported
on the rope, sword play and a number of other feats
are shown. Some very expert rope-dancers do these
feats on thin metallic wire; and recently one of these
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 385

rode on the bicycle on a wire. It is a pity for all his

pains, the rope-dancer is given but a dole of rice and
sometimes a rupee or two in addition; while circus
players, who show little more, are remunerated by the
hundred. ” 1
(20)Of this game the same writer observes: —
“Valeric is a game in which rapiers or small swords
are thrown and caught. The number of rapiers hand¬
led at one time is never less than three. The larger
the number the greater the dexterity of the performer.
He uses both his hands in the game and takes his
stand at one spot. A big drum and cymbals supply
the music for this game. In addition to the above he
exhibits the methods of wielding and flourishing the
swords, jumping in various attitudes, passing through
rings and other aerobatic feats.” 2
(21) This is a game in which the player jumps
through hoops large and small. He first jumps through
one at first; then through two, three and so on held
close together in the first instance and then at slight
distances from one another. Much dexterity is
required in its performance. It is an out-door, mas¬
culine, civil amusement.
(22) This is the throwing of stones placed in
slings, the stones being thrown with great force by the
player after the slings are made to take a number of
sweeps. It is an out-door military masculine, physical
amusement. Mr. Raja Raja Varma has the following
description of this game
“Aavanayeru is a game of throwing rockets of stones.
In former times, it was useful in warding off the attacks
of enemies from a distance. The stones are usually
made of hardened clay; metals and other hard sub¬
stances are also not uncommonly used. The stones are
tied to a pretty long thread and after a number of
1. Pp. 141—2
2 Vol. IV, p. 226.
386 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

wavings to gain force is shot in the direction required.

Should it issue out of an expert hand, it is sure to hit
the mark. What in modern warfare is served by bullet
shot, the Kavanayeru supplied in olden days. It re¬
quired a good deal of practice and precision* The
man who shoots a stone and hits the stone that is shot
from the other side cannot but be admired.” 1
(23) This is an out-door, physical, masculine game.
It partakes the character of a boyish amusement. It
consists in balancing a piece of wood made in the form
of a small hour glass on a piece of string to the ends
of which are attached two small sticks, by which the
string is held stretched by both hands. After the con¬
trivance is made to balance for some time on the
string it is projected upwards and caught on the string
when it comes down. The dexterity consists in throw¬
ing it up to a great height and catching it on the
string without missing as it comes down. It gives
much innocent amusement and requires much practice
to become dexterous.
(24) Mr. Raja Raja Varma gives the following
description of this game :—
“Kolati or game with the sticks, is an amusing
diversion to see. Around a lighted lamp a number of
persons stand in a circle with a stick one foot long and
as thick as the thumb, in each hand and begin to sing,
first in slow and gradually in rapid measure. The
time measure is kept by each one hitting his neigh¬
bours’ sticks with his own on both sides. Much dex¬
terity and precision are required as also experience in
combined action and movements, lest the amateur
should be hit on the kunckles by his neighbours as the
measure is accelerated. There is only one refrain for
every song, so that it becomes monotonous after some
time. The songs are invariably in praise of God or
man. Experts often remove the ennui of the specta¬
tors by variations of strokes and motions’5 2.
1, Vol. IV, p. 226.
2. Vol. V, p. 140.
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 387

(25) This is the Indian jugglery which requires

no special description.
(26) This is an out-door, physical, masculine game
which has already been described in this work.
(27) Here again we may quote Mr. Raja Raja
Varma “Kondoti is a game in which there are two
opposing parties, each containing an unequal number
of men who are more or less matches. They stand at
a distance, and as soon as both parties are ready, one
from the right hand party takes a small ball in his hand
and walks into the arena. At the same time a match
from among the other side advances towards him to
take the ball by force. Soon they join in close combat.
Great skill in fencing and throwing is displayed here.
At length one succeeds. Then the ball is taken by
another and from the ranks of the opposite party a
combatant is selected to wrest the ball from him. In
this wise the game continues for a long time until the
party which gains the ball is declared successful.1 ”
(28) This is a boyish out-door game. A small
pit is made on the ground and a small piece of stick
is placed across its mouth. This is struck by one
larger, and when it jumps up is propelled by the larger
stick. The distance of the small one then from the pit
is measured by the other stick.
(29) This is an in-door game drawn from the
chase. It ipeans the seven dogs and the leopard. The
dogs pursue the leopard whom they bring to a corner.
The game has already been described in another part
of the work.
Numbers (30) to (33) are games at dice. Numbers
(30) and (31) are played for mere amusement while the
other two partake of the nature of gaming prohibited
by law to be played in public.
No. (34) is card play of which there are various
forms while No. (35) is chess play.
1. Vol. IV. p. 226,
3S8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 25.
Numbers (36) to (44) are boyish games in which
school boys indulge. Numbers 36, 37, 41 and 42 are
played with stones or marbles. Numbers 38, 39, 40,
43 and 44 are out-door games which give ample exercise
to the body. In all of these the boys range themselves
into two parties, one party trying to pass through a line
guarded by the other or one by one of party No. 1
trying to pick out one by one of party No. 2 while
well guarded. The games give intense excitement to
the boys.
Numbers (45) and (46) are two of the more import¬
ant military games. These as well Nos. (47) to (49)
require previous training in Ralaries as already describ¬
ed before. No. (45) is thus described by Mr. Raja Raja
Varma:
“Among the military games, prominence has to be
given to Velakali or mock fight as it exhibits a finished
product of physical feat. Originally designed to keep
alive the practice of military tactics in times of peace,
and, with the gradual decline of the age of militarism
continued for the amusement of a patriotic people,
Velakali now finds its place only on occasions of festi¬
vals in temples. It is now supposed to be a represent¬
ation of the great battle between the PsndavSs and the
KauravSs. It is seen at its best now in Ampalappula
in Travancore, where it is under the superintendence
of Math 11 r Panicker, a rich land-lord who was the here¬
ditary Asan and minister of the ChempakasSri Royal
Family, which reigned over the Taluk, till subdued by
Maharaja MartSnda Varma of Travancore. At Trivan¬
drum, during the annual Panguny festival, Velakaiiksrs
assemble from various Taluks, and Msthur Panicker
commands the battalion and leads it to the attack on the
PSndavSs, who are represented by gigantic wooden
images erected for the time in front of Sri PadmanSbha-
sw2mi temple. NSyars form the battalion, being the
class chiefly employed in military service. It closely
resembles the modern military review held on important
occasions of festivity.
S. N,] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 389
“The game commences with a flourish of trumpets
and kettled-rums, corresponding to a call at arms in a
military cantonment. In a few minutes each house
sends forth its men, well armed and equipped to the
field. We shall pause for a few minutes here and look
at the war dress and equipment of the soldier. Clad
in an under-wear of a sheet of long and narrow cloth
tied lightly round the waist in a peculiar fashion reach¬
ing only up to the knee so as to leave the legs free,
with a triangular piece of red cloth ornamented with
silver knobs and dots, hanging in front of the waist
cloth, with a head dress of red cloth tied into an
elongated knot on the right side and adorned with
silver lace, the primitive soldier, half naked in his out-
of-date uniform, presents to modern people a spectacle
both comic and significant. He wears as ornaments a
string of golden beads on the neck and a tie on each
hand round the biceps muscles. Caste marks are made
with sandal on the forehead, breast and arms and the
eyes rubbed with black dye. His equipment consists
of a shield and sword, the former worn on the left and
the latter (which is blunt and often an imitation now)
on the right hand. This completes the figure of a
Vglakaiiksran.
“Now to the game itself. At the call of the trumpet
these soldiers living far and near, gather round the
flag. A number of pennons large and small of various
colours and designs and some made of silver and gold,
p;robably belonging to the various corps in former times,
are unfurled and wave beautifully in the evening sun.
The band which consists of the horn, Kombu> the
clarion or Kurunkunzhal, the kettle-drum or Thakih
hand-drum or Thappu and Maddalam another hand-
played instrument, then begins to sound the mustering
tune, and its dissonant din wakens the drooping spirits
of these rude warriors. No sooner have they assembled
and formed themselves into line, than the march is
sounded* The younger ones take the front, the elders
k'eep the rear; and the flagmen form the rearmost line.
390 LETTERS FROM MALABAR TL- *5-

This mock army is accompanied by animals and birds

used in olden times for military purposes, such as
swans, oxen, etc., made of sticks and cloth. These,
borne on shoulders come last. In this array the army
marches from its place of encampment (now a banyan
tree) to the battle-field (now the front court-yard of the
temple). There it makes its stand. In the absence of
the opponent in the field, the combat is single-handed.
First it performs the tactics of a combined attack moving
against the imaginary enemy in full column. Then
begin the single combats. Two of the young warriors
step to the front, and to the time of music perform
various feats with the sword and shield, shew their
skill in jumping, fencing, thrusting, and the various
physical exercises. They then retire and fall into line.
Again, two more warriors take the field and go
through similar exercises- At the end all form together
into columns and make a march and with shouts of
victory move on to the tank. Their frisks and gambols
of joy round the tank for a few minutes indicative of
the bath which an army takes after the day of battle,
close the game, which is repeated daily in temples
during utsavam days.
“During the palmy days of the age of chivalry in
Malabar, this game supplied an amusement, to the
patriotic sons of the soil which modern military review
with its bright uniforms and glittering panoply, its
splendid cavalry and powerful artillery, its waving
pennons and musical band, fail to afford. It stamped a
force of character, a spirit of self-confidence and a
readiness for action on the people which form the life¬
blood of national existence and supply an incentive to
further progress. Who can contemplate the decay of
such institutions only with a sigh”? 1
For the Velakali in the temples at Trivandrum
and Ampalappula, the Travancore Sirkar had assigned
lands to Viruthikkar whose duty it was to assemble in
i VoK IV. pp. 121—-3,
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 391

the temples during utsavam, provide themselves with

the necessary accoutrements and perform the Velakali•
Though the Viruthi system under which various kinds
of service were exacted in consideration of assignments
of lands were abolished at the recent Revenue Settle¬
ment, the lands being enfranchised and the services paid
for in ready cash,200 Viruthikars have been retained in
the KarunSgappilly Taluk for performing Velakali in
the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple at Trivandrum dur¬
ing the Pangunni Utsavam, while the Viruthi service
in the Ampalappuia Taluk has been abolished,
the services of a staff of 70 Velakalikar for the annual
utsavam in that temple having been engaged on an
annual stipend of Rs. 6 each per head. A staff of 30
men on an annual stipend of Rs. 4 per head has also
been engaged for Ampalappuia for carrying flags, etc.
This game, though not in this elaborate form and
in all its details, is still practised in many places.
Ochirakkaii, and other mock fights exhibited even now
in innocent forms in various places are remnants of
the original game.
(46) Archery• Of this a description has already
been given. 1 This game also had its origin in the war¬
like habits of the people. As already observe^, the
NSyars of Malabar are acknowledged to have been the
very best of bowmen. Before the introduction of gun¬
powder into India, bows and arrows formed the most
important weapon of offence. The Puranic heroes were
all armed with these in their battles with their enemies.
The mysteries of the art are explained in the fourth or
Atharva Veda and what is more the art itself is taught
in what is called the Dhanurveda or the Veda that treats
of bows and arrows. As a weapon both of offence and
defence it was believed that, when used with the repeti¬
tion of certain the arrows became peculiarly
efficacious and fatal. There were arrows of fire,
Agneyastram, of air, Vayavyam, of water, Varunam.
1. See Note 11, Letter 25,
392 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

of Brahma, Brahmastram, of Siva, Pasupadastram%

and so on. Poetical accounts of the battles of the
PurSnic heroes gives descriptions of how arrows of one
class are opposed by arrows of another class and how
certain arrows bring on certain results, etc. There
were different kinds of bows also such as those that
were the weapons of S ri Rama known as Kodanda, of
Arjunathe most famous of the PandavSs, known as
Gandivam, the Sam gam of Vi§iju, etc.
Archery is now a simple game devoid of all its
military elements enjoyed by the people mostly during
the Onam festivities.
*(48) and (49) Fencing and gymnastic. Of these we
have the following description by Mr. Raja Raja
Varma:—
“Kasaratk(gymnastics), in which is included all the
feats of the acrobat, is too well known to require any
description. The primary object being to develop the
various muscles of the body, gymnastics serves also the
purpose of a diversion. The various feats of balancing,
jumping, crawling on the ground, walking on hands and
somersaults are familiar to the modern circus-going
public. Gusti or fencing differs little from that which
obtains in other countries. It is essentially a game
played with hands and legs. A knowledge of the vari¬
ous vulnerable positions of the legs and hands, and
methods of attack and defence and the counter moves
have to be acquired by practical experience from a
Chattanipi or drill-master. Success in the game is
levelling the opponent to the ground. This, as well as
Kasarathy from their very name, suggest a Mahomedan
origin, and as a matter of fact they are largely practised
by Pat bans.” 1
(50) is the game of hunting which as practised in
Malabar has been already described.
* For (47) see Note ii, Letter 25.
1. Volume IV, pp. 226—227.
S. N.] GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 393

(51) and (52) Are purely feminine amusement

which have already been described.
(53) and (54) These are feats in waterv viz., swim¬
ming, going under water, swimming under water, etc.,
practised both by males and females.
(55) Is jumping into water like a crocodile or
alligator, head foremost.
(56) Is boat racing. From time immemorial, this
has been a favourite out-door sport of the Malayslls.
Boats are of various sorts and propelled by oars and
paddles. There are songs innumerable to be sung to
the accompaniment of rowing and paddling. Many of
these songs are classed high as literary works.
We have endeavoured to give a rapid sketch of
some of the national games of Malabar. It will be
hardly correct to say that they are all still practised
in the country. Many of them are steadily giving way
to games of foreign importation especially among the
school-going population and among those who have
come under the influence of western education. A
penchant for anything foreign is more or less the ruling
passion of the Malayslls and “such high class civilised
games as tennis and billiards, foot-ball and cricket,
golf and hockey, with their furnished and superior
appliances, their inviting company, and their social eleva¬
tion charm away our country-men”. While the excel¬
lence of these games is not denied, it is difficult to see
how any or all of them are superior to the many
distinctively Malayali games described above. The
tendency towards denationalization all along the lines
is a matter of supreme regret, and Mr. Raja Raja
Varma approaches the subject of “Our National Games”
with a view to preserve at least a description of them
before they are altogether blotted out. 4‘If a carved block
of stone, a piece of stained glass, a mud-burnt old pit¬
cher, or a soot'covered palm-leaf Grandha, deserves
careful preservation as valuable relics of a by-gone
394 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 25.

civilisation, how much more precious are the monuments

of a nation’s individuality and inherent strength, for both
of which the men of Malabar now stand at such a dis¬
count? Disdaining to touch even the very fringe of a
once glorious heritage as if it were a plague or pariah,
running at a tangent from the old traditions of time-
honoured family and customs, cast off in foreign waters
to drift in whichever way the wind blows, the modern
son of K^raia, fresh from the barber’s hands and deck¬
ed in his borrowed feathers of tell-tale poverty, present
a spectacle sorrowful to behold. Whence comes this
degradation? Whence this fall of a once sharp-witted
and enterprising race? Whence this mania for all that
is foreign? Why this aping, which but tends to prove
the Darwinian theory of the origin of man? Why this
detestation of all that is one’s own? are a few of the
thousand and one questions, which will suggest them¬
selves to an impartial student of social history. These
the writer neither undertakes to answer, nor thinks it
necessary to do in view of the subject under his im¬
mediate consideration, except, of course, for the fact
that games have gone the way of other national institu¬
tions, and their history affords very important testi¬
mony to the national downfall. Obsolete in the main
our military games are; and the civil games have
become more or less child's play or the poor man’s
friend.” 1
i. Vol. v, p. 137.
 LETTER XXVI.

i. Malabar, Mother of Pepper. The spices of

Malabar have always attracted the attention of foreign
nations and it was in fact the desire to enrich them¬
selves by trade in those articles that brought European
nations to India. Traced to its ultimate source, we
may derive the origin of British supremacy in India to
the spice trade. Of all the spices, pepper formed the
chief article of commerce between the East and the
West.
“A greed for the profits from the trade in this
article particularly”, says Mr. Whitehouse, “was one
of the inducements which stimulated the Portuguese to
find their way to India via the Cape of Good Hope.
When they first set foot on shore at Calicut in the
dominions of the Samori Raja, in 1498, and a Musal*
man who understood their language, surprised at what
he saw, in no very courteous strain inquired ‘What
devil has brought you here’. They replied ‘Our King
has sent us to get pepper >l .
For centuries pepper has been an article of export
to European countries from the Western Coast of
India. Although a product of many countries in the
East, that which comes from Malabar is acknowledged
to be the best. During the Empire, it was considered
an article of the greatest luxury to the Romans, and is
frequently alluded to by historians. Old Pliny could
not understand why people should take so great a
fancy to such a hot article. A pound of white pepper
was sold in Rome at 7 dinars or 2 Rs, and a pound of
black pepper for a little more than 1 Re* Persius
gives it the epithet sacrum as it were a thing to set a
store by, so much was it esteemed. Even in later ages,
it was considered so valuable an article of commerce,
1. Historical Sketches p. 5.
396 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 26.

that, when Attilla was besieging Rome in the 5th

century; he made a particular demand among other
things of ?,ooo lbs. of pepper as ransom for the city.
We have the following account of the spice given us by
Pliny in A. D. 70.
“The comes or graines * * * lie in certaine
little huskes or cods * * * If that be plucked from
the tree before they gape and open of themselves, they
make that spice which is called long pepper; but if as
they do ripen, they cleave and chawne by little and
little, they shew within the white pepper which after¬
wards being parched in the Sunne, channgeth colour
and waxeth blacke, and therewith riveled also * * *
Long pepper is soone sophisticated, with the senvie or
mustard seed of Alexandria: and a pound of it is worth
fifteen Roman deniers. The white costeth seven
deniers, a pound, and the black is sold after foure deni-
ers by the pound.”l
The next notice we have is in the Periplus
(A. D. 80—90). We read: “and there come to these
marts great ships, on account of the bulk and quantity
of pepper and malabathrum * * * The pepper
is brought (to market) here, being produced largely only
in one district near these marts, that which is called
Kottonarike
According to the Periplus Kottonarik pepper was
exported in large quantities fromMuziris (Cranganore)
and Nelkunda (Kallada), and long pepper from Barugaza
(Broach).3 Pliny4 quoting from some other Periplus
observes:—“The region, however, from which they
convey pepper to Becare in boats formed from single
logs is Cottonara”*
“The correct identification of the places mentioned
in the above extracts will enable us to determine the

1. Pliny, 2'r. by Phil. Holland, Bk. XU, Ck. 7.)

2. §. 56.
3. 49 *56*
4. VI—XXVI—i c 4:
N. i.] MALABAR, MOTHER OF PEPPER 397

localities from which pepper was exported in those

early days, from Malabar to Europe.
As to Muziris, we have already observed that it has
been satisfactorily identified with Cranganore^or Kodun-
gallur. There remain Nilkynda, Becare and Cottonara,
and Barygoza situated outside Malabar. Nilkynda and
Becare may be taken together for the purpose of identifi¬
cation. The latter is mentioned as Becare by Pliny, as
Bacari by the author of the Periplus and as Bacare by
Ptolemy. The Periplus places it at the mouth of the river
on which at a distance of 120 stadia or 12 miles inland
from the sea was situated the great mart of Nilkanda
or Melkynda as Ptolemy has it. It was the shipping
port of Nilkanda. According to Muller it is now
represented by Markari (Lat: 12 N.), while Yule
conjectures that it must have been between Kannetti
and Kollam or Quilon in Travancore. Nilkanda is
mentioned by various authors under varying forms of
the same name. It is Melkynda in Ptolemy, Neacyndon
in Pliny, Nilkunda in the Periplus, Nineylda in the
Peutmger Tables and in the Geographer of Ravenna,
Nileynna. One manuscript of Pliny writes the second
part of the word not Cyndon but Canidon. Dr. Caldwell
says that Melkynada, u e., probably Western
Kingdom seems to be Kannetti the southern boundary
of Kerala Proper. According to the Periplus, the
distance from Musiris to Nilkanda is but 500 stadia,
i. e., 50 miles. “At this distance from Cranganore it is
somewhat difficult to point to a quite satisfactory Nil¬
kanda. The site selected as the most probable is
nearly 800 stadia south of Musiris* That site is Kallada
on a river of the same name 12 miles north-east of
Quilon. That the choice is a happy one and that it is
moreover accurate will be evident from the following
circumstances:—-(1) Nilkanda is placed by the author
of the Periplus on. a river, at the mouth of which stands
Bakre 120 stadia, i. e., 12 miles distant from the great
interport, and Kallada stands exactly 12 miles inland
3Q8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 26.

to the north-east of Quilon close to Bakre or Markari.

(2) Kallada or its vicinity is believed to be the Kannetti
of the Keralolpathiy the southern boundary of Malabar
Proper and Kannetti is a town and river situated to the
north-east of Quilon not far away from Kallada. Now
according to Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, the territory
of Coelobothras or Kerobothras or Keprobothras
extended southwards only to Nilkanda whence the
sway of the Pandion began. (3) Kallada is the only
navigable river on the south-west coast except the
Periyar or the Alwaye river near Cranganore. The
Periplus says that the river has sunken reefs and shal¬
lows which make its navigation difficult, so much so
that the ships despatched from Nilkanda to Bakare had
to sail down empty and there take their cargo. This
description exactly fits in with the navigable condition
of the Kallada river and the Quilon or Ashtamudi
backwater into which it pours out its waters. (4) The
Periplus says that after Bakare occurs the mountains
called Pyrrhos (or the red) towards the south near
another district of the country called Paralia. There
can be little doubt that this refers to the bar of red
late rite known as the Varkalay Barrier which extending
from Quilon southwards cuts short the backwater
navigation, and which has been not long ago pierced
through by two long tunnels to carry the waterway
direct to Trivandrum, the capital of the Travancore
State. (5) After referring to the importance of Nil¬
kanda, Pliny proceeds to say that the region, how¬
ever, from which they convey pepper to Bakare in boats
formed of single logs is Cottonara. It is indeed well
known that Kallada is a great interport of Travancore
pepper which is sent from there to ports on the coast'
for shipment in boats formed of single logs exactly as
they used to be in the days of Pliny. A reference to
the map of Travancore will show’ that Kottsrakkara,
which produces pepper in abundance and of the finest
quality, is situated close to Kallada, and looking to the
respective positions of Bakrae and Cottonara, there can
 N. i.] MALABAR, MOTHER OF PEPPEP 399
be little doubt that the latter is represented by the
modern Kottarakkara.
The Kottiara of Ptolemy could not evidently have
been the Cottonara of Pliny or the Kottonarike of the
Periplus. It is indeed singular that Ptolemy does not
make mention of Cottonara though Pliny refers to it as
the region where the best pepper was produced and
whence that commodity is brought to the port of Bakrae
for shipment. Buchanan indentifies Cottonara with
Kada^tASd in the Collectorate of Malabar, while Burnell
identifies it with Kola^tuASd the district about Telli-
chery also in the Collectorate of Malabar, both well
known for their produce of pepper. But neither of
these localities satisfactorily answers to the description
given by Pliny. If Niikanda is Kallada or Kannetti
near Quilon in Travancore as has been satisfactorily
shown by Burnell himself, if Bacare stands at a distance
of 120 stadia or 12 miles at the mouth of the river on
which Niikanda is situated, if the pepper of Cottonara
was brought to Bacre for shipment in boats formed out
of single logs, then certainly the district of Cottonara
could not be so far away as Kadaftunsd or KolaftftSd
in North Malabar. Indeed, there was no necessity for
the pepper of those districts to be carried so far soutli
as Quilon in Travancore to be conveyed to foreign
marts. The ports of Calicut, Cannanore, Pudupatta-
nam and Cranganore, not to mention many another port
lay near and more conveniently at hand; add to this the
fact mentioned both by Pliny and Arrian that Niikanda
belonged not to Celobothras or Keprobotras but to
Pandion. It cannot have been that Pandion had any
♦territory in North Malabar, seeing that Pliny, Arrian
and Ptolemy all agree in fixing Niikanda or Kallada as
the northern limit of the Pandion Kingdom. The
district of Cottonara can in no way be situated at a
distance from Niikanda or its shipping port Bacre.
We may safely point to the district of KottSrakkara in
the vicinity of Kallada as the Cottonara of the Greeks.
“On the east of Collam (Quilon) and towards the

1
4oo LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 26.
interior part of the country”, says Fra Paolino “lie
Perumanadu and Cirumuttu, two beautiful and uncom¬
monly fertile districts, which belong to the ancient
Kingdom of Kottarakkarai and which produces great
quantities of pepper, ginger, cardamom, gum-lack,
cotton, and various kinds of valuable wood. The river
on which these articles are transported takes its rise
in the Ghauts and proceeding past Collare (Kallada),
Tuyam and on the north side of Collari, discharges it¬
self into the sea, towards the south not far from the
town of Aybica”.1 The first part of the name of this
latter town certainly leaves behind a trace of the name
by which Ptolemy called this part of the country
Aiorunt Regio and it is significant that Nilkanda is
placed by Ptolemy in the country of the Aioi.
Dioscorides (A. D. 100) notices the plant in the
following terms: “the Pepper Tree is related to
grow in India; it is short, and the fruit as it first puts
it forth is long, resembling pods; and this long pepper
has within it (grains) like small millet, which are what
grow to be perfect(^Za^) pepper. At the proper season
it opens and puts forth a cluster bearing the berries such
as we know them. But those that are like unripe
grapes, which constitute the white pepper, serve the
nest for eye-remedies, and for antidotes and for theriacal
potencies.”2
Cosmas (545 A. D.), giving a drawing of the pepper
vine says, “This is the Pepper tree. Every plant of it
is twined round some lofty forest-tree, for it is weak
and slim like the slender stems of the vine. And every
bunch of fruit has a double leaf as a shield; and it is
very green, like the green of rue* 3
Cosmas mentions five ports on the West Coast of
India whence pepper was exported. He refers to Ma¬
labar as “Male” or the country “where the pepper
grows”.
1. P. 35*
2. Mat Med, II, 188.
3. Book XI.
Jf. i.] MALABAR, MOTHER OF PEPPER 401
In the 9th century, Sinbad the Sailor is said to
have visited Malabar in the course of his 4th voyage.
Mr. Major in his Introduction to his India in the 1 $th
century observes that Sinbad “was carried to an Island
(for all countries were regarded as islands by naviga¬
tors who are unable to complete their explorations).
He gives no name to this island, but relates that he
found there men gathering pepper. This would seem
to be the Coast of Malabar. In the district of Cotto-
nara on this coast, the best pepper is gathered, and in
the largest quantity to the present day. On this coast
Ptolemy places the island of pepper. . On this coast
Cosmas in the middle ages, mentions five ports whence
pepper was exported”*1
Ibn Khurdadba (870 A. D.) says, “The mariners
say every bunch of pepper has over it a leaf that shelters
it from the rain. When the rain ceases, the leaf turns
aside; if rain re-commences, the leaf again re-covers
the fruit”.2
Edrisi Geographer at the court of Roger of Sicily
(1099) makes mention of the pepper and cardamoms of
Malabar.
Rabbi Benjamin of 1 udela (1159 A. D,) speaking,
it is supposed of Quilon, says—“The pepper grows in
this country; the trees which bear this fruits are planted
in the fields which surround the towns, and every one
knows his plantation. The trees are small and pepper
is originally white, but when they collect it they put it
into basins and pour hot water upon it;. it is then
exposed to the heat of the sun and dried in order to
make it hard and more substantial, in the course of
which process it becomes black in colour”. 3
The well known Arabian Geographer Abulfeda
/j273—1331) makes mention of the abundance of
pepper grown in Malabar. He defines the position of
1. P. XXXII
2. Journ. As. Soo, VI, tom V, 284.
3. Wright p. 114,
4*2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. a6.

Quilon as at the extreme end of Baladul Falfai, i. ei,

the pepper country or Malabar.
Marco Polo (A. D. 1291) makes mention of the
pepper of Coilam (Quilon), Ely and Cannanore and of
Melibar. Of the first, that of Quilon, he observes:—
“Pepper too grows in great abundance throughout this
country, and I will tell you how. You must know that
the pepper trees are (not wild but) cultivated, being re¬
gularly planted and watered; and the pepper is gathered
in the months of May, June and July.”
Long before European merchants found their way
into India for trade, the famous Minorite Friar Odorico
Di Pordenon (1281—1331) visited Malabar and observed
the great attention paid to the production of pepper;
“It grows”, says he, “with numerous bright looking
green leaves, and climbs up the trees; the pepper
pods hanging down in clusters like grapes;”. He
speaks of a pepper forest of 18 days circuit.
Though not so extensive, it is worthy of note that the
island on which the British Residency of Cochin stands
is still known as Molakukador ‘Pepper Forest*. Speak¬
ing of the difficulties connected with the gathering of
pepper, the Friar adds, “Crocodiles and huge serpents
infest this forest; and, in the season of getting the pepper,
the people are obliged to make large fires of straw and
other dry fuel to drive away these noxious animals”.
It is likely that the river and the broad backwater that
skirts the island, was in the Friar’s days infested by
crocodiles and huge serpents.
The Arab traveller Ibn Batuta(i304—78) passing
through Malabar observes:— “Their country is
that from which black pepper is brought; and this is
the far greater part of their produce and culture. The
pepper tree resembles that of the dark grape. They
plant it near that of the cocoanut, and make frame¬
work for it, just as they do for the grape tree. It has,
however, no tendrils, and the tree itself resembles a
bunch of grapes. The leaves are like the ears of a
,*a.l CULTIVATION, ETC. 4*3

horse; but some of them resemble the leaves of a bram¬

ble. When the autumn arrives, it is ripe; they then cut
it just as they do grapes,and thus it is dried by'the sun.
As to what some have said, that they boil it in order
to dry it, it is without foundation.”1 And so it is really.
Marignolli describes Quilon in 1347 A. D. as
“where the whole world’s pepper is produced. Now
there pepper grows on a kind of vines, which are
planted just like our vineyards.” “These are things,”
protests the Minorite Friar “which I have seen with
mine eyes and handled with mine hands during the
fourteen months thut I stayed there. And there is no
roasting of the pepper as authors have falsely asserted;
nor does it grow in forests, but in regular gardens, nor
are the Saracens the proprietors but the Christians
of St. Thomas.”2
Nicolo Conti (1419—1444) and Athanasius Niki¬
tin (1468), Hieronimo Di Santo Stepano (1494—99),
Varthema (1503—1508) and Durate Barbosa al§o men¬
tion pepper as one of the chief articles of export from
Malabar.
Since the advent of European nations to the West
Coast, the desire to possess a monopoly of the trade in
pepper has always directed their policy and the pepper
contracts originally entered into between them and the
Malabar Princes have invariably led to political rela¬
tions which have terminated in the subjugation of these
Princes by the Western powers and finally in the
British supremacy.
The Portuguese designated a particular part of
Malabar Peimenta or Pepper Country and its ruler the
Pepper Queen.
2. Cultivation, Value and properties. The
following note by the Editor of our author on the pep¬
per vine and its cultivation is useful. “The Black
pepper vine {Piper nigrum) is indigenous to the forests
1, Lee's Translation p. 167.
2. Cathay II 342 et seq.
404 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 26.
of Malabar and Travancore; and for centuries has
been an article of exportation to European countries
from that coast. Although growing in other countries
of the East, Malabar pepper is considered to be the
best. Its cultivation is very simple, and is effected by
cuttings or suckers put down before the commencement
of the rains in June. The soil should be rich, but if
too much moisture be allowed to accumulate near the
roots, the young plants are apt to rot. In three years
the vine begins to bear. They are planted chiefly in
hilly districts, but thrive well enough in the low coun¬
try in the moist climate of Malabar. They are usually
planted at the base of trees which have rough or prick¬
ly bark, such as the jack, the erythrina, cashew nut,
mango tree, and others of similar description.
They will climb about 20 or 30 feet, but are
purposely kept lower than that. During their
growth, it is requisite to remove all suckers, and
the vine should bfe pruned, thinned and kept clear of
weeds. After the berries have been gathered, they are
dried on mats in the sun, when they turn from red tc black.
They must be ^plucked before quite ripe, and if too
early they will spoil. White pepper is the same fruit
freed from its outer skin, the ripe berries being ma¬
cerated in water for the purpose. In this latter state
they are smaller, of a greyish white colour, and have a
less aromatic or pungent taste. The pepper vine is
very common in the hilly districts of Travancore,
especially in Cottayam, Meenachel and Chenganachery
districts, where at an average calculation about 5,000
candies are produced annually.
“Long pepper (Chavica Roxburghii) is another cul¬
tivated species. It is readily propagated by cuttings.
The stems are annual, and the roots live for several
years, and when cultivated, usually yield three or four
crops, after which they seem to become exhausted, and
require to be renewed by fresh planting. The berries
of this species of pepper are lodged in a pulpy matter
like those of P. nigrum. They are first green,
becoming red when ripe. Being hotter when unripe, they
N. 2.J CULTIVATION, ETC. 405

are then gathered and dried in the sun, when they

change to a dark grey colour. The spikes are imported
entire. The taste of the berries is pungent though
rather faint.”1
Pepper is still cultivated to a large extent in
Malabar though not as formerly. The tenants who cul¬
tivate the vine under the landlords are entitled at eject¬
ment to compensation. Major Walker in his Report
on the Land Tenures of Malabar gives the following
table containing an account of the four periods of the
Mooloo valli (Mulaku valli) or pepper vine under each
period, and its value under each stage, until it becomes
a bearing vine.

The periods or
stages of valuation First Second Third Fourth
planted with io or

shooting out, and

whole in which it is

with flowers appear¬

Payi Teri, a vine
Roolly valli, a vine

plete bearing pep¬

Aegum PadinlA

Kachadu, a com¬
fastening to the
within the pit

vtne with roots

The names and

description of the
15 leaves

periods
per vine
ttee

ing
1

Rs. Qs. Rs> Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs.

If the kudian (ten¬

O

00 50
O

200
0

ant) returns the pa-

ramba (garden) to the
jenmkar (landlord)
this person must pay
for each vine at the
annexed rates and
also 20 per cent arya

If the jenmkar de¬

1
VC
O
O

u>
O

200 40 0
0

mands the paramba

from the kudian he
must pay him at the
sub-joined rates, and
20 per cent arye on
the total amount

“Should the whole of the pepper vines, or a con¬

siderable number of them, be in the fourth stage, the
1. Fp. 153—154
4o6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR tL> 26'

jenmkar must allow the kudian to enjoy the produce of

the bearing vines for one year, or pay him a sum
money equal to their produce for that period.
»i. Koolly valli—Koolly, a pit or hole; valh, a
vine: the state it is in when first planted.
‘‘2. Negum Padinho—Me gum, the nail of the
finger; padinho, to fasten, or cling to, imp ying t a
vine in this stage fastens or clings to the tree like
claw or finger. .
‘‘3. Payi teri—Payi none; teri a candle, a wick.
This refers to some fanciful resemblance which the
flowers bear in this stage to the wick of a lamp.
“4. Kachadu, yelding.
“The pepper vine is commonly propagated from
cuttings.
“The natives allege that plants from the seed are
not so productive, and do not attain the strength of
those from cuttings; when it is young, the plant m the
dry weather ought to be watered daily. The quantity
and quality of the produce depends very much on
the care of the cultivator. It must at first be well
manured. It does not attain the fourth period before
five years; i.e., although it begins to bear on the second
or third, the produce is trifling and U seldom becomes
a complete bearing tree until the fifth’
Regarding the properties of pepper and its use,
Col. Drury observes as follows in his work on The
Useful Plants of India'.
“Pepper contains an acrid, soft resin, volatile oil,
piperin, gum, bassorine, malic and tartaric acids, etc.
The odour being probably due to the volatile oil, and
the pungent taste to the resin. The berries medici¬
nally used are given as stimulant and stomachic, and
when toasted have been employed successfully in stop¬
ping vomiting in cases of Cholera. The root is used
as a tonic, stimulant and cordial. 4 liniment is also
prepared with them of use in chronic rheumatism.
i, Pp. 24*25*
N. 3.] CONTRACT FOR SALES 407

The watery infusion has been of use as a gargle in

relaxation of the uvula. As a seasoner of food, pepper
is well known for its excellent stomachic qualities. An
infusion of the seeds is given as an antidote to arsenic,
and the juice of the leaves boiled in oil externally in
scabies. Pepper in over doses acts as a poison, by
over exerting the inflammation of the stomach, and its
acting powerfully on the nervous system. It is known
to be a poison to hogs. The distilled oil has very
little acrimony. A tincture made in rectified spirit is
extremely hot and fiery. Pepper has been successfully
used in vertigo, and paralytic and arthritic disorders”1 .
3. Contract for Sales. It was in December
1660 that the Dutch captured Quilon, their earliest
settlement in Malabar. Within the next three or four
years, they entered into alliances with almost all the
principal Princes of Travancore. The most important
of these treaties is the one dated the 21st February
1664. By this Captain John Nieuhoff on behalf of the
Dutch Company engaged with the Kings of Martan
(KaruftS^apilly), Signaty (Quilon), Goenrue (Kundra),
Travankoor (Travancore), and Barriyetta Pule (Vata-
yatftfu Pilla) that “Nobody, without any exception,
shall be permitted to export any pepper or cinnamon
out of this country or to sell them to anybody except
to the said Company”. By the 3rd article of this en¬
gagement, “A certain price was settled betwixt both
parties and what share each should have in the customs
whereby all former pretensions shall be annulled”.
Engagements of a similar nature were also concluded
with the Kings of Kayamkulam and Ambalapula or
Porcad. The 4th article of the treaty entered into with
the Cochin Raja in 1663 stipulated that “the King of
Cochin should cause all the pepper and cinnamon
grown in his dominions from Cranganore in the north
to Poracad in the south to be brought weighed and deli¬
vered to the Dutch Company in theTortat Cochin and

1. P. 357.
4o8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L- 2$-

that henceforward ; these articles should be given to no

one else”. In the same year, there was another
engagement entered into by the Dutch East India
Company and the Rajas of Cochin and ChempakaSSHry
or Porakad, article 5 of which ran thus "It is here¬
by agreed that the ChempakaSsery Raja will not allow
the weighment or delivery to any one else of the pepper
and cinnamon of his country without the permission of
the Raja of Cochin or of the Dutch Company. The
right to these will vest with the Company as already
arranged”.
On the 4th January 1710, the Zamorin ceded the
monopoly of the pepper trade in his dominions to the
Dutch exclusively under an engagement executed at
Chowghat with the Dutch Commodore. In 1740 a new
treaty was concluded with the Raja of Edappilli accord-
ing to which that Prince was obliged to deliver up all
his pepper to the Dutch Company and to stop and
punish all smugglers in that article. We have already
discussed the result of this forced system of monopoly;
how, it compelled the Company to keep up a large
military establishment, how it led them into political
and financial difficulties and how at last it ended in the
destruction of their power on the coast. At first the
Dutch Company had its own way in the matter of
monopolies with Travancore, the Rolattiri and the
Zamorin. But those Rajas were not slow to perceive
the disadvantages accruing from it and, as soon as they
found themselves in a position to resist by for^e the
illegal and unrighteous demands of the Dutch, they did
not hesitate to withdraw from their forced engage¬
ments
4. Zamorin’s grant of exclusive right. There
is no authority for this statement. It has been shown
that at no time did the Zamorin exert any superiority
over all the other Princes of Malabar. He did indeed
assert it at times but as often as it was asserted, it was
denied and never submitted to by all. It will be
N. 5.] TURMERIC 409

remembered that Commandant de Jong gave in his

Memorial (1757) as his opinion that monopolies in
pepper did not exist in Malabar before the advent of
the Dutch and were illegal combinations of the rulers,
as he hints for defrauding the people.
5. Turmeric. We have the following description
of this plant given by Drury:
“Cultivated in most parts of India. According to
Rumphius, the Javanese make an ointment with the
pounded roots and rub it over their bodies as a pre¬
servation against cutaneous diseases. The root is con¬
sidered a cordial and stomachic, and is prescribed by
native doctors in diarrhoea. It is also an ingredient in
curries. There is a wild sort which grows in Mysore;
the natives consider turmeric in powder an excellent
application for cleaning foul ulcers. The root in its
fresh state has rather an unpleasant smell, which goes
off when it becomes dried; the colour is that of saffron
and the taste bitter. Mixed with juice of the Nelli-kai
{Emblica officin alls), it is given in diabetes and jaun¬
dice. The juice of the fresh root is anthelmintic, and
the burnt root mixed with Margosa oil applied to sore¬
ness in the nasal organs. The root is applied by the
Hindoos to recent wounds, bruises, leech-bites, etc.
* * * * It is raised in April and May. The cuttings
or sets, viz., small portions of the fresh root are planted
on the tops of ridges prepared for the purpose, about
18 inches or two feet apart. One acre thus sown will
yield about 2,000 lbs., weight of the fresh roots.”1
The name “Burri-Burri” is unknown in Malabar
at present. Turmeric powder forms an ingredient in
all curries in Malabar. “Curry’’ is a general term
denoting the various vegetable and meat preparations
usually taken along with rice and does not mean any
particular one. There is no dish made of turmeric
alone for that would be altogether nauseous to the
taste.
1. P. 177—178.
4I0 LETTERS FROM MALABAR fL. 26.

6. Cardamom.—Col. Drury has the following note

on the uses, etc., of this article in his Useful Plants of
India:
“Produces the Cardamoms of commerce. They are
either cultivated or gathered wild. In the Travancore
forests they are found at elevations of three to five
thousand feet. The mode of obtaining them is to clear
the forests of trees, when the plants spontaneously grow
up in the cleared ground. A similar mode has been
mentioned by Roxburgh, who states that in Wynad
before the commencement of the rains in June, the cul¬
tivators seek the shadiest and woodiest sides of the
loftier hills: the trees are felled and the ground cleared
of weeds, and in about 3 months the Cardamom plant
springs up. In four years the shrub will have attained
its full height, when the fruit is produced and gathered
in the month of November, requiring no other prepara¬
tion than drying in the sun. The plant continues to
yield fruit till the seventh year when the stem is cut
down, new plants arising from the stumps. 1 They
may also be raised from seeds. Cardamoms are much
esteemed as a comdiment, and great quantities are
annually shipped to Europe from Malabar and Travan¬
core. In commerce there are three varieties known as
the shorty short-longs and the long-longs. Of these the
short are more coarsely ribbed and of a brown colour
and are called the Malabar cardamoms or Wynad
Cardamoms. They are reckoned the best of the three.
The long-longs are more finely ribbed and of a paler
colour. Seeds are white, and shrivelled. The short-
longs merely differ from the latter in being shorter or
less pointed. It is usual to mix the several kinds to¬
gether when ready for exportation. Some care is
required in the process of drying the seeds as rain
causes the seed vessels to split and otherwise injures
them, and if kept too long in the sun their flavour
1. For a good description of plantations of Cardamom in
Coorgf see Coorg Memoir shy Rev. H. Moegling p. 75.
N. 6.] CARDAMOM 4ii

becomes deteriorated. As cordial and stimulant they

are frequently used medicinally, but more frequently as
correctives in conjunction with other medicines. A
volatile oil is procured from the seeds by distillation
which has a strong aromatic taste soluble in alcohol.
It loses its odour and taste by being kept too long.
The natives chew the fruits with betel and use it in
decoction for bowel complaints and to check vomiting.
In infusion they are given in coughs. Malabar Carda¬
moms are worth in the London market from 2 to 3
shillings per lb. In Travancore they are chiefly pro¬
cured from the high lands overlooking the Dindigal,
Madura and Tinnevelly districts. In these mountains
the cultivators make separate gardens for them as they
thrive better, if a little care and attention be bestowed
upon them. Cardamoms are a monopoly in the Tra¬
vancore State, and cultivators come chiefly from the
Company’s country obtaining about 200 or 210 Rupees
for every candy delivered ever to the Government”. 1
The Cardamom monopoly has been recently abolished
in Travancore and the lands have been assessed with
revenue. The yield of Cardamoms in Travancore has
of late been steadily going down.
The description of this plant given by Forbes
may be quoted here, as the information he supplies
suppliments that which our author gives us.
“The Cardamons (amomum repens> Lin) which
grows in this part of Malabaj^ is a spice much esteem¬
ed by the Asiatics; they chew it separately or with
betel: it is a principal ingredient in their cookery, and
used medicinally as a stomachic. The plant in
appearance resembles the ginger, it attains the height
of 2 or 3 feet, and sometimes more, before it bears
fruit; the blossoms are small, white, and variegated
with purple; some have a brownish appearance; they are
succeeded by small pods, containing the seeds, which
become of a light brown when the seed ripens, grows
1. P. 205—206.
4IJ LETTERS FROM MALABAR |> 26.

black, and acquires the aromatic flavour for which it is

estimable. This valuable species is indegenous to
many parts of Malabar but flourishes most on the
acclivity of moist cool hills, among low trees, bushes,
and little springs of water. Altho’ the Cardamom de¬
lights in such a situation, it will grow in other places,
and is sometimes planted in gardens and orchards of
plantain trees; the roots are taken up and divided. The
Cardamom hills are generally private property when
the plants are discovered, they are preserved with great
care, by cutting down the bushes, and attending to the
shoots for 3 years at which time they begin to bear!
they usually attain their full growth, and produce their
best crop in the 4th year, after which they generally
decay. The plants spring up in the rainy season, those
under cultivation are not permitted to grow too close
to each other; when it so happens, the roots are divided
and planted at a greater distance. The seed begins to
ripen about the middle of September, and continues
more or less for the space of 2 months. The capsules,
or seed-pods, sometimes grow on a high stalk, often in
short clusters near the root; such as are ripe are daily
gathered, and carefully dried for sale; otherwise the
birds and squirrels would carry off a large share. It is
supposed that these animals scatter the seed in the
unfrequented spots, where the Cardamom is unexpect¬
edly found; diligent search is always made for the
springing plant at the commencement of the rainy
season. I was informed that in some places they burn
the bushes, which are always cut down at the time,
as the ashes produce an excellent manure without
injuring the growing plant”.
7. The Areca. It is the seed of the palm Areca
Catechu L. commonly though some-what improperly
called betel-nut. The word is derived from the Mala-
yalam term Atakka and comes to the English through
the Portuguese. Garcia D’Orta points out that “in
Malabar they call it pac and the Nairs (who are
gentlemen) call it ataca". This is a correct statement,
 N- ?•] the areca
r • 4*3
for while the higher orders call the nut Alakka, it is
known as Pak to the others. In the south it is generally
known by the latter term which is Tamil while Atakka
is Malayalam. It is noticed by all the mediaeval tra¬
vellers as being exported from Malabar in large
quantity. Grose gives the following description of it.
“The areca-nut is exactly in form and bigness like a
a nut-meg, only harder, marbled in the inside with
white and reddish streaks, insipid to the taste, and
must be shredded with a kind of scissors, they are
never without for that purpose, so as to wrap it up
with the leaf. They use it both raw and boiled, which
last they say preserves and adds strength to it. But
I would not advise any one to taste it green, since it
affects the animal spirits so powerfully, that instan¬
taneously as it were, those who are not used to it, fall
down as in! a trance; it is true they recover prese’ntlv
and without ill consequences’’1 . Y’
Col. Drury’s account of it is full and interesting.
“In appearance, the Areca Palm is perhaps the most
graceful and elegant among Indian palms. Its native
place is . unknown, but it is extensively distributed in
India. It yields the betel-nut of commerce. These
nuts when young, are in conjunction with other
things prescribed in decoction, for costiveness and
dyspepsia. They are much relished by the natives
being chewed with the leaf of the betel pepper (Chavi-
ca BeteP), spread with chunam. They sadly discolour
the teeth, but they imagine that they fasten them, and
clean the gums. A strong decoction of the nut is used
in dying. ^ A tree will produce annually on an average
three hundred nuts. By Hukeems they are considered
to have astringent and tonic properties. Roasted and
pounded they make an excellent charcoal powder for
the teeth. The catechu which they yield is of a very
inferior quality. There are two preparations of it
which are respectively called by the Tamools, Cutta-
camboo and Cashcuttie; in Teloogoo, Kansee, and in
Vol.i, p. 237,
 I4 LETTERS FROM MALABAR tL* 26.

Dukhanie, Bharab-cutta and Acha-cutta. The first

(Cuttacamboo) is chewed with the betel-leaf. The other
is the astringent medicinally used in fluxes and ulcers.
Like most of the palm tribe, the trunk is much used for
ordinary building purposes, and in Travancore is especi¬
ally used for spear-handles, etc. The spathe which stret¬
ches over the blossoms, which is called Paak-muttay, is a
fibrous substance with which the Hindoos make vessels
for holding arrack, water, etc., also caps, dishes and
small umbrellas. It is so fine that it can be written
on with ink. A decoction of the root is applied to sore
lips. The juice of the tender leaves mixed with oil is ap¬
plied externally in lumbago. The Areca Palm is found
chiefly in Malabar, North Bengal, the lower slopes
of the mountains of Nepaul, and the South-west
coast of Ceylon. It will produce fruit at five years, and
continue to bear for twenty-five years. Unlike the
Cocoa Palm, it will thrive at high regions, and at a
distance from the sea. In the Eastern Islands, the
produce of the tree varies from 200 to 1,000 nuts an¬
nually. They form a considerable article of commerce
with the Eastern Islands and China, and are also one
of the staple products of Travancore, The nuts are
gathered in July and August, though not fully ripe till
October. In the latter country, the nuts are variously
prepared for use. Those that are used by families of
rank, are collected while the fruit is tender; the husks
or the outer pod is removed; the kernel, a round fleshy
mass, is boiled in water; in the first boiling of the nut,
when properly done, the water becomes red, thick and
starch-like, and this is afterwards evaporated into a
a substance like catechu; the boiled nuts being now
removed, sliced and dried, the catechu like substance
is rubbed to the same, and dried again in the sun, when
they become of a shining black, ready for use. Whole
nuts without being sliced are also prepared in the
same form for use amongst the higher classes, while
ripe nuts, as well as young nuts in a raw state, are
used by all classes of people generally, and ripe nuts
N- 7-] THE ARECA 4i5
preserved in water with the pod are also used. When
exported to other districts the nuts are sliced and
coloured with red catechu, as also the nut while in the
pod. The average amount of exports of the prepared
nuts from Travancore is from 2 to 3,000 candies, an¬
nually, exclusive of the nuts in their ordinary state,
great quantities of vhich are shipped to Bombay and
other ports. According to the last survey, there were
upwards of a million trees in Travancore.”1
“On the mountains of Travancore and Malabar, a
wild species, the A Dicksonii, is found in great abund¬
ance. Of this, the poorer classes eat the nuts as a
substitute for the common betel-nut, but no other part
of the tree appears to be employed for any useful pur¬
pose.”2
We have seen that the areca-nut is chewed with
the betel leaf. In fact the one is an invariable con¬
comitant of the other in chewing.
The areca tree is known also by the name Kazhun-
ga% Major Walker gives the following Table showing
the “Names of the Tree under each Period, and its
value in every stage until it becomes a bearing Tree”,
the value shown being what a cultivating tenant is en¬
titled to get on his being ejected by the landlord.
1. P. 46—47.

2. P. 48.
4i6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 26.

The period or stages

of valuation First Second Third

Kachudu, a tree
beginning to bear
a plant something
thicker than the
thickness of a fin¬
Tayi Kayanga, a
the

Maram Vakshu,
plant about
The names and descrip*
tion of the periods

fruit
arm
ger
l

Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs.

If the Kudian returns the 0016 c 0 20 0 0 25

paramba to the jenmkar, he
must be paid at the annexed
rates, which are according
to the custom of the coun¬
try, and also 20 per cent
1
arye on the total amount.

If the jenmkar demands 0 0 25 0 0 25 0 0 25

the paramba back from the
kndian, he must pay for the
trees of all ages at the rate
of the third period, and
also 20 per cent arye

“Should the whole of the plantation, or a consider¬

able part of it, be in the state of the second and third
periods, it is not demandable by the jenmkar, without
allowing the kudian to reap the benefits of it for three
years, or paying him a sum of money as an equivalent.
“The jenmkar is still subject, in case of resumption,
to pay for the trees at the above rates, and for all the
expenses of kuli kanam.
“1. Tayi Kayanga—Tayi, a young plant; Kayan-
ga Kallovoo, a gallows; from the resemblance which
the tree is said to bear to that on which criminals were
formerly executed in Malabar.
“2. Maram vakshu—Maram; a tree; vakshu, set,
a tree has assumed a fixed appearance.
“3. Kachadu or Kachudu, yielding, bearing. A
full-bearing tree is also called Kayanga and areka
maram.” 1
I. P. 21—22.
 N. 8] BETEL 4*7
8. Betel.It is the leaf of the Piper Be tele. The
word is Malayalam Vettila> said to be from Veru+ila,
“ simple or mere leaf,” and comes to the English
through the Portuguese betre and betle. Garcia says
“We call it betre because the first land known by the
Portuguese was Malabar, and it comes to my remem¬
brance that in Portugal they used to speak of their
coming not to India, but to Calicut * * * * in so much
that all the names that occur which are not Portuguese
are Malabar, like betre”' The translation of Casteheda
by Litchfield has be tele2 and also viteie3 the exact Mala-
yalam term. Barbosa calls it the ‘Indian leaf’. In
Vasco da Gama’s Roleiro4 the word used for
betel is atombor, i. e., al tambul, Arabic from the
Sanskrit tambula. The term more generally used in
northern India and by the Anglo-Indians is Pan. The
nut is known as Sooparu
The practice of chewing betel is universal through¬
out India and has been noticed by mediaeval travellers
and writers.
Speaking of Cael, Marco Polo says, “All the peo¬
ple of this city as well as of the rest of India, have a
custom of perpetually keeping in the mouth a
certain leaf called Tumbul, to gratify a certain habit
and desire they have, continually chewing it and
spitting out the saliva that it excites. The lords
and gentlefolks and the King have these leaves
prepared with camphor and other aromatic spices4
and also mixed with quicklime. And this practice
was said to be very good for the health”$ . Upon
this Yule has the following note; “Marseden sup¬
poses the mention of camphor among the ingredients
with which the pan is prepared to be a mistake, and
suggests as a possible origin of the error that Kapur
in the Malay language means not only camphor but
1. f. 37 g-
2. f. 35*
3- f» 44-
4. P- 59-
s. Vol. II, p. 37
4,8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L* 261

quicklime. This is curious, but in addition to the fact

that the lime is mentioned in the text, there seems
ample evidence that his doubt about camphor is un-
founded”.
“Garcia de Orta says distinctly: ‘In chewing betlt
* * they mix areca with it and a little lime *
some add Licio (i.e., catechu), but the rich and grandees
add some Borneo camphor, and some also lignaloes,
musk and ambergris”. (31 v. and 32% Abdur Razzak
also says: ‘The manner of eating it is as follows: they
bruise a portion of faufel (areca), otherwise called
Sipari, and put it in the mouth. Moistening a leaf of
the betel, together with a grain of lime, they rub the
one upon the other, roll them together, and then place
them in the mouth. They thus take as many as four
leaves of betel at a time and chew them. Sometimes
they add camphor to it'.' And Abdul Fazul: ‘They
also put some betel-nut and Kath (catechu) on one
leaf, and some lime paste on another, and roll them up;
this is called a berah. Some put camphor and musk
into H\ and tie both leaves with a silk thread , etc.
Finally one of the Chinese notices of Kamboja translat¬
ed by Abel Remusat says: ‘When a guest comes it is
usual to present him with areca* camphor and other
aromatics” ^
Marco Polo’s city of Cael has been identified by
Dr. Caldwell with Kayel and Barbosa tells us that it
belonged to the King of Colam (Quilon, Travancore).
He tells us that “the King of Colam lives always near
this city” (Kayel). It is therefore evident that Marco
Polo is referring to the Malabar practice of the chewing
of betel. Even to-day camphor is occasionally added to
the other ingredients in chewing betel.
We read in Purchas, “Betel is a leaf somewhat like
a Bay-leaf and hath no other fruit: neither is any fruit

1. P* 32.
2. See Blochman’s translation p. 73*
3. Nouv, Met. 184.
N 8.] BETEL 419

more in use than these leaves: at bed and board, and in

the streets they pass, they chew these leaves; and in
their gossippings or visiting of their friends, they are
presently presented with them; and eat them with areca*
which is a kind of Indian nut. It saveth their teeth
from disease, but colour them as if they were painted
with black blood. When they chew it, they spit out
the juice, and it is almost the only exercise of some,
which think they could not live, if they should abstain
one day from it” 1 . Padre di Vincenzo Maria also
observes: “They pass the greater part of the day in
indolence, occupied only with talk, and chewing betel
and areca, by which means their lips and teeth are
always stained” 2 . We may make one more quotation
and that from Della Vella: “These leaves”, says he
“the Indians use to champor chaw all day long, either
for health’s sake, or for entertainment and delight (as
some other nations for the same reasons, or rather
through evil custom continually take tobacco) and there¬
with they mix a little ashes of sea-shells, and some
small pieces of an Indian nut sufficiently common,
which here they call faufel, and in other places Areca,
a very dry fruit, seeming within like perfect wood; and
being of an astringent nature, they hold it good to
strengthen the teeth: which mixture besides it comfort¬
ing the stomach, hath also a certain biting taste where¬
with they are delighted; and as they chaw it, it strange¬
ly dyes their lips and mouth red which also they account
gallant: but I do not, because it appears not to be natural.
They swallow down only the juice after long mastica¬
tion and spit out the rest. In visits ’tis this first thing
offered to the visitants; nor is there any society or pas¬
time without it.” 3 . Even foreigners did not fail to
observe the custom, and Captain Alexander Hamilton
informs us that “(I) presented the Officer, that waited
on me to the seaside (at Calicut) with five Zequeens for
a feast of betel to him and his companions”—evidently
1. Pp. 645—6.
2« P» 233»
3. Pp, 19—2 u.
4#0 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L* 26.

the Captain had no betel or areca with him, on board to

offer and so he gave his attendants their value.
Betel and areca take a prominent place in all cere¬
monial occasions. At every religious and social func¬
tion they are in evidence. Every present to a Brahman
on religious occasions must be accompanied with them.
There is a special donation known as Tamboola Danam
when bundles of betel leaves with areca are given to a
Brahman along with some money. At every social
function when guests arrive, they are served with these
along with chunam and spices for chewing. At mar¬
riages, etc., guests are given these to be taken home.
In some places the presenting of guests at ceremonial
visits with sliced areca mixed with chunam and carda¬
moms, folded up in betel leaves and secured by a clove
is a sign that it is time for the visitor to take leave.
At Vasco da Gama’s first visit to the Zamorin,
Da Gama found the King attended by a page who served
His Majesty with betel- “Near him (the king) stood
a basin on a high stool all of gold, out cf which one of
his attendants served him with vetel which he chewed
with salt and areca, an apple no bigger than a hazel
nut. There was another gold vessel for the king to
spit into and spurt the composition. Likewise a gold
fountain with water, to wash his mouth after it” 1 .
People invariably have with them a receptacle for
holding the chewing materials. Small boxes elegantly
made of gold, silver, brass or wood are always carried
about when going out and Forbes tells us that in his
day Malayali ladies in the south when dressed in gala
attire for ceremonial occasions carried a silver box,
suspended by “a chain on one side containing the areca
or betel-nut, with its appendages of chunam, spice and
betel leaf” as “a principal ornament”.
In Malabar, the Nayars add tobacco also to betel
leaf and other chewing materials, a practice not in
vogue on the other coast. The betel has other uses
than for chewing. It has medicinal properties also.
1. Astley p, 32.
N 8.] BETEL 421

Col. Drury informs us that “the freshly expressed

juice is also employed as a fibrifuge medicine and as an
antispasmodic, especially against obstinate dry coughs
* * * . It is a powerful stimulant to the salivary
glands, and digestive organs, and diminishes the pers¬
piration of the skin” 1 .
In former days the betel-leaf was in South India
the subject of a monopoly of the East India Company,
It was so in the days of the Portuguese also. In 1585
there is a King’s letter extent granting the revenue
from betel (betre) to the Bishop and Clergy of Goa 2 .
Seeing that both the betel and areca are cultivated
to a large extent in Malabar and that the people set
great store by them, it will not be out of place to
append the following tables taken from Major Walker’s
Report in addition to the one already quoted.
The periods or stages
of valuation First Second Third Fourth
Rody vined complete
vine when it is first
R00Loo l alloo, the

several arms spread

Rody, vines with
Kody, vines with
Ranny Kadotha
RooJy Kody, or

buds shooting

Ranny Patti a
put in the hole

with leaves

The names and

out

out

description of the
periods

Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs. Rs. Qs. Rs,

If the kudian returns At this stage
the paramba to the the vine is
jenmkary he is paid valued at
for the vines at the the bazaar
annexed rate, and price, and
receives 20 per cent 0 0 25 010 the kudian
1/!
O
O

arye paid ac-

cordingly

If the jenmkar de- Its produce *

mands the paramba is judged
from the kudian, by the
he must pay him year, by
double for the first calculating
period, and one the aver-
year’s produce for age pro*
the second, third* duce of
and fourth, and that period
likewise 20 per cent
arye on the total
amount

1. P. 131*
2. In Arch Fort Cr, tasc' p
42 2 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 26.

“i* Kooly kody—Kooly, a hole or pit; kody or

vallu, vine* The state of the vine when it is first
planted.
“2. Kany kadotha kody—Kznny, shooting, ger^
minating; kadotha, near.
“3. Kanny pattiadoo—Pattiadoo, fastners,
creepers; when the roots of the vine begin to fix them¬
selves on the tree on which it is supported.
“4. Kody> a vine, i. e., complete.
“The vine attains the last period according to the
quality of the soil. In a year and a half, or two years
the leaves are fit for plucking. It is propagated from
cuttings, and planted round the roots of trees, which
it penetrates with its roots, and ascends to the height
of ten or fifteen feet. It must be watered once every
other day, and demands considerable attention to its
cultivation”.1

1 Pp. 23—24.
 LETTER XXVII.

i. Cocoa palm. A palm found in all tropical

countries, and the only one according to Yule and
Burnell common to the Old and the New V. orlds.
The etymology of its name they say is very uncertain.
‘‘Ritter supposes, from a passage in Pigafetta’s Voyages
of Magellan, that the name may have been indegenous
in the Landrone Islands, to which that passage refers,
and that it was first introduced to Europe by Magellan s
crew. This is however a mistake, as we find the term
used earlier not only in Barbosa but also in the Roteiro
of Vasco da Gama. * * * The more common ety¬
mology is that which is given by Barros, Garcia de
Orta, Linschoten, etc., as from a Spanish word applied
to a monkey’s or other grotesque face. But after all
may the term not have originated in the old Spanish
Coca ‘a shell’ (presumably Latin Concha) which we
have also in French Coque ? properly an egg-shell,
but used also for the shell of any nut.
In Sanskrit it is called Nalikera and sometimes
Narikela whence the Persian Nargil. Mediaeval writers
such as Marco Polo, Fra Jordanus and others call the
fruit the Indian Nut, the name by which it was known
to the Arabs. 1
Yule and Burnell observe that “there is no evidence
of its being known to classical writers nor are we aware
of any Greek or Latin mention of it before Cosmas.”
If the tree had existed in Malabar at the time of the
Periplusy it is difficult to believe that its noteworthy
products would have escaped the notice of the shrewed
early Greek merchants. However in Photio’s abridg¬
ment of the Indika of Ktesias (about B. C. 400) refer¬
ence is made to “palm trees” and “their dates” which
were said to be “thrice the size of those in Babylon,”
1, at Jauz-aUHindi, Ilobson Jobsou p. 175*
424 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

and in another abridgment of the same author by a

different editor the palm fruits are referred to as “the
largest of nuts,” It is conjectured that these refer to
the cocoanut tree and its fruit. The earliest definite
notice we have of the tree is by Cos mas in the sixth
century A. D. in his Topographia Christiana. He
calls it Argellia evidently an erroneous transliteration
of the Sanskrit Nalikeram or Narikelam. We may
safely conclude that the tree was introduced into Mala¬
bar between the dates of the Periplus and Cosmas, the
1st and 6th centuries A. D» In Malayalam the fruit is
called Tkengga or Thenkai and the tree Tengu, mean¬
ing, as already pointed out, ‘the southern fruit and the
southern tree’. In speaking of the Huvas we have
noticed the theory that it was they who brought the
tree into Malabar from Ceylon. Varthema, Barbosa,
Barros, and Garcia use the Malayalam term Tenga>

It is no exaggeration to say that the cocoanut tree

and its produce form the wealth of Malabar; it has been
so for ages. Besides our author, many others have
discanted upon its various uses and we may content
ourselves here by referring to three of them. Varthema
says that “these trees are found over 200 miles of
country and all have owners. As to the goodness of
this tree, when the Kings are at enmity with one
another, and kill each other’s children, they neverthe¬
less sometimes make peace. But if one King cut down
any of these trees belonging to another King, peace
will never be granted to all eternity.” 1

The Portuguese however introduced the practice

of cutting down all cocoanut trees and destroying
plantations when they had occasion to take revenge on
the Malabar chiefs. Thus, on attacking Poracaud in
the absence of the Raja, they had all the cocoanut
trees on the vicinity destroyed. So also at the attack
of Bardala.
1. Pp. 166—7.
N. i.] COCOA PALM 425

Purchas speaks of the tree thus:*— “But of greater

admiration is the Coquo tree (of this besides Lins,
choten, see Garcias ab Horto with Clusius’ notes.
Exst, li 7-c. 2-6.) being the most profitable tree, in the
world, of which in the Islands of Malduiva they make
and furnish whole ships so that (save the men them¬
selves) there is nothing of the ship, or in the ship,
neither tackling, merchandize, or ought else but what
this tree yieldeth. The tree groweth high and slender,
the wood is of a spongy substance, easy to be sawed,
when they make vessels thereof, with cords made of
cocus. For this nut (which is as big as an Estridge
(Ostrich?) egg-hath two sorts of husks as our walnuts,
whereof the uppermost is hairy (like hemp) of which
they make Occam (okum!) and cordage, of the other
shell they make drinking cups. The fruit, when it is
almost ripe, is full of water within; fahich by degrees
changeth into a white harder substance, as it ripeneth.
The liquor is very sweet, but with the ripening groweth
sour. The liquor extracted out of the tree is medicin-
able; and if it stand one hour in the sun, it is very good
vinegar, which being distilled, yieldeth excellent Aquam
vitae, and wine. Of it also they make by setting it in
the sun, sugar. Of the meat of the nut dried, they
make oil. Of the pith or heart of the tree, is made
paper for books and evidences. Of the leaves, they make
coverings for their houses, mats, tents, etc. Their apa-
rell, their firing, and the rest of the commodities, which
this tree (more plentiful in the Indies, than willows in
the low countries) yieldeth, would be too tedious to
recite. They will keep the tree from bearing fruit, by
cutting away the blossoms, and then will hang, some
vessel thereat, which removeth from thence that liquor,
of which you have heard. It is the Canariju s living,
and they will climb up these trees, which yet have no
boughs but on the top, like apes. This tree hath also
a continual succession of fruits, and is never without
some*’1 .
1. Book s, Chap. 13*
426 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

Grose in the 18th century says:—“As to the cocoa-

nut tree itself, not all the minute descriptions of it,
which I have met with in many authors, seem to me to
come up to the reality of its wonderful properties and
use. Nothing is so unpromising as the aspect of this
tree; nor more yields a produce more profitable, or
more variously beneficial to mankind: it has some
resemblance to the palm tree; perhaps one of its species;
the leaves of it serve for thatching, the husk of the
fruit for making cordage, and even the largest cables
for ships. The kernel of it is dried, and yields an oil
much wanted for several uses, and makes a consider¬
able branch of traffic under the name of Copra. Arrack,
a coarse sort of sugar called jagree, and vinegar are
also extracted from it, besides many other particulars
too tedious to enumerate. The cultivation of it is ex¬
tremely easy, by means of channels conveying water to
the roots, and by a manure laid round them, of which
I have spoke already. An owner then of 200 of these
trees is reckoned to have a competency to subsist on”.
The following account extracted from Drury’s
Useful Plants of India will be found interesting.
“The principal distribution of the Cocoa palm lies
within the intertropical regions of the Old and New
Worlds, requiring a mean temperature of 72 degrees.
It is cultivated in great abundance in the Malabar and
Coromandel Coasts, Ceylon, the Laccadives, and,
everywhere in the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago.
It thrives best in low sandy situations, within the
influence of the sea breeze, and although it grows far
inland on the continent, yet whenever found in places
distant from the sea, the vigour of the palm is less
than if cultivated in those maritime situations, which
nature has evidently determined should be its best and
proper locality. Few if any products of the Vegetable
Kingdom, are so valuable to man in those countries
where it is indigenous as the cocoanut palm, for there
is scarcely a part of the plant which cannot be applied
more or less to some use by the inhabitants of tropical
N. i.] COCOA PALM 4*7

climates. Of these uses, the chief are the oil from the
nuts, the nuts themselves, the fibres, the leaves, the
stem, the toddy, etc*; but before detailing these
separately, it may be as well as give a short account of
the palm itself, its history, cultivation, etc. Many
botanists have enumerated the manifold uses of the
Cocoa palm, and among them especially Koempfer and
Loureiro have collected much valuable information.
One of the earliest accounts is that by Marco Polo
whose description of the ‘Indian nuts,* as he terms
them, is remarkably accurate. When speaking of an
Island in the Indian Archipelago, he says, ‘the Indian
nuts also grow here, of the size of a man’s head, con¬
taining an edible substance that is sweet and pleasant
to the taste, and white as milk. The cavity of this
pulp is filled with a liquor clear as water, cool, and
better flavoured and more delicate than wine or any
other kind of drink whatever,’ Sir John Mandeville
also mentions the ‘great nut of India,* and another
ancient writer has said in a paper read before the
Royal Society in 1688: ‘The Cocoanut palm is alone
sufficient to build, rig, and freight a ship with bread,
wine, water, oil, vinegar, sugar and other commo¬
dities. I have sailed (he adds) in vessels where the
bottom and the whole cargo, hath been from the muni¬
ficence of this palm tree.’ Though there are several
varieties enumerated by Rumphius, yet they have all
been resolved into three species, of which one only is
indigenous in the East, the other two being natives
of Brazil. Fortunately so prolific a plant requires
little care in its cultivation, and being essentially
maritime thrives best in those situations where other
trees would perish or decay. In Ceylon, where
greater care than elsewhere is bestowed upon its culti¬
vation, it is considered best that they should not be
planted too close together. The soil should first be
carefully cleared from weeds. The nut should not be
carelessly placed in the earth, but in a position favour¬
able for germination, attention to which is somewhat
 428 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. *7.
important to the future perfection of the tree. The
nut should be quite ripe before being deposited in the
ground, and the hole may be dug with the slightest
labour, it being sufficient to cover only two-thirds of
the nut. In three or four months, the nut begins to
germinate. The usual time for planting on the
Western Coast is before the rains, and unless the nut
is transplanted no further watering is required in the
hot season, the internal moisture of the nut being
sufficient for the nourishment of the young plant for
nearly a year. After that time, the palm requires
watering twice a day until the fourth or fifth year, the
roots being carefully heaped with earth to avoid too
much exposure to the air. Beyond this no further care
is requisite. From the fifth to the eighth year, it begins
to bear according to the situation and soil and continues
bearing from 70 to 80 years. The tree is in its highest
vigour from 25 to 30 years of age and will attain
the age of 100 years. In the third year of its growth,
the fronds begin to fall, one new frond appearing at
the end of every month. These fronds fall more fre¬
quently in hot than in rainy weather. Of these there
are about 28 more or less in a full-grown tree. On a
single tree there are about 12 branches or spadices of
nuts, one bearing the dry nuts called Barutta or Cotta-
tenga in Malayalam, another spadix the ripe ones
called Maninga-tenga. Most of the young fruits fall off,
only a few coming to perfection, but as from 10 to 15
nuts on an average are produced on one branch, a
single tree may produce from 80 to 100 nuts every year.
Of trees requiring so little attention, it may easily be
imagined how much value is attached to their posses¬
sion. In Travancore and on the Malabar Coast, the
natives draw their chief subsistence from the produce
of this useful palm. The price of a full-grown tree
varies from half a Rupee to 3 Rupees according to
circumstances.* A yearly tax to the Sirkar is averaged
at a few annas, so that the profit derived from a large
*At present the price ha* run up to Rs. 25 on an average.
N. i.] COCOA PALM 429
plantation is very considerable. It will now be neces¬
sary to enumerate the various uses to which the several
parts of the tree may be applied and first among them
may be mentioned
“The Oil. This is procured by first extracting
the kernel from its outer integument or shell and boil¬
ing it in water. It is then pounded and subjected to
strong pressure. This being boiled over a slow fire the
oil floats on the surface. This is skimmed off as it
rises and again boiled by itself. Fourteen or fifteen nuts
will yield about two quarts of oil. A somewhat differ¬
ent practice obtains on the Malabar Coast. The ker¬
nel is divided into half pieces which are laid on shelves
and underneath is placed a charcoal fire in order to
dry them. After two or three days, they are placed on
mats and kept in the sun to dry, after which they are
put in a press. When the oil is well extracted by this
method, a hundred nuts will yield about two gallons
and a half of oil. This is the method usually resorted
to, when the oil is required for exportation, the former,
when merely used for culinary purposes. Of late years
the application of steam, especially to a press, for the
purpose of procuring the oil has been attended with the
greatest advantages. Cocoanut oiJ in India is used
chiefly for culinary purposes, burning in lamps, etc.,
and in Europe for the manufacture of soap and candles.
It has recently been used as a substitute for fish-liver-
oil, and is said to be equally efficacious in cases where
the latter has been employed. It is curious that when
Cocoanut oil is first manufactured, there is no unplea¬
sant smell for the first 30 or 40 hours, but after that it
acquires that rancid taste and smell which render it so
unpalatable in cookery. The oil becomes solid at
about 70° • It is said that its consumption in Europe
is likely to decrease, owing partly to the new means of
purifying tallow, whereby candles equally good as those
made from Cocoanut oil are produced. Great quantities
of oil are shipped annually from Ceylon and the
430 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
Western Coast, and in extraordinary seasons have
realized in England £70 a ton or upwards; the average
price is from £ 35 to £ 40 a ton. That which is ship¬
ped from Cochin bears generally a higher price than
that from Ceylon.
“The average produce of Cocoanuts , says Royle,
“in the whole of Malabar is estimated at from 300 to 400
millions annually, which are valued at half a million of
Rupees; but in addition to this from 20,000 to 25,000
candies of Copra, or the dried kernels, are expoited,
valued at 4,00,000 Rupees. The imports into England
were upwards of 85*000 cwt. in 1848, and in 1853 had
increased to 164,000 cwt., the proportion from India
alone being about 85*000 cwt. In the Report of the
articles sent to the Madras Exhibition from Travan-
core it is said, “According to the last Survey
in 1837, there were 55»57>401 Cocoanut trees in
Travancore which would yield an estimated yearly
produce of 14, 20, 70 and 130 Cocoanuts, and since
that period the cultivation has been greatly increased.
The annual quantity of Cocoanut oil exported from
Travancore on an average of the last 5 years amounts
to 1,063 candies, besides 20,000 candies of Copra and
the large number of 4*900*000 Cocoanuts. Theestimited
number of 6,00,00,000 Cocoanuts and 14*4^7 candies of
oil being annually consumed in the country’. The Copra
which is the dried kernels as also the Poonac is occasion¬
ally sent to Europe by itself from Ceylon and Cocnin.
The Poonac is the refuse of the kernel after the oil has
expressed. It is very fattening to fowls and cattle, and
been forms the best manure to young Cocoanut trees,
as it returns to the soil, many of the component parts
which the tree has previously extracted for the form¬
ation of the fruits. For this reason, it has been found
worthwhile to transmit the Poonac to those localities,
where the Cocoanut tree grows far inland away from
the saline soil of the Coast. The Cocoa palm abstracts
from the soil chiefly silex and soda, and where these
two salts are not in abundance the trees do not thrive.
N. 1.] COCOA PALM 43i

Common salt applied to the roots will be found very

beneficial as a manure to the young trees when culti¬
vated at any distance from the sea.
“Coir is the fibrous rind of the nuts, with which
the latter are thickly covered. There are several ways
of stripping the fibres from the husk. One is by plac¬
ing a stake or iron spike in the ground and by striking
the nut on the point, the fibres are easily separated.
The husks are first separated from the nuts, and then
placed in salt or brackish water for about 12 or 18
months, they are then scraped and cleaned for use.
There exists however no necessity for steeping the
husk so long in water, it having been found that a
shorter time is sufficient for the purpose. In the Jury
Report of the Madras Exhibition, we find, “Ithas late¬
ly been proved that the fibre from the husk of the ripe
fruit is greatly improved in quality and appearance, by
beating, washing, and soaking and that the old method
of steeping in salt water for 18 months or 2 years is
quite unnecessary, and that it produces a harsher and
dirtier coir. The tannin which this substance contains
prevents the fibre from rotting, but most of the coir of
commerce is a dirty harsh produce very different from
many of the clean and dyed samples exhibited, which
are suited to a superior class of manufactures, as fine
mats and furniture brushes”. (Reports of the Ju-
ties, Madras Exhibition 1855, p.57.) Coir is applied to
many uses, for stuffing couches and pillows, for cord¬
age, saddles, etc. Large quantities are annually shipped
to Europe where it is manufactured into brushes, mats,
and carpets; and even hats and bonnets, the latter
attracted much attention at the great Exhibition in
London. The fibre is rather difficult to twist, still it
is made into rope s for ordinary purposes in shipping.
The character of Coir, says Royle, has long been es¬
tablished in the East, and is now well known in Europe
as one of the best materials for cables on account of its
strength, lightness and elasticity. These cables are
further valuable being durable, particularly when
432 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [Im 27.

wetted with salt-water. Numerous instances have been

related of ships furnished with cables of this light,
buoyant, and elastic material, riding out a storm in
security, while stronger made, though less elastic,
ropes of other vessels have snapped in two, and
even when chain cables have given way. Indeed
until chain cables were so largely introduced all the
ships navigating the Indian seas were furnished with
coir cables. Coir cordage in Dr. Wright’s experi¬
ments broke at 224 lbs. weight* In 1853 the im¬
ports into England from Ceylon and the Malabar
Coast alone amounted to 164,176 cwt., and from
Cochin alone, of coir, yarn, rope, junk and fibres
about 3,000 tons are annually exported.
“The mode of extracting the toddy is the same as
that used in other palms (See Borassus). Spirit dis¬
tilled from the toddy is called arrack. Good vinegar
is also made from it, particularly at Mahe- One
hundred gallons of toddy yield 25 of arrack- To pro¬
cure the sugar of jaggery, the fresh toddy is boiled
down over a slow fire, when the syrup is further eva¬
porated to the brown coarse sugar. This jaggery is
mixed with chunam for making a strong cement,
enabling it to resist great heat, and to take a fine
polish. The toddy is called Tenna-kulloo and Narillie
in Dukhanie. If taken before sunrise it is very refresh¬
ing and delicious. The native doctors recommend it
in consumption, and it is said that if regularly taken,
it is good for delicate persons suffering from habitual
constipation.
“The milk of the Cocoanut is said to be a purifier
of the blood, and when old, to be slightly aperient.
The kernels scraped and rubbed up with water may be
used as milk which it much resembles. The Vytians
prepare plaster from the oil for softening the hair. The
water of the nuts is used by the bricklayers in preparing
a fine white-wash, also in making the best and purest
castor-oil, a certain portion of it being mixed with the
N. i.J COCOA PALM 433

water in which the seeds are boiled. The shell when

burnt yields a black paint, which in fine powder and
mixed with chunam, is used for colouring walls of
houses. The soft downy substance found at the bottom
of the fronds is a good styptic for wounds, leech-bites,
etc. It is said in Tamil, Tennamarruttoo punju% and
in Malayalam, Tennampooppa. The web-like substance
which surrounds the Cocoa-palm at those parts where
the branches expand is called Panaday in Tamil>
Konjatty in Malayalam, and it is used by the toddy
drawers to strain the toddy through. In Ceylon it is
manufactured into a coarse kind of cloth for bags,
coverings, etc., and from these bags again a coarse
kind of paper is made. The Cocoanut cabbage is the
terminal bud found at the summit of the tree, but to
procure it the tree must be destroyed. It makes an
excellent pickle and may also be used as a vegetable.
“In addition to the above uses, the leaves are
employed for thatching houses, especially in Malabar,
and the stems for rafters of houses, bridges, beams,
small boats, and where the wood is thick is even used
for picture frames and articles of furniture. It is known
in Europe as the Porcupine wood and has a pretty
mottled appearance. The nuts dried and polished are
made into drinking cups, spoons, baskets, and a
variety of fanciful ornaments. The midribs of the
leaves are used for paddles. In medicine the roots in
decoction mixed with water and dried ginger are given
in fevers, and the juice from the tender branches mixed
with honey is applied as a cooling application to the
eyes. The juice of the flowers mixed with cow’s milk
is said to be beneficial in gonnorrhoea. A peculiar
resin flows from the bark of a brownish colour used in
. medicine. The natives chew the roots as they do the
areca-nut with the betle-leaf. Abundance of potash is
yielded by the ashes of the leaves. Cocoanuts are
occasionally fixed on stakes in the public roads in
India for the purpose of giving light, for which they
434 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

are well adapted fr6m their fibrous covering without

and oily substance within. Marine soap, or Cocoanut
oil soap so useful for washing linen in salt water is
made of soda, Cocoanut, lard and water. So great and
so varied are the uses of the Cocoa palm, fully calcu¬
lated to realize the old saying ‘Be kind to your trees,
and they will be kind to you.’1
In Malabar, land is often leased out on improve¬
ment tenure and when it has been planted with cocoa-
nut trees and the landlord resumes it, he has to
pay the tenant adequate compensation for his labour.
Such compensation vaued according to the yield
of the trees, to the usages of the locality, to
the terms of the covenants in the lease, if any.
To avoid the arbitrary eviction and payment of
landlords on the one hand, and the exhorbitant
demands of the tenants on the other, laws are being
enacted by Governments, and courts are trying to
deal even-handed justice to both parties. But to
give some idea of the custom that prevailed be¬
fore, a few extracts shall here be made from Walker’s
Report—

1,Royle: fibr% Plants. Simmonds. Ainslie Penny Cycl

Rheede. Pers. obs,t etc.% pp. 148-153.
N. i.] COCOA PALM 435
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If the jenmakar demands the param-\

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436 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
“Should the plantation have arrived at the two last
stages (the seventh and eighth), and be on the eve of
producing, the jenmkar, cannot demand the paramba,
from his kudian, without allowing him to reap the
produce of three years, or paying him a sum of money
equivalent thereto. Should he dispossess him, and pay
him in money, he must, besides the value of the plants,
pay 20 per cent on the wye* or expense of kuli
kanam.
“The cocoa-nut plants are set in pits dug for their
reception of one yard in depth, manured with dry dung,
salt, and ashes. Where the soil is favourable to them,
they will sometimes begin to yield when the body of the
tree is little more than a span above the ground. If the
soil or other circumstances should be unfavourable, they
will not bear until they are five or six feet high. The
kudian must plant them at twenty-two feet distance
from each other. The kanamkar is obliged to plant at
intervals of twenty-four feet.
c<i. Kuli tayu Kuli, a pit; tayi, a young plant of
any kind; thus named from its situation in the pit.
“2. Killiola tayi. Killi; ola, a leaf; tayi, plant;
so called from a fancy that the leaves in this state spread
outlike the wings of a bird.
“3. Killi ola modranda tayu Killi, a bird; ola,
cadjan; modranda, higher or longer; tayi, plant. The
same allusion as the foregoing, with an additional epi¬
thet expressive of the further growth of the tree.
“4. Koddam or Kodam perinju Koddam, a pot;
perinji, spread or open, like a pot or cabbage.
“5. Ana addi Tayu Ana, an elephant; addi, a
footstep. It is supposed to have the appearance at this
time of the print of an elephant’s foot.
“6. Maram vakshu. Maram, a tree; vakshu,
fixed; that it has attained the state of a tree.
“7. Kollay Kaduthadu. Kollay, blossom; kadu-
thadu, near or almost.
N. 3.] JACK FRUIT 437

“8. Kollachadu. Kollacha, bunch; due, ripe”1 .

2. Pineapple. This is no native of Malabar. It is
the Aananasof the Portuguese. It is a native of the
hot regions of Mexico and Panama. It has long been
domesticated in the East Indies. The Portuguese ap¬
pear to have introduced it first into Malabar. In the
Malayalam language it is called Poruthichakka or the
‘Portuguese jack fruit*. It is also known as Kytha-
chakka or ‘Pandanus-jack fruit', perhaps from its strong
external resemblance as regards fruit and leaves to the
Pandanus. Linschoten says that pine apples used to
cost a pardao when first introduced into Malabar, but
“now there are so many grown in the country that they
are very good cheape.”2 The delicious flavour of the
fruit is well known. According to Drury, “The plant
succeeds well in the open air as far North as 30°, while
in the southern parts of the Peninsula, it forms hedges
and will grow with little care and in almost any soil.
The flavour of the fruit is greatly heightened by culti¬
vation, being somewhat acrid in its wild state * * *.
The most important use of the pineapple plant consists
in the fine white fibres yielded by the leaves. These
have been formed into the most delicate fabrics, as well
as fishing lines, ropes, etc. Unlike other fibres, they
are not injured by immersion in water—a property
much increased by tanning, which process is constantly
used by the natives”.3
3. Jack fruit. In Malayalam the fruit is called
Chakka^ while the tree which produces it is called
Pilavu. There can be no doubt that the Portuguese
derived their word jaca from the Malayalam Chakka
and the English ‘Jack’ owes its derivation to the
Portuguese word.

x. P. 18—19 of Major Walker’s Report. The price of the

above has considerably increased since Major Walker wrote his
Report.
2. P. 91.

3. P. 30
 438 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
Most of the mediaeval travellers refer to it as
abounding in Malabar and some of them give good
descriptions of it.
The older authorities mention two varieties of the
fruit by the names of Shaki and Barki or modifications
of these, different kinds according to Jordanus; only
from different parts of the tree, according to Ibn
Batuta. Vincenzo Maria also distinguishes two kinds,
one of which he calls Giacka Barca, the other Giacha
Papa or Girasob. John de’ Marignolli calls the tree
Chake—Baruke. The Bloqui of Jordanus stands for
the Barki or Baruki of the others.
Friar Jordanus, says:—“There are some trees
that bear a very big fruit called chaqui\ and the fruit is
of such size that one is enough for about five persons.
There is another tree that has a fruit like that just
named, and it is called Bloqui, quite as big and as
sweet, but not of the same species. These fruits never
grow upon the twigs, for these are not able to bear
their weight, but only from the main branches, and
even from the trunk of the tree itself, down to the very
roots.” 1
Ibn Batuta says:—“The Shaki and Barki. This
name is given to certain trees which live to a great age.
Their leaves are like those of the walnut, and the fruit
grows direct out of the stem of the tree. The fruits borne
nearest to the ground are the Barki\ they are sweeter
and better flavoured than the Shaki" etc. (much to
the same effect as before).2
John de’Marignolli says:—“There is again another
wonderful tree called Chake-Baruke, as big as an oak. Its
fruit is produced from the trunk,and not from the bran¬
ches, and is something marvellous to see, being as big as
a great lamb, or a child of three years old. It had a hard
rind like that of our pine-cones, so that you have to cut
it open with a hatchet; inside it has a pulp of^surpassing
1. Pp* 13—14*
 N- 3-] JACK FRUIT 4J9
flavour, with the sweetness of honey, and of the best
Italian melon; and this also contains some 500 chest-
roasted^” ^ fIaV0Ur’ which are caPital eating when

Nicolo de Conti says, “There is a tree commonly

found, the trunk of which bears a fruit resembling a
pine-cone, but so big that a man can hardly lift it; the
rind is green and hard, but still yields to the pressure
of the finger. Inside there are some 250 or 300 pippins
as big as figs, very sweet in taste, and contained in
separate membranes. These have each a kernel within
of a windy quality, of the consistence and taste of
chestnuts, and which are roasted like chestnuts. And
when cast among embers (to roast), unless you make a
cut in them they will explode and jump out. The outer
rind of the fruit is given to cattle. Sometimes the fruit
is also found growing from the roots of the tree under¬
ground, and these fruits excel the others in flavour,
wherefore they are sent as presents to Kings and petty
Princes. These (moreover) have no Kernels inside
them. The tree itself resembles a large lig-tree, and
the leaves are cut into fingers like the hand. The
wood resembles box, and so it is esteemed for many
uses. The name of the tree is Cachi" (/. Cachi or
Tzacchi).
“The description of the leaves—/,/* da modeem
Palmi' intercuts”—is the only slip in this admirable
description. Conti must, in memory, have confounded
the jack with its congener the bread-fruit (.Artocarpus
incisa or incisifolia). We have translated from
Poggio’s Latin, as the version by Mr. Winter Jones in
India in the XV th Century is far from accurate.” 2
Rheede in his hortus Malabaricus says:—“Of
this tree, however, they reckon more than 30 varieties,
distinguished by the quality of their fruit, but all may
be reduced to two kinds; the fruit of one kind
I. P. 363.
2 Hobson^ Jot son p,- 337-
44© LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
distinguished by plump and succulent pulp of delicious
honey flavour being the varaka\ that of the other, filled
with softer and more flably pulp of inferior flavour,
being the Tsjakapa '.*
The ‘Tsjakapa’ of Rheede is apparently the equi¬
valent of the Malayalam word Chakkapazham, i. e., the
ripe jack fruit, a word used to denote the fruit of both
kinds of trees. It may however be observed that the
fruit of inferior flavour is called Pazha Chakka 'va Mala¬
yalam also as Koozha Chakka, the first of these perhaps
represents Rheede’s ‘Tsjakapa’.
“The timber of this tree so well known as the jack-
wood, is much esteemed for making furniture of all kinds,
for which it is well adapted. At first it is somewhat pale
but afterwards assumes a darker tinge approaching to
mahogany, and, when polished, becomes one of the
best fancy woods for tables, chairs, frames, etc. The
root of the older trees is dark-coloured, and admirably
adapted for picture-frames, and carving-work of all
kinds. Like others of the same family, the tree abounds
in viscid milky juice. The fruit, which grows to an
enormous size, and hangs by a peduncle springing
from the trunk, is a favourite article of food among the
natives. There are several varieties, but what is called
the honey-iack is by far the sweetest and best. The
seeds when roasted are also much prized as a diet
among the poorer classes. The leaves are given to
goats and other cattle, and are said to be very fattening.
In Travancore, the jack-tree is a monopoly, and yields
an annual tax to the Sircar. The juice which exudes
from the trunk, especially if mixed with vinegar, is said
to check the progress of glandular swellings, and the
young leaves are frequently applied externally in
cutaneous affections. A decoction of the roots is given
in diarrhoea. The juice of the root mixed with the
pulp of the fruit and some sugar is made into a plaster
1. iii—19.
N. 3.] JACK FRUIT 44i
and applied to obstinate herpes. The milky juice of
the bark mixed with powdered Sweet Flag root is said
to be a good specific in nyctolopia. The jack-tree if
planted in stony soil grows short and thick, if in sandy
ground, tall and spreading, and if the roots happen to
come in contact with water, the tree will not bear fruit.
Bird-lime is manufactured from the juice. * * *
The situation of the fruit varies with the age of the tree,
being first borne on the branches, then on the trunk,
and in very old trees on the roots. In Travancore, the
mode of propagation is as follows: they put the whole
fruit in the ground, and when the seeds germinate and
grow up they tie the stems together with straw, and by
degrees they form one stem, which will bear fruit in six
or seven years. Mill. Diet* Rees CycL Roxb*
Pers. obs. RheedeP 1
1. Useful Plants of India by Col. Drury, p. 52 ’—53.
442 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 27
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 N* 3 | JACK FRUIT
“In paramba cultivation, six jack trees are allowed
to be planted for every hundred cocoanut trees. Should
a kudian plant beyond this proportion, he is not entitled
to any kuli kanam, unless the jenmkar should admit the
excess into the estimate of cultivation. There is a rule
which the kudian is in every case obliged to observe
in planting trees, which is, to reserve a spot in the
north-east corner of the paramba for the jenmkar’s
house, and where he must also build his own, should
he be allowed to inhabit the paramba. In this case the
jenmkar must pay the expense of the house on resuming
possession of the paramba, but if the kudian has made
any other improvements in that spot, he receives no
kuli kanam.
The extent of the spot reserved in the north east
corner for the purpose in question, may be judged from
the following example:-—If a paramba measures one
hundred and twenty koll (yards) in length and breadth,
the spot to be kept clear for the house should be
twenty yards in breadth, and the same in length.
“i. Pillzva tayi. Pillava, a jack; tayi, a young-
tree. 6
4‘2. Koda kal tayi. Koda, an umbrella; kal, the
stick or handle; that the tree in this stage has the ap¬
pearance of an umbrella, and its stem that of the
handle.
“3* Negam chara tayi. Negarn, the stick used
in yoking bullocks in ploughing; charar, a push; allud¬
ing to an opinion that the tree in this state is able to
resist the pressure of two yoked bullocks.
“4. A gay Kaduthadu. Aga, a bud, a germ*
cadduthadu1 , almost; a tree almost bearing.
“5*# A gay Ittadu. Aga, a bud; ittadu, appeared;
descriptive of the further growth of the tree.
“6. Kadal vakchu. Kadal, strength; vakchu
fixed, set, a tree that has attained its full strength.
“7* Kai kaduthadu. Kai, green or young fruit*
Kaduthadu, almost.
1. To be correct, it must be aduthadu.
444 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
“8. Kachu, yielding; a tree bearing jacks.
“ A jack tree, if properly attended to, will attain its
eighth period in twelve years.
“The jenmkar may resume his paramba when the
jacks are on the eve of producing, on paying their
value and arye” l.
4. Mango. The original of the word is Tamil Man
+ Kay = Man + fruit, the tree being ‘Mamaram\ In
the Malayalam language the fruit is called Manga and
the tree mavu. The English word is derived through
the Portuguese who call it by the Malayalam term
‘Manga5. The mango fruit has also attracted the at¬
tention of the mediaeval travellers who have left descrip¬
tions of it more or less apt. It would however be
better to turn to Drury’s Useful Plants to have a cor¬
rect idea of the tree and its uses.
“The Mango is well known as the most delicious
of Indian fruits. It is esteemed very wholesome and
when unripe is much used in tarts, preserves, pickles,
etc. There are many varieties all more or less having
a peculiar turpentine flavour, though the best kinds are
generally free from it. The kernels of the nut seem¬
ingly contain much nourishment, but are only used in
times of scarcity, and famine, when they are boiled and
eaten by the poorer classes. In the pulp of the fruit,
there is sugar, gum, and citric acid; gallic acid has also
been procured from the seed, and also stearic acid.
Interesting experiments were made sometime ago, by
a French chemist, upon the process of procuring the
gallic acid, which he stated might be used in the pre¬
paration of ink instead of galls. Whenever the fruit is
cut with a knife a blue stain is seen on the blade which
is due to the presence of gallic acid. The timber is
soft of a dull grey colour, porous, soon decaying if ex¬
posed to wet, but useful for common purposes. In
large old trees the wood acquires a light chocolate col¬
our towards the centre of the trunk and larger branches
x. Major Walker’s Land 2enures of Malabar, pp, 20—ai»
N. 5.] CASHEW-NUT 445
and is then hard, close grained and somewhat durable.
The Mango tree is best propagated by grafting, though
it will readily grow from seeds. In the latter case the
seed must be sown soon after it is taken from the fruit,
but the produce is so inferior, that it is hardly worth
the trouble bestowed upon it. The wood burnt with
sandal wood, is one of those used by the Hindus, for
burning corpses, and is reckoned sacred for this pur¬
pose. The natives use the leaves as tooth brushes and
the stalks instead of betel, for chewing—powdered and
calcined, they employ the latter also to take away warts
From wounds in the bark issues a soft reddish brown
gum resin, hardening by age and much resembling
Bdellium. Burnt in the flame of a candle it emits a
smell like that of cashew-nuts when roasting. It softens
in the mouth and adheres to the teeth and in taste is
somewhat pungent and bitter. It dissolves entirely in
spirit and partly so in water. Mixed with lime juice or
oil, it is used externally in scabies and cutaneous affec
tions. The bark of the tree is administered in infusion
in menorrhagia and leucorrhoea, and the resinous juice
mixed with white of egg, and a little opium, is consi¬
dered a good specific on the Malabar coast for diarrhoea,
and dysentery. The tender leaves mixed with the bark
of the castor oil plant and cummin seed are used in de¬
coction for coughs, asthma, and affections of the chest.
An infusion of the young leaves is likewise prescribed
occasionally by native practitioners in bilious affections.
Roxb. Journ. of As. Soc. A ins lie. Rheede Pers. obs., etc' *.
5. Cashew-nut. It is known in Malayalam as
Kasu 4- anti, i. e., the nut of cashew. The latter
term is said to oe the S. American, acajon, of which
an Indian form, Kaju, has been made. It is the
fruit of an American tree which must have been
introduced into Malabar by the Portuguese. The tree
is known in the Malayalam language as Payankhnavu,
i. e., the Ferenghi mango tree, Ferenghi being used
1. P. 294.
446 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

to denote the Portuguese. The so-called fruit which is

known also as Gomanga or the mango of Goa pointing
to the introduction of it by the Portuguese, is but the
fleshy top of the peduncle which bears the nut We
may extract the following account of the tree from
CoL Drury’s Useful Plants of India'*
‘‘Indigenous to the West Indies, but now com¬
mon to Asia, Africa, and America. The fruit is sub¬
acid and astringent. The pericarp of the nut contains
a black acrid oil, which owing to its caustic properties
is often applied to floors or wooden rafters of houses
to prevent the attacks of white ants. It requires how¬
ever to be used cautiously. This oil is called Cardole,
and is a powerfully vesicating agent. It is applied to
warts, corns, ulcers, etc., but it is said that the vapour
of the oil when roasting will produce violent swelling
and inflammation. Martius says, ‘The sympathetic
effect of the nut borne-aboiit the person upon chronic
inflammation of the eyes, especially when of a scrofulous
nature, is remarkable’. A transparent gum is obtained
from the trunk of the tree, useful as a good varnish and
making a fair substitute for gum Arabic. It should be
collected while the sap is rising. It is particularly use¬
ful when the depredations of insects require to be
guarded against. For this purpose it is used in South
America by the book-binders, who wash their books
with a solution of it in order to keep away moths and
ants. The Kernels are edible and wholesome, abound¬
ing in sweet milky juice, and are used for imparting a
flavour to Madeira Wine. Ground up and mixed with
cocoa they make a good chocolate. The juice of the
fruit expressed and fermented yields a pleasant wine,
and distilled, a spirit is drawn from it making good
punch. Rheede states that the juice expressed is given
in diarrhoea and for the cure of diabetes. A variety of
the tree grows in Travancore, and probably elsewhere,
the perricarp of whose nuts has no oil, but may be
chewed raw with impunity. The astringency of the
 N-6J CINNAMON 447
fruit juice has been recommended as a good remedy in
dropsical habits. The tree flowers twice a year. The
juice which flows from an incision in the body of the
tree will stain linen so that it cannot be washed out.
The bark of the tree is given internally in infusion for
syphilitics wellings of the joints. It has been used for
tanning in the West Indies. An edible oil equal to olive
or almond oil is procured from the nuts, but it is sel¬
dom prepared, the kernels being used as a table fruit.
The wood is of no value. Lmdley Pereira Don. Rheede
Pers. obsP1
6. Cinnamon. In Malayalam it is known as
Karapu or Kaiuvapatta and it is noteworthy that
Ktesias the Knedkm (B. C. 400) makes mention of
Cinnamon under the nam^ Karpion identified by Dr.
Caldwell with the Tamil Malayalam word Karappu.
Yule and Burnel observe that “there can be little doubt
that this Classical export (referring to the Malabathrun
of the Peripius Pliny, etc.) from India was the dried
leaf of various species of Cinnamon which leaf was
known in Sanskrit as TamSlapatra * * * The anci¬
ents did no doubt apply the name Aialabathrum to
some other substance, and ungnent or solid extract.
Rheede, we may notice mentions that in his time in
Malabar, oils in high estimation were made from both
leaves and root of the wild cinnamon; of that coast and
that from the root of the same tree a camphor was
extracted having several of the properties of real cam¬
phor and more fragrance (See a note by one of the
present writers in Cathay &c., pp. cxlv-xl).”They suggest
that “the name Cinnamon is probably confined to the
tree of Ceylon. The other Cinnamon are properly
Cassia barks.
According to the Peripius, Malabathrum was car¬
ried from the interior to Mouziris (Cranganore) and
Nilkanda (Kallada) for export. “The Cinnamon of
Malabar” observes Yule “is what we call Cassia, the
1. P. 33.
448 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L- 27.
canella grossa of Conti, the canella brava of the Portu¬
guese. Notices of it will be found in Rheede (I. 107)
and in Garcia (f. 26 seqq)• The latter says the Ceylon
Cinnamon exceeded it in value as 4: i> Uzzano dis¬
criminates canella lunga Salami, and Mabaru The
Salami I have no doubt, is SailanU Ceylonese; and as
we do not hear of any cassia from Mabar, probably
the last was Malabar cinnamon.” 1
The Laurus Cassia grows in Canara and Malabar*
The tree attains a height of 60 feet, has white flowers,
and its inner bark produces a spice which though
in flavour and taste similar too is coarser than cin.
namon.2
Ibn Batuta, travelling in the 14th century by the
water-way from Calicut to Quilon, notices the exu*
berant growth of the Cassia all along the line on the
sea-coast- “All the trees (we saw) upon the banks of
this river (Ibn is referring to the chain of lakes, rivers*
and canals between Calicut and Quilon) as well as on
the sea-shores, were those of the cinnamon and
bakum, which constitute the fuel of the inhabitants and
with this we cooked our food.”3 Marco Polo mentions
the production of cinnamon in large quantities in his
Account of the Kingdom of Melebar* 4
As to the uses of-the wild cinnamon, Drury observes
that the seeds bruised and mixed with honey or sugar
are given to children in dysentery and coughs, and com¬
bined with other ingredients in fevers. The leaves have
a pleasant aromatic smell when bruised. The natives
use the bark as a condiment in their curries. The tree
is very common in the jungles on the Western Coasts
and Travancore forests. But it is not cultivated to any
appreciable extent. Mr. Brown seems to have tried it in
North Malabar apparently without success. The
i] Marco Polo Vol. 2, pp. 390-1.
2. Ancient Commerce of India. Oppert, p. 38.
3. Lee’s Tran: p. 174.
4. Vol. 2, p. 389.
 N. *.] GINGER 449

English at Anjengo made an attempt to grow the real

cinnamon. Forbes refers to this and points out the
difference between the real cinnamon and the wild one.
He says:—“The Cassia resembles the bay tree, of which
it is a species: it is called Cassia lignea, to distinguish
it from the lawrus-cinnamomum, or tree cinnamon, to
which it is very inferior: the finest Cassia sometimes
possesses the peculiar properties of that valuable spice,
but is in general of a coarser texture and less delicate
flavour. The real cinnamon seems indigenous to
Ceylon; there are some trees in the Company’s gardens
at Anjengo as a curiosity. The leaves of the Cassia are
smaller than the laurel, and more pointed: those of
cinnamon, still more delicate: the blossoms of both, like
the flowers of the arbutus, hang in bunches, white and
fragrant; the fruit resembles a small acorn: The
young leaves and tender shoots are of a bright red,
changing to green as they approach maturity: they taste
of cinnamon, but the only valuable part of the tree, is
the inner bark; which, being separated from the
exterior is cut into pieces, and exposed to the
sun, when it dries and curls up, and is packed in cases
for foreign markets. The tree decaying on its being
deprived of its bark, is cut down, and new shoots spring
from the root; it is also raised from seed.”
7. Ginger. Though our author omits to mention
,, ginger 1 which was and still is a valuable article of
export from Malabar, Marco Polo refers to its produc¬
tion. Along with pepper and turbit and the “nuts of
India,” he mentions also ginger as being produced in
great quantity.
Ginger, though cultivated all over India, is best
that is grown in Malabar,and from the name by which it
was known to the Greeks, we may conclude that they pro¬
cured it almost exclusively from Malabar* The Greeks
I For the matter of that, he has left out other articles as
well. See Economic Conditions of Southern India, 2 Vols. by
Dr. A. Appadorai, M. A., Ph. D., Madras University Historical
Series. Ed.
450 LETTERS FROM MALABAR |L. 27.
called it Zingiber and Burnell points out that it is
derived from the Malayalam ** Inchi+ver” 9 i. e., Inchi-
root or green ginger. Speaking of the Kingdom of
Coilam (Quilon), Polo says “Good ginger also grows
here, and it is known by the same name of Coilumin
after the country.” This is the colombine ginger
which appears not unfrequently in medieval writers.
The places of supply of ginger were Malabar, Cochin
and Travancore.1
Yule has the following note on Turbit\ “Radex
Turpethi is still known in pharmacy, at least in some
parts of the continent and in India, though in England
it is obsolete. It is mentioned in the Pharmacopoeia of
India (1868) as derived fromIpomoea Turpethian. But
it is worthy of note that Ramusio has cubebs instead of
turbit. The former does not seem now to be a product
of Western India though Garcia says that a small
quantity grew there, and a Dutch report of 1675 in
Valentyn also mentions it as an export of Malabar’hz
Regarding the exports from Malabar, it is worthy
of note that, in the detail of 3 cargoes that arrived in
Lisbon in September 1504, we find the following pro¬
portions: Pepper, 10,000 cantars; cinnamon, 500;
cloves, 450; Z. Z. (u Zen Zaro, ginger), 130; lac
and brazil, 730; camphor. 7; cubebs, 191; mace, 25;
spikenard, 3; lignaloes, i|; (Ibid.)
8. Coffee. The English also tried to cultivate
coffee. According to Forbes there were some thriving
coffee plantations on the Island of Dharmapattanam near
Tellicheri. The seed was originally brought from
Mocha. It is said that Mr. Swaardekroon, a former
Governor of Cochin, who was Governor-General of
Batavia, from 1718 to 1725, procured the coffee from
Mocha. Paoli mentioned it before 1790, as growing
1. Conti, India p. 6; Barbosa, Account II p. 92, Elliot, His¬
tory I,p. 6; jordanus Wonders, p. 27.
2 V. Ceylon p. 243. Marco Polo vol. 2, p. 391.
JM* 9*] ANIMAL LIFE 4S®
wild and that it was not cultivated as the natives
attended to productions of more utility. Forbes points
out that the Malabar coffee was inferior in flavour and
refreshment to the Arabian berry. For some time
coffee was cultivated to a large extent on the higher
ranges in Cochin and Travancore. There were, and
there are still many plantations on the Peermade hills
in Travancore and on the Nelliampathies in the
Cochin State. For a long time coffee cultivation was a
paying concern, but of late it has failed considerably
and has given place to tea and rubber.
9. Animal life. Most of the medieval travel¬
lers in Malabar have noticed its animals and birds, but
by none so well as by Varthema. Speaking of them
he says:—
“I ought not to omit explaining to you the many
kinds of animals and birds, which are found in Calicut,
and especially about the lions, wild hogs, goats, wolves,
kine, buffaloes, goats and elephants (which however are
not produced here, but come from other places) great
numbers of wild peacocks, and green parrots in im.
mense qualities, also a kind of red parrot. * * * * They
sing extremely well. I saw also here another kind of
bird, which is called Sario. They sing better than the
parrots, but are smaller. There are many other kinds
of birds here different from ours. I must inform you,
that during one hour in the morning and an hour in the
evening there is no pleasure in the world equal to that
of listening to the song of these birds, so much so that
it is like being in paradise, in consequence of there
being such a multitude of trees and perpetual verdure,
which arises from the circumstance that cold is un¬
known here, neither is there excessive heat. In this
country a great number of apes are produced, one of
which is worth four Casse and one Casse is worth a
quarterino. They do immense damage to those poor
men who make wine. These apes mount on the top of
those nuts and drink that same liquor, and then they
452 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

overturn the vessel and throw away all the liquor they
cannot drink”.1
Forbes writing in the 18th century says:—“The
animals in the southern provinces and mountainous
regions of Malabar, are tigers, elephants, buffaloes,
hogs, civet-cats, and a variety of monkeys and squirrels;
some of the monkeys are large, and covered with black
glossy hair, except a very full white beard and must-
achios; which give them a venerable and almost human
appearance. The wild buffalo is common in many
parts of Travancore. I had never before been in a
country where these animals were indigenous”.2
Indeed there are no lions in Malabar now, and so
far as can be ascertained there are no native records of
any kind to show that the king of beasts had ever
condescended to live in the Malabar forests. Writing
in the latter half of the 18th century, Fra Bartolomeo
says that “the lion is seldom seen in these countries.”
But long before Varthema we have the testimony of
Marco Polo that there were lions in Malabar. Des¬
cribing the country called Comari (Cape Comorin), the
traveller observes: “This is a wild country, and there
are beasts of all kinds there, especially monkeys of such
peculiar fashion that you would take them for men!
There are also gatpuls in wonderful diversity, with
bearsy lionsy and leopards, in abundance.”. The gatpul
has been conjectured to be some kind of ape. Polo
speaks of “lions black all over, with no mixture of any
colour” in the kingdom of Coilam or Quilon, and again
speaking of the kingdom of Ely, i. e., Kolaftiri or
North Malabar, he says “there are many lions” So
that in Polo’s time throughout Malabar extending from
1. Pp. 172—173.
2. P. 222.

Fra Bartolomeo gives fuller details in the 9th Chapter of his

Voyage to the East bidies entitled “Quadrupeds, Birds and
Amphibious animals on the Coast of Malabar”. P. 210, See
also Day's Land of the PerumaVs Chaps. 12 to 17.
N. io.] HOLY ANIMALS 453
the Kolattiri kingdom in the north to Cape Comorin in
the south there were lions. Can it be that there were
Hons in Malabar once and that they have now become
extinct? Black tigers and black leopards are not, how¬
ever, very rare in Travancore. 1
Polo’s list of beasts of Malabar comprise the follow¬
ing:—Lions, monkeys, gatpuls, bears, leopards. The
gatpuls are “in wonderful diversity while the bears,
lions> and leopards are in abundance”.
Of birds he says “there are parrots of many sorts,
for some are as white as snow with red beak and feet,
and some are red, and some are blue, forming the most
charming sight in the world; there are green ones too.
There are also some parrots of exceeding small size,
beautiful creatures. They have also very beautiful
peacocks, larger than ours, and different; and they have
cocks and hens quite different from ours”. He adds
that “there are wild beasts here and plenty of game,
both beast and bird”. 2
io. Holy animals. Among animals only the cow
and among reptiles only the serpent are actually wor¬
shipped. There are of course other animals and rep¬
tiles regarded with reverence. Among birds the
Brahmani Kite or Garuda is worshipped, while there
are others such as the peacock and swan which are
regarded with reverence. Here we may mention what
animals and birds are appropriated as vehicles to the
Hindu Gods and goddesses. Brahma and his daughter
Baraswati have the swan or goose, while Vishnu has the
Garuda or eagle or the Brahmani Kite which is actual¬
ly worshipped. Of a pleasant evening or a fine
morning it is usual to see people gathering on the
seashore or the backwater side, especially on a Sunday
to have a sight of the vehicle of Vishnu so that they
may worship it. There are however no temples
1. See Welsh's Mil. Rem. VoL 2, p. 102.
2. Vol. 2, pp, 375 to 386
454 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

dedicated to it. Siva s vehicle is Nandi, a white bulL

In Siva’s temples it is represented, sometimes in stones,
of vast dimensions, couchant. See the one at Suchin-
drum in Travancore. Sometimes it is also cast in brass.
Large or small ones will be found always placed in
front of the god on the Mctndapam or the Velikkappura
facing the fane. It is generally understood to be the
personification of divine justice, which moves or con¬
veys the avenging power of the Deity to the deserved
punishment of mortals. Manu says:—“The divine
form of justice is represented as vrisha or a bull\ and
the gods consider him who violates justice as a vrishala
or one who slays a bull”. 1 Ganesa or Ganapati, the god
of prudence and policy and who is invoked at the
commencement of every ceremony, rides a rat supposed
to be a very sagacious animal. The god himself is
represented as elephant-headed and is the son of Siva
and Psrvati. Subramania or Kartikgya, their second
son, is mounted on a peacock. Indra rides the elephant
Ayravatanh said to be white coloured with four tusks
—a symbol of might. Varuna the god of the waters
bestrides an alligator. Ganga the goddess of rivers
has a fish; Kama the god of love is carried by a par¬
rot and Agni god of fire by an ardeiit ram. The female
divinities have generally the vehicles of their lords,
though Bliavani is oftener represented as riding on a
lion or tiger than on the bull, the vehicle of her lord
Siva.
No sanctity is attached to the monkey as such.
But Hanuman the monkey god is held in estimation
as the faithful servant Rama the hero of the
Ramayana and an incarnation of Vishnu. In
Malabar there is no Malayali temple dedicated to
Hanuman but there are images of him in the temples
of Rama. At Ernakulam there is a temple dedicated
to Hanuman, *but it is not a Malayali temple having
been founded by a late Maharatta Brahman
i. Ch. 8, Vol, i6»
N. n.] COW’S TAIL 455
Diwan of Cochin. The Malayalis however worship
in the temple and make offerings to the god.
ii. Cow’s tail.We have already referred to the
merit ascribed to the gift of a cow. It is called a go*
danam or pasudanam. The gift of even the value of
a cow is deemed meritorious. How much more of a
milch-cow and its calf. Such gift is called Pratyaksha
pasudanum, i.e., the gift of a cow which is present.
Its horns and hoofs and tail are adorned with gold
ornaments. It is made to wear a yagnopavitam or sac¬
red thread. The calf is also adorned with similar orna¬
ments. Both wear garlands of flowers on the neck.
Many appropriate ceremonies attend the donation
finishing with the following prayers. When the gift is
made at a Sradha> during the recital cf the mantra> the
acceptor holds the sacred animal by the tail and the
donor holds the cord tied round the animal’s neck.
This is a free rendering of the mantra, after the reci¬
tation of which the cow is delivered to the donee.
“i. May the goddess, who is the Lakshmi of all beings, and
resides among the gods, assume the shape of a milch-cow and pro¬
cure me comfort.
“2. May the goddess, who is Rudrani in a corporeal form,
and who is beloved of Siva, assume the shape of a milch-cow and
procure me comfort.
“3. May she, who is Lakshmi reposing on the bosom of Vishnu;
she, who is the Lakshmi of the regent of riches, she who is the
Lakshmi of Kings, be a boon-granting cow to me.
“4. May she, who is the Lakshmi of Brahma; she, who is
Swaha, the wife of fire; she, who is the exerted power of the suh,
moon and stars, assume the shape of a milch-cow for my pros,
perity.
•»g. Since thou art Swadha, the food of them who are the chief
among the manes of the aucestors, and Swaha, the consuming
power of them, who eat solemn sacrifices, therefore, being the
cow that expiates every sin, procure me comfort.
“6. I invoke the goddess, who is endowed with the attributes
of all the gods who confers all happiness, who bestows abodes in
all tke worlds, for the sake of all people.
“7. I pray to that auspicious goddess for immortality and
happiness*”
456 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

It will be observed from the above prayers that it

is not the cow, as such, that is ve nerated and invoked
but that the prayers are offered to the goddess who
is supposed to be represented by the cow. Much as
she is venerated and worshipped, there is no temple
for her anywhere.
12. Purifications. The urine of the cow is held
sacred and go to form along with other products of the
cow the panchagavych i. e., the five gifts of the cow:
milk, curds, butter, urine and dung used for purifica¬
tory purposes. For certain caste offences the Nampu-
tiris prescribe for food rice boiled in panchagavyam.
It is not mere superstitious veneration for the cow
that makes Lie roople use the cow*dung for cleaning
floors, walls, etc. Neither is it that they believe, as
our author conceives, “that the evil spirit cannot make
his way over it to do them harm”. Medieval travellers
have noticed the custom of smearing the floors of
houses with cow-dung, at least once a week if not
oftener, not only in Malabar, but throughout India.
Earthen floors are rubbed with cow-dung mixed up
with as much water as will render it easy to spread. It
makes the floor clean and is at the same time a dis¬
infectant. The smell quickly goes off, and no floor is
so cool and comfortable, nor so obnoxious to fleas and
vermin. In former days even the floors of the splendid
habitations of Europeans used to be rubbed with cow-
dung. A European writer of 50 years of age remarks;
“This pleasant and salutary article is falling into disuse
with the English, who in their habitations and habits,
are departing from the sober dictates of nature, and the
obedient usages ot the natives”- With the Hindus the
dictates of religion also call upon them to use cow-dung.
It is plastered over the cooking place before the meals
are cooked. Before any ceremony is performed the
place to be used for the purpose is purified by smear¬
ing it with cow-dung. The ashes of cow-dung are also
N* 13- SNAKES 457

held to be of a very purifying nature and all classes of

people, both men and women, use it every day for
marking their foreheads, necks, arms, etc.
13. Snakes. Malabar is par excellence the land
of snakes, the AhiDesa of the Sanskrit writers, identi¬
fied with the Aiouram Regio of Ptolemy by Wilson.
From one end of the country to the other, from the
plateau of the ghauts on the east to the sea on the west,
the land is infested by these venemous reptiles. Not
content with loitering about the gardens, they at times
enter houses. On the window sill, at the door steps, on
the kitchen hearth, under the blanket on your bed—and
strange it may seem even in the pocket of your coat—
they are seen either slyly moving about or coolly enjoy¬
ing their coiled repose. They sneak into all imagin¬
able parts of the house and, if accidently trodden on,
are sure to bite, and the consequence is dreadful. If
left unmolested, they glide by without venturing to
attack any one. If they are fed, they get tamed and will
return to the same house every day to receive their
food, but, if in any way molested, they do not hesitate
to turn round and bite the hand that fed them. They
are averse to strong scents just as they are amenable
to music. Fumes of sulphur will generally cause them
to leave a place. So also the smell of any plant emit¬
ting a strong disagreeable scent. They shun the smell
of asafoetida. The pleasant odour and flavour of the
pine-apple is said to attract them.
There are land snakes and water snakes and many
varieties of both. Mr. Bourdillon, late of the Travan-
core Forest Department, has collected 56 species of
land snakes to be found in Travancore. He says
that there are also 9 species of sea snakes to be
found on the coast. Of the latter, 8 are said to be
poisonous and may be recognised by their com¬
pressed and flattened oar-like tails, the ninth Chersy-
drus gramilatus is to be met with at the mouth
of the^riverSc It is harmless and may be recognised by
 458 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

its tail, which is round like that of the land snakes.

All these entirely live in water. Of the 56 land snakes
9 only are poisonous. The bite of only four of these
is absolutely fatal to man. These are (1) Nallapampu
the cobra (Naia tnpudians), (2) Karinchathi or Aari-
nagamy the Hamadryad (Nia bungarus\ (3) Ettati-
variyany the Krait (Bungarus caruleus), and (4) Anali
the Russel s viper (1/ipera russelli). These are to be
met with in the low country. The other five are only to
be found on the hills at considerable elevations. Two
of them Callophis nigrescens and Callophis bibronii are
handsome snakes; the first is pale reddish brown with
5 black longitudinal bands. It is only to be found on
the Kannan Devan Hills in North Travancore; the
other is cherry red with black transverse bands above.
It is very rare and has only been found elsewhere in
the Wynad. The remaining 3, Ancistrodon hypnale
(Mai. Kattumanali), Trimeresurus anamallensis
(Mai. Pachchamanali) and Trimeresurus Macrolepis
belong to the family of the Pit-vipers, so called from
the presence of a deep pit on each side of the snout
between the eye and the nostril. Their poison glands
are much smaller than those of the Russel viper, and
their bite does not produce death in man and large
animals. Among the non-poisonous ones, Mr.
Bourdillon mentions, besides the above 3, the rat
snake Zamenis Muconis (Mai. Chera) the Lycodon
aulicusy the Lycodon travancoricus, (Mai. Puratta).
The last 2 are coloured somewhat like the Krait,
brown, or black with white cross bands, and are often
found in houses. There are certain tree snakes of the
genus Dispsas (Mai. MarappSmbu) one'of which is
not uncommon in the low country, the Dipsus
irigonala. It is not to be confounded with Russel’s
Viper. Both have broad flattened heads and lines more
or less of a chain pattern on the back, but the viper
(Mai. ViriyanpSmbu) can easily be discriminated by
the fact that its body is thick and suddenly tapers off
N\ 13.] SNAKES 459

into a very short tail, whereas the Dipsas has a thin

body tapering gradually into a long tail.1
Fra Bartolomeo mentions the following snakes as
found in Malabar in his time:—
1. The NallapSmba or the beautiful snake. He
says that this was the commonest though not the most
poisonous snake in Malabar. “It has”, says he,
“hanging round its neck two pieces of skin, which
shine like a pair of spectacles, and which it can extend
over its head like a hood or cap* Of this snake there
are several varieties. One has a complete cap at both
sides of the head, and is called Padamullavan (Mal\
one that has the hood); another is furnished with the
cap only on one side and is called Ottapadavan (Mai.
one that has only one hood); a third kind has a com¬
plete cap but is much smaller than the other two and
is the most poisonous of all.” This he calls the
Caytolaurungnu It is aLo known as Kytolapampu
and Kytolamoorkkan. “When these snakes attack
a man, or fight with the Ki rei” (mongoose)
continues Bartolomeo, “they raise themselves up in
a perpendicular direction; turn round on their
tail, whistle, move the upper part of their body
from side to side, and in that manner endeavour
to wound their antagonist Some of these snakes are
from 3 to 4, others from 6 to 8 palms in length.” A
person bit by it is said to die in 3 or 4 hours : but this
depends on the place where the wound has been inflict¬
ed, “whether in any of the nobler parts of tke body
from which the poison is conveyed sooner to the heart,
* * * * The natives of Malabar generally employ
the Alpmm {Bragantia wallichi) root and pulverised
Amelpori; they also bind up the wounded part, and
cauterise the wound with a red hot iron/
2. The Vellikettan or Vallumi This is descri¬
bed as a poisonous snake called by the Europeans the
ringed snake as it has several white rings round its body,
lt Malabar Quarterly Review vol. 2, p. 292 ct seq.
460 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

“It is, however, only two palms in length, and as]thick

as the finger, but exceedingly poisonous. People,
therefore, cannot be too much on their guard against
this animal, for it enters sitting apartments, and creeps
not only under tables and chairs, but even under the
beds*”
3. The Anali (Gundert, Viper also Analipampu).
4. The Mandali is described as the spotted
snake. Dr. Gundert describes it as a snake generally
coiled up, and refers to var ious varieties of it. T he
large kind is not venomous. Those that are dreaded are
Chora or Rudhira or Rakta Mandali whose bite pro¬
duces sweat of blood ; less poisonous are, acco rding to
the VerSpufay Dictionaries, Chenathandam, Payyani or
Payyana Mandali, Uppu Mandali, Tkavi ttu Mandali,
Mannu Mandali, Neer Mandaali and Madana Mandali,
The Rudhiramandali is described by Bartolomeo
as the most dangerous of all the Malabar serpents. He
quotes the following lines of Luccan as describing the
dreadful effects of its poison.
“Deeply the fierce Hoemorrhois imprest
Her fatal teeth on Tullus’ valiant breast:
The noble youth, with virtue’s love inspir’d,
Her, in her Cato follow’d and admired ;
Mov’d by his great example, vow’d to share,
With him, each chance of that disastrous war*
And as when mighty Rome’s spectators meet
In the full theatre’s capacious feat,
At once, secret pipes and channels fed,
Rich tinctures gush from every antique head ;
At once ten thousand saffron currents flow,
And rain their odours on the crowd below;
So the warm blood at once from every part
Ran purple poison down, and drain’d the fainting
heart;
Blood falls for tears, and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted in passage trace:
Where’er the liquid juices find a way,
N\ 13.] SNAKES 461

There streams of blood, their crimson rive s stray;

His mouth and gushing nostrils pour a flood.
And even the pores ooze out the trickling blood;
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d;
And the whole body seems one bleeding wound.”*
No remedy has ye t been discovered for the bite of
this venomous reptile.
5. Polavan. This is a very venomous snake the
body of which is covered with tumours and postules. It
is found in fresh water. Those who are bit by it sweat
blood. It oozes from the body in drops, whereas in the
case of those bit by Rudhiramandcili blood runs from
the body as boiling water from a kettle placed over a
fire. It is also known as Nirazhantha. There are
varieties of it called Ettali Pulavan, Payyani Pulavan,
etc.
. Karuwaila. It is a large jungle snake.
6

Bartolomeo describes it as having “on its head 3 knobs

or excrescences, which form a comb; and 3 red rings
round its neck. It is an ell in length, and of a shining
black colour, as far as the eyes, which are of a fiery red
and sparkle with savage wildness. It is said that it can
kill people merely by its look; and if it be true, it may
with propriety be called the Malabar Basalisk. It is
found not here but in the Ghauts, from which it never
descends unless when swept down by the rains.
7. Cancutti is the green whip snake which
generally makes a spring at the eyes. It is also called
Pachchila or Pachchali pampu because of its green col¬
our. It seldom attacks men. It is often caught and
killed as it is considered a good remedy for headaches,
when bound round a person’s temples.
8. The Ettatimurkkan always contracts itself
together and then springs forward 8 paces, hence its
being so called in Malayalam.
1. Rowe’s Translation, Book IX, V,i366.
 462 LETTERS FROM MALABAR fL. 27.

10. The Cerattapaniba> that is the springing

snake. It is of a small size, perfectly white; always
holds its head erect, and when it moves, forms its body
into a bow. Bartolomeo observes that he found these
on the mountains of MalaySTtfur where he says they
conceal themselves under the fallen leaves. It is
shrewdly suspected by some if these are really snakes.
10. Tevi is a small beautiful striped snake of a
brownish colour which hurts nobody. It is perfectly
innocuous, so much so that there is a Malayar saying
Thevi Katichal Antikette Choru Muttum, i e., the bite
of Tevi will only prevent one taking his supper. It is
of common occurrence that when one of these is killed
a number of the same species resort to the place and re¬
main in the neighbourhood till their dead companion is
removed. Bartolomeo records an instance of it at the
Seminary at Ambazhekattu in the presence of at least
30 persons. The incident is of frequent occurrence in
localities where these snakes are found in large num¬
bers.
11. Malapambu or Pernmpampu is the Rock snake,
Python Molurus, Gray. It is found in the Ghauts, is
altogether of a dark brown colour, grows to a very large
size, from 30 to 40 feet in length, and as thick as a fed
ox. It has no teeth; but it devours dogs, deer, cows
and other animals, which it seizes by twisting itself
round their bodies. It ventures to crush within its
coils even the tiger. It is supposed that its fat is a
sure remedy for leprosy.
12. The Irutalakuszali is a snake with 2 heads.
Bartolomeo says that, however incredible it may seem,
M. Rosier, the Commandant at Quilon, showed him two
snakes of this kind, which he had preserved in a glass
jar. He saw one of them in ‘the MalayStffur mountains.*
He says “it is a palm or a palm and a half in length;
has the colour of withered leaves; and does not, like
other snakes, creep straight forwards, but always rears
one of its heads, and makes an arch with its body when
N. 13.] SNAKES

it moves. Its bite always occasions a tumour filled with

venom; but the poison acts very slowly, so that it is
seldom or never too late to apply a remedy.” Dr. Day
points out that “it is a species of Amphisboena, which is
believed to be able to progress equally well either
backwards or forwards, and is generally said to have
a head at each end of its body, the appearance and
markings about the tail being so very similar to those
of the head”.
To the above may be added those noticed by Dr.
Day and are outside Bartolomeo’s list.
The Coombaree Mookan. It is described as a
long thin snake like a whip. Dr. Day observes that it
has obtained its name of branch climbing moorkhan
“from the belief, that it is the incarnated spirit of a de¬
parted enemy, or some demon employed by an enemy
for the destruction of an adversary. After having
bitten a person it is said to climb into a tree, and creep
to the extreme end of a branch, where it most atten¬
tively watches the ground on which bodies are burnt.
If it perceives an incremation taking place, it is sup¬
posed that its malevolence is appeased, as it labours
under the belief that its venom has effected the object
it had in view. On the other hand, should no smoke
arise from the burning place, it is believed that at
some future date, it will renew its attempt, on the ob¬
ject of its malevolence.” It is a pity that Dr. Day has
not vouchsafed to us his authority for this story. He
records it perhaps on the principle that any snake story
is good to be perpetuated.
Chera. Coryphodon Blumenbachi— It is a common
harmless snake of an olive colour. There are also
black coloured ones among them. They are frequently
seen near moist places, in paddy fields, and often, as the
monsoon sets in, by the side of public roads. It grows
to a very large size. It hits its captors with its tail, and
wounds so inflicted, are said to be very difficult to cure.
This is the rat snake.
464 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L’ 27.

Apart from attempting to propitiate the serpents

as demi-gods, the Malabar people have also tried to
find cures for their bite. Malabar snake doctors pro¬
fess to possess an effective cure for the most virulent of
snake poisons. But, in the most serious cases of cobra-
bite, there does not appear to be any special medicine
used, and it is not physicians generally who treat such
cases. The cure is effected by an extraordinary process
which has to be characterised as miraculous, if it is
true- It consists in extracting the poison by some
psychic means, or in the last resort, by getting the
snake that inflicted the wound to return and repeat the
bite and withdraw the poison. It is not possible for
one who has not been an actual eye witness to these
cures to vouch for their truth, but it is not all who are
privileged or fortunate to be present at cases treated
in this manner. There are however a very large num¬
ber of cases reported and men of the highest intelli¬
gence, veracity, integrity and honour can give their
testimony on the point. They must either be all
deluded or must be intentionally uttering a deliberate
falsehood; neither of which is likely. It would be safer
therefore to say that one should try to exhaust every
means to find out the truth and should assume a neutral
attitude before condemning the whole thing as a pure
myth or fraud.

In Malabar it is not the ordinary physician that

practices the art. Vishavydiam or the art of relieving
one from the evil effects of poisons is the work of a spe¬
cial class of physicians. There are several works, some
in Sanskrit and others in Malayalam, dealing with the
subject and the study of them is not open to all. Those
who undertake the study have to undergo a course of
hard training under the guidance of a guru who would
impart to the disciple the secrets of his art only on his
being well satisfied that the disciple is worthy of the
privilege he seeks and he would employ his learning to
the benefit of humanity and not for filthy lucre. Seven
 SNAKES 465
N. 13.]
or eight treaties bearing on the subject may be men¬
tioned here, viz., Aarayaniyam, Uddesam> Ulpalam,
Haramekhala, Lakshanamritam, A shtanga-hrydanu Ka*
lavanchakam.
Of these, the Malabar Vishavaidyansfollow general¬
ly the lSlarayaniyam and JLakshanamritam% though
auother treatise called Jolsnika has also a fair
following. Narayaniyam which is in old Malayalam
is the most important of the treatises. No counter¬
part in Sanskrit has hitherto been met with. It sets
out with a classification of snakes into four Varnas and
eight Vamsas and thence into a hundred and eight
varieties. One or two stanzas may be quoted as
specimen:
uAnantho Gulikaschaiva
Vasukee Sankhapalakow
Thakshakastha Mahapadma
Padma Karkodaka St hat ha*
Of Moorkhas 26 -Moorkhanmar IrupatJiaru
Of Mandalis 6o~~~}ati Mandali Shoadasam
Of Rajilam 13—Ra/ilam Pathimmoonunoau
Of Viyanthiran 21—Moovazhuntoo ViyanthiranP

There are three separate departments of the

science of Vishavaidyam, viz., (1) that which teaches the
means of foreseeing what is coming on, Dootha Laksha-
nam, (2) that which deals with cures for poison by
medicines, Oushadha and (3) that which deals with
the method of curing snake bites, etc., by means of
Mantram and Tantrum.
In no case does a Vishavaidyan or snake doctor
go to his patient; the patient is always brought to him,
and he forecasts by signs which he observes that a case
of snake bite is being brought to him. He determines
by these signs as well as by an examination of the
wound, the nature of the wound inflicted, the. class of
snake that has bitten the patient, its dimensions, the
time that has elapsed since the bite, the condition of the
 466 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

patient,the possibility and probability of a successful at¬

tempt at cure, etc. The day of the week,the hour of the day,
the exact point of the compass at which the messenger who
precedes the patient stands when he announces that
there is a case for the doctor’s attention, the direction
from which he comes, his age and caste, the exact words
in which the announcement is made,—all these and
many others afford the Vishavydian basis for forecast¬
ing the result. He sometimes refuses to respond when
his aid is invoked on the ground that it will be of no
use, the patient having already died, and this although
he has not seen him. A remarkable instance of this
is given by Mr. H. M. Rrown. He says;—“When I
was in Cavvoye (North Malabar) some years ago, an
extraordinary case came under my notice, which may
be cited here. Towards dusk, one evening two Tiyyas
who were within about a hundred yards of my camp,
happened to come upon a snake, and both declared
they had been bitten. One of them certainly bad a
wound on his foot, and relatives and friends arriving
he was quickly put on a litter to be taken to a famous
physician living in a neighbouring village. His brother
ran on ahead to inform the physician of the fact, and to
give him time to make the necessary arrangements. On
reaching the man’s gate, he saw the physician coming
towards him. He stopped him, and before a word
could be spoken, the physician said;—“You can go
back, it is of no use. Your brother has died on the
way”. This really did happen, for I was interested in
the matter and went with the man who was bitten, and
heard what the brother reported on returning. I know
this little episode will raise a smile in some Quartern
but I cannot help it.”1 1

Another writer in the same Journal speaking of

Raja Raja Varma Koil Tampuran of Chemproor Tra
vancore, an adept in the art of snake bite cure ’obser"
ves. “Cases from far and near are brought to him

i. Malabar Quarterly Review, Vol. i, p. 9I6.

N 13.] SNAKES 467

And rare indeed are the cases in which he has not

been able to bring about a cure. He has attained
to such perfection in his art that he is said to feel a
sort of premonition that a case would be brought to
him at a particular hour. I have been informed that
he sits up of nights betimes in expectation of a call.
Very lately there was an instance that came within my
personal observation. That was a case from Kumara-
nalloor, a distance of over thirty miles. The party
arrived by canoe at night; and then at the landing-
ghaut was our Tampuran’s servant in waiting, to
direct them to return, as the subject would have died
by the way. And true enough, on examination it was
found that life had ebbed out.”1 Such premonitions are
based on principles set forth in a small treatise in verse
called Dootha Lakshanam.
There are many instances of this kind vouched for
by men of the utmost veracity and respectability.
After having determined by means of signs (Dootha
Lakshanam) the nature of the case, the treatment of
the patient is proceeded with. For the purpose of
determining the nature and course of treatment neces¬
sary in each case, the Vishavydian has to find out the
class to which the snake that inflicted the wound
belongs* His science as we have seen divides the
snake-world into four classes and these correspond
with the four Hindu castes. The higher the class the
lesser the chance of attacking human beings and the
greater the difficulty of effecting cures when attacked.
In simple cases medicine alone will be sufficient, in
more serious ones medicines and Tantrams have to be
resorted to, and in the most serious cases the cure is
effected by mantram alone. To invite the snake that
inflicted the wound to return and to induce it by force
of mantrams to repeat the bite and withdraw the poison
is the highest and the very last attempt that the Uisha-
vydian would venture. It is said that if he succeeds
1, Malabar Quarterly Review, Vol. 8, p. 139.
468 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

in inducing the snake to withdraw the poison, the

victim is saved but it is destruction to the snake
which generally dies. After the snake has withdrawn
the poison, it generally falls into a stupor and is thrown
into a vessel filled with milk and water in which some
antidote is dissolved and in the course of a few hours
it may recover. Vishavaidyans who are able to accom¬
plish this last feat are very scarce now. It is the
common belief that the serpents as demi-gods spent
their anger on the Vishavaidyans for depriving them of
their victims and that the V ishavaidyans therefore do
not prosper. Vishavaidyans never accept any remu¬
neration for their work. It is one of the cardinal
principles inculcated to them by their Guru that they
should never practice the art for ‘filthy lucre*. They
are solemnly enjoined to work gratis for the cause of
humanity. Hence those who study the science and
practice the art are few, very few indeed.
In the purely mantric process, which is also
known as Dhysna, the Vishavaidyan does not require
even the presence of the patient. He only wants to
know the particulars of the name, age and star of
nativity of the subject. He lights a lamp and begins
to chew betel and recite his mantras, when little by
little the poison declines. The treatise referred to
above Kslavanchakam — literally cheating death_is
based on DhySna exclusively. Of mantrams the
Garuda Thrayakshara and Panchakshara are the most
important.
The Tantra process is equally interesting. Tantra
means ‘making displays with the hand and other
organs* A plantain sheath or other substitute is cut
to the probable length and figure of the snake, laid on
the wound, and stabbed or cut up according to “the
taste and fancy of the Bhishak” (Doctor). It is
alleged that the snake which actually bit the subject
would have felt the stabs, and that, on proper search, it
might be found with the identical marks on its body.
N. 13.] SNAKES 469

Often-times, a cock ora hen is brought and the tip of its

anus placed in contact with the wound. Sometimes the
fowl is pricked about the leg, a little blood drawn, and
the pricked part placed in contact with the snake-
bitten wound. Of course the “all-essential” mantras
are not omitted. The fowl, it is said, draws the poison
to itself and the man recovers.1
Now to come to medicines: The following are a
few prescriptions selected out of a large number said to
be useful in all cases of snake poisons. But it is always
safe to go to a doctor when one is available.
(1) Take equal quantities of the leaf, flower, and
root of Doemia extensa (vsliparajji—MaL), grind them
well in cow’s milk and take it. It is an effective cure
for the poison of all snakes.
(2) Grind the root of Indigofera tine toria (Amari
—Mai.) and mix it with either cow's milk or the clear
water (Kati—Mai.) in which rice has been washed and
kept till it ferments, take it within and apply the same
to the wound.
(3) Grind Chern Cheera (Mai.) and the root of
Indigofera tinctoria (Amari—Mai.) in equal quantities
and use as above.
(4) Grind together equal quantities of Physalis
flexuosa (Amukiram—Mai.), turmeric (Mafijal—MaL),
the bark of curcuma xanthorrehza (Maramafijajj;bli—
MaL), and Cheru Cheera (MaL) dissolve the same either
in cow’s milk or in pure water and take it within.
(5) Grind together pepper, long pepper (Tippali—
MaL), asafoetida (Ksyarn—MaL) in the juice of the
Tumpa (MaL) plant, Phlomis or Leucas Indica and apply
the same to the eyes and through the nostrils.
(6) Grind together Acorus calamus (Vayampu-
MaL ),Indigofera tinctoria,dried ginger(Chukku—MaL),
Pepper (kuru-mulaku- MaL) long pepper, sandal wood
Chan<Janam— MaL) in equal quantities in the juice of the
f, - Malabar Quarterly Review* Vol, 8, p, 141,
470 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

root of the Kadaii (Mai.) Musa sapientum. Take it

within, also apply it to the wound.
(7) Take in your hands a few leaves of Helicteres
Isom (EsSwara mulla—Mai.) and some asafoetida and
bruise them together well and with the palms stop for a
while the mouth and the nostrils of the patient If this
is repeated three times, the severest of snake poisons
even will be cured.
(8) Take a few leaves of Calatropis gigantia
(Erikku—Mai.) and an equal weight of either asafoetida
or rocksalt (Inthuppu—Mai.), dissolve them well in the
patient’s urine. This should be taken within and
applied to the wound.
(9) Grind some fruits of Strycknos Potatorum
(TStMfSmparal— Mai.), mix it with water, dip in it a clean
piece of white cloth, then dry the cloth; do this ten times
successively, then put the piece of cloth in some gingely
oil and squeeze it well in the oil. The oil may be
poured into nostrils of the patient who will soon revive
from fhe swoon caused by the poison.
(10) Grind some A corns Calamus, asafoetida and
well cleaned pepper in the juice of the betel leaf and
pour it into the nostrils and apply the same to the
eyes.
(11) Take a few ripe leaves of Calatropis gigantea
and some asafoetida, bruise them well together and
take the juice and pour it into the nostrils of the
patient. This is said to be a nostrum which should
always be kept a profound secret
(12) Pluck the root that gees northwards of
Tabernoemontana coronaria ( Nanjijrvattam—Mai.)
at the three stages of an eclipse, at its commencement,
in the middle and in the end. Keep them separate,
ground into the form of pills. When the patient takes
the first pill formed of the root plucked at the com¬
mencement, the effects of the poison will begin to in¬
crease; the second will cause stupor and the third pill
N. 13.] SNAKES 47i

will destroy the poison and cure the patient. The Guru,
preceptor, would enjoin on his disciple never to make
use of the first pill.
(13) In the same way pluck the five parts of Mi¬
mosa Siresha (Nenmeni vska-Mal.), without the contact
of iron, i e, leaves, bark, flowers, fruits and roots, on
the fifth day of the black or waning moon. Take equal
quantities of these; grind them either in cow’s or goat’s
urine for three successive days, form them into pills of
the size of zizyphus jujuba (Elanthi—Mai-) fruits and
dry them in the shade. These pills may be taken in¬
side, applied to the wound and also used for application
in the eyes and through the nostrils.
(14) Grind together equal quantities of Acorus
calamus, asafoetida; Allium Sativum. (Vellulli—Mai.)
with the outer rind peeled of, dried ginger, pepper and
long pepper in water in which rice has been washed
and kept till it ferments, form it into pill sand dry them
in the shade. This is an effective cure for all sorts of
poisons.
(15) Grind together equal quantities of mer¬
cury and the seeds of (Aeervalam -Mai.) — Croton tigli-
um in the juice of the bitter gourd (Peychura.—Mai.)
form it into pills and dry them in the shade. These
pills are a sure remedy for all poisons.
(16) Take in equal quantities bezoar—Torenia
cordirolia (Gorochanam— (Mai.), rock salt-pepper, long
pepper, borax, Nirvesi (Mai.), Physalis flexuosa, asa¬
foetida, the bark of Curcuma xanthorrahza, dried gin¬
ger, Acorus, Calamus, Pinus longifolia, mercury, Garu-
dapacha (Mai) sandal, the root of the Karlayam (Mai.);
Nila garudapacha (Mai.), gallnut, pepper, the blade of
the Agrostis linearis (Karuka-Ma 1), the root of the
Perinkurumpa (Mai.); grind these well for three days
in lime juice, form it into pills of the size of the seed of
the Abrus preatorius [Kunnikuru—Mai.), dry them in
the shade. This pill is known as 7aruna Bhaskaram,
an effective remedy in all cases of poison.
472 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

As to the method of using some of these

medicines, as already observed, they are poured
into the nostrils and blown in. In exceptional cases,
it is said an incision is made in the head, a globule of
medicine inserted and the incision closed up. A coarse
saucer is next placed over the covered-up wound, and
a stream of scalding medicated oil poured in till the
subject sweats in every pore and recovers (or succum*
bes which perhaps is most likely). A piece of burning
charcoal was sometimes placed on the head of the sub¬
ject. Instances of the bitten part, if a finger or toe, being
burnt up is quite an ordinary occurrence. Suffocation
too was practised as a cure, the subject being held
under water. Some of these methods cannot now be
pursued as the Vishavaidyan is likely to be caught in
the meshes of the Criminal law.
We may now turn to another class of medicines,
viz., those which secure immunity from snake bite.
(1) Take the gum of the fruit of strychnos.
N. V. by squeezing it, dry it in the sun for seven
days. Add half in weight of this to equal quantities
of Acorus Calamus, good asafoetida, the root of
methonica superba (mSthofifti—Mai.), powder them all
for 3 days, take a fourth of the powder, add to it Soma•
nadi Kayam (Mai.), a kind of asafoetida, grind it for
three days in- the milk of Euphorbia antiquorum and
preserve it in a cocoanut shell. If you smear both your
hands with this powder, you can safely catch any snake
with your hands; it will not bite. This may also be
used for application through the nostrils and to the
wound inflicted by the snake.
(2) Grind well in water in which rice has been
washed 'uid left to ferment, equal quantities of the bark
on the root of Hyperanthera Moringa^ Acorus Calamus
Somanadi Kayam (Mai.), dried ginger, pepper, long
pepper, the root of Inde got era tinctoria* Smear your
hands with this compound and yop can safely catch any
snake, it will not bite. This may be used for external
N. 13.] SNAKES 473

application and for fumigation. It may also be taken

inside.
(3) Grind well the root of Karlayam (Mai.) which
has sprouted from the foot or stump of strycknos N. V.
and which grows winding round that tree and smear
your hands with it and you can catch with perfect safety
any snake; it will not open its mouth or bite.
(4) No snake will bite a man while chewing equal
quantities of dried ginger, pepper, long pepper, and the
root of Karlayam (Mai.). Even if it bites, its poison
will not have any evil effect.
(5) If you hold in your hand the kernal of the seed
of strycknos N. F., that has sprouted at its foot and
stands drooping, with the sprout removed, you can
catch any snake with that hand with perfect safety. .If
one wears this enclosed in a ring or bracelet, it will
secure immunity from snake-bite. It may also be
applied to a wound inflicted by a snake.
(6) If you pluck the root of the best pepper-vine
(Karuvalli-Mai.) that grows in a place that has in no
way any contact with water, and show it to a snake, it
will run away. If you place it at the mouth of a snake
hole, the snake will not enter it. If the snake is inside
the hole and you thrust the root into it, the snake will
die. The root may be used for external application and
may also be taken inside.
(7) Pluck the root of Euphorbia antiquorum that
goes northwards, on a Sunday in the month of Karka-
dagam (July—August), no iron touching it, enclose it
in a ring or (Elass-Mal.) waist ornament, and wear
it on your person, and you secure immunity from
snake-bite.
(8) If you wear on your finger a ring enclosing
the root of Malayamukki (Mai.) plucked, with no
iron touching it, no snake will bite you even if you
tread on it.
(9) If you sprinkle a mixture of cardamoms well
474 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. *7

ground in water, in which rice is washed and left to

ferment, snakes will leave the place.
(10) If you fumigate a snake infested place with
Allium sativum chillies, asafoetida and the leaves of
the orange tree, the snakes will leave the place at once
14. Serpents esteemed sacred. Malabar is
the stronghold of serpent worship. Though the serpent
cult is part of modern Hindu religion, nowhere is
serpent worship practised to such a pronounced extent
as in Malabar unless it be in parts of Northern India.1
1. The following references to Nagas, the progenitors of Nayars,
& to the naga-worship (the worship of the serpents) will be found
useful for further research. (Report of the Jenmi-Kudiyan Committee
of Travancore, pp. 21—27; Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, An Imperial
History of India by Mr. K. F. Jayaswal pp. 26—7; p. 32; p. 47;
pp.76—7; Bharatam% I—43; XVIII—5; VIII—44—2066; Vishnu
Purana, IV, 6—12; Markandeya 121—131; Harivamsa% 191—2;
Mahavamsa, ch. i, p. 5; Tennent’s History of Ceylont Vol. i* p.
331. The Brahui Language by Sir Denis Bray, pp, r, 7, 15, 16*
17.) The Nagas one finds all over the habitable globe in ancient
times. Basgue and Brahui races are off-shoots of the Naga
stock. They, the Nagas, were in India long prior to the Ramayana
period. After the Mahabharata War, the Nagas grew more powerful
than before, and established themselves in Takshasila. Parikshit
was killed by the Nagas. After the fight with the Heyhayas near
the Narmada, one set went to Assam, and the other came to Ker¬
ala. Parasurama in bis fight with the Kshetriyas was helped by
the Nagas, though his first colonists were repulsed from Kerala
by the Nagas. Mahavamsa says that several parts of the South
India were under the Nagas.
On a careful perusal of the works noted above, one can see
that the solar and the lunar races were related to the Nagas. ‘Tht
Yadavas and the Pauravas (including Pandavas and KouraVas)
were descended from Yayati, son of Nahusha, son of Kadru, the
serpent-mother.’ ‘Aryaka, the Naga chief, was the grand-father
of Sura, father of Vasudeva (father of Krishna) and of Kunti.’
Ravana was a Naga Raja, and Indrajit, his son, had the device
of a golden serpent on his banner like Duryodhana. Indra’s
charioteer, Malathi, had his daughter, Gunakesi, married to Naga
Sumukha. Agastya, the Tamil Saint, is a grandson of Brahma,
 N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 47s

There may not be in Malabar as many temples as in

other parts of India dedicated to the serpent, but in no
part of India will be seen people who, in the words of
our author, “keep a bit of their gardens partitioned off
in honour of them, and for the chance of their arrival.’*
“A good snake shrine** writes Mr. J. D. Rees in the
Nmteenth Century and after for 1904 “is as much an
attraction in the case of a house on the Malabar Coast
as a garden is in the case of a villa at Hampstead or
Harrow-’* And why? Because every Malabar house¬
hold feels the necessity of obeying the unalterable
injunction of Kerala’s hero-saint, ParaSu Rsma, to
propitiate the serpents. The tradition is thus related
in the Keralolpathi. After the peopling of Malabar by
ParaSu Rsma, the first colonists abandoned it and ran
back to their own country, because of the incessant
attacks of the Nagas (serpents), denizens of the
lower regions known in popular language as Naga*
lokam or Fstslam, who had taken possession of
Keraia and settled there. The colonists, being
induced to return after some time, were resisted by the
Nsga occupants, whereupon a tierce fight ensued be¬
tween them. Parasu Rama intervened and arbitrated
between his own people and the Nsga usurpers and
compromised their disputes by ordering that the
NSgSs should be given one corner of every occupied
compound and that they should be propitiated by the
performance of annual ceremonies. From that day

a son Pulastya, a brother of Visravas and an uncle of Ravana and

Kubera. ‘The Azi and the sons of Danu of the Zend A.vesta were
tribally identical with the Nagas and they were variously known
as Asuras, Dasyas, Daityas and Serpas in the Rig Veda.*
The Naga-kanyakas were famed for their beauty. The praise
of Kalidasa of the Kerala ladies shows that these kept up the old
tradition. Even in the present day, poets and even politicians of
other parts of India and tourists from outside are not wanting to
speak in superlative terms of the charms of Malabar maidens. Ed.
+.g LETTERS FROM MALABAR [l>. »7*

forwards every householder in Malabar sets apart a bit

of ground in the south-west corner of every Tarwad
garden which is turned into a grove known as Sarpa
Kavoo or the serpent grove. These present the
appearance of miniature reserved forests where the
underwood trees and creepers left untouched by the
knife grow luxuriently. It is almost circular in form
and is often surrounded by a lo w wall to prevent cattle
or children from trespassing into it. Sometimes a pool
of water is also attached to it. In the middle of this
shrine, a stone basement called Chitrakoodam is built,
on which are planted several representations of the
serpent, cut in granite stones. A passage is opened to
the seat of these images from the outside and great
care is taken that the grove is not desecrated by the
touch or even the approach of a low caste man. Once
at least every year offerings are made of Noorum Palum,
i. e., dough and milk, of cooked rice, lights and songs,
etc. the Namputirls presiding as priests, This
annual propitiation of the serpents is considered essen¬
tial for the well-being and prosperity of the house-holder.
In olden days deeds that transferred land from one
individual to another used to make specific mention of
the family serpents.
There are also temples where the serpent is the
object of public worship. Perhaps the most important
of these is the one at Nagercoil, i. e., ‘the Temple of
Serpent’, in South Travancore. In almost every
temple there are images of serpents cut in granite
planted either within the inner precincts or under the
sacred banyan tree in front of the temple. There is a
notable serpent grove at MaijnSrSala in Travancore
where the serpent is worshipped with considerable
ceremony*
Sterility in women, eye diseases, leprosy and other
cutaneous ailments are attributed to the anger of the
serpents. The killing of one of these reptiles especially
the most venemous one, the cobra, is supposed to bring
 N. i4/| SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 477

leprosy and it need not be that the patient himself had

killed one* It is enough if any one in the family in
this generation or even in previous ones had committed
this great sin. Similarly, if, by accident or otherwise,
serpents are killed or injured, the family of the delin¬
quent is doomed to suffer one of the ills already referred
to, viz., sterility in women, eye diseases and leprosy or
other cutaneous ailments. For relief, the serpents have
to be propitiated by ceremonies. A Nagapratishta, i-e.,
the installation of the image of the serpent and the
making of provision for annual ceremonies in connec¬
tion with the worship of it, especially at R<tmeswaram,
is supposed to be an unerring cure for sterility in
women.
When a member of the house-hold is afflicted with
the ailments above-mentioned, the nearest astrologer is
consulted who loses no time in finding out that either
the patient or any other member of the family, whether
in the present life or in the previous one, had incurred
the displeasure of the serpents and that to effect
a cure the serpents have to be propitiated by the
performance of Sarpabali> Noorum Palum or Pam-
pum Tullah Of these the commonest is Noorum
Palum. The day chosen is generally the Aiylyam or
Pooyam asterism of the months of Thulam and Vrischi-
kam. A large square is formed within which are drawn
64, 32 or 22 smaller squares. These are coloured dif¬
ferently by different powders being spread over. Over
the central ones, paddy, raw rice, etc., are placed, and
flour and milk served at the top. Mantras are then
recited and the ceremony concluded with the flower
stalks of the areca palm being broken up and sprinkled
over the whole. The ceremony takes place in the
Sarpakavoos or groves already described. Before the
ceremony is performed, the Kavoos are purified by the
sprinkling of Punnyaham or holy water and the grove
is decorated with flowers of the areca and cocoanut
palms as also with the tender leaves of the latter.
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27
47s

The Sarpabali is but the Noorum Palum performed

on a grander scale at night.
The Pam punt Tullal or Saypa Pattu is the grand¬
est of all. The description of this ceremony by
Mr. Gopala Panikkar is full and interesting and maybe
quoted here.
“Periodical ceremonies called Pambanthullel are
performed to propitiate them. These are resorted to
only on special occasions for the purpose of averting
serious visitations from tbe family. The ceremony is a
long complicated process. Any individual drawn from
among the Nairs themselves are capable of acting the
part of priests on these occasions. A day is fixed for
the opening of the ceremony; and a particular plot of
ground in the house-yard is cleansed and preserved for
the performance of the poojahs incidental to the cere¬
mony. Then on the spot certain square figures are
drawn, one inside another, and these are tastefully
diversified by the interpolation of circular figures and
others inside and about then}, based on geometrical
principles. A peculiar symmetry is observed in the
matter of these figures. The figures used in the
drawings are usually of various colours, red, white,
black and others. Ordinary rice-flour, then again
such flour mixed with a combination of chunnam and
turmeric powder, thereby making the flour pure red,
and burnt paddy husk are chiefly employed. Then a
number of other accessories are also required for the
ceremony, in the shape of lamps, cocoanuts, eatables of
various sorts prepared from paddy and "rice and some
other cooked things, such as rice, bread made of rice,
and others. These are properly arranged in the place
and poojah is offered by the priest with the slow reci¬
tation of mantramsy and some holy songs or ballads in
memory of these gods. Then a number of Nair
women, with perfect purity and cleanliness of persons
are seated close to each other in a row or two. These
women are to preserve sanctity and purity of their
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 479

persons by a total abstinence from animal food, intoxi¬

cants and anything else of an exciting nature for a pres¬
cribed period of time; and it is only after the lapse of
this period that they become worthy of being admitted
to this ceremony. Thus having purged their bodies
of all worldliness they are taken into the ceremony and
are seated as described before. Now by means of the
mantrams and poojah the serpent “gods are propitiated
and in consequence they manifest themselves in the
bodies of these female representatives of theirs. The
entrance of the gods into their bodies is characterised
by a fearful concussion of their whole frame, gradually
developing into a ceaseless shaking, particularly the
upper parts. A few minutes afterwards, they begin to
speak one by one and their speeches are regarded as
expressions of the god’s will. Sometimes the gods
appear in the bodies of all these females and sometimes
only in those of a select few or none at all. The refusal
of the gods to enter into such persons is symbolical of
some want of cleanliness and purity in them; which
contingency is looked upon as a source of anxiety to
the individual. It may also suggest the displeasure of
these gods towards the family in respect of which the
ceremony is performed. In either case, such refusal
on the part of the gods is an index of their ill-will or
dissatisfaction. In cases where the gods refuse to
appear in any one of these seated for the purpose, the
ceremony is prolonged until the gods are so properly
propitiated as to constrain them to manifest themselves.
Then after the lapse of the number of days fixed for
the ceremony and after the will of the serpent-gods is
duly expressed, the ceremonies close’* I.
In some places the services of a Pullavan who as
we have seen claims to be descended from a snake deity
are sought to officiate as priest at these ceremonies.
On the day appointed, he draws the figure of a snake
coiled in a particular form on the floor, instead of the
i. Malabar and its Folk% pp. 146 to 148.
48o LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

squares of the Nayar priests. The snake is represented

in rice flour and the spaces between the coils are filled
in with burnt rice husk, turmeric powder, powdered
green leaves, etc. It is said that five colours are essen¬
tial to correspond with the colours which are visible on
the neck of the serpent, A female member of the
afflicted family, who has fasted during the day, bathes,
and sits on the floor at the head of the snake. Her
hair lie about dishevelled, and she holds in her hands
a bunch of cocoanut flowers. The P'idlava7i plays on his
Pullava Kudam, an earthen-pot drum, while a Pullava
woman keeps time with the music by striking a metal
vessel. Both the man and woman at the same time
sing songs in honour of the serpent deity. Gradually
the woman seated at the head of the figure of the snake
becomes possessed, and begins to quiver, while waving
her dishevelled locks. Moving backwards and for¬
wards, she rubs away the figure of the snake with the
cocoanut flowers, and rising up, bathes once more. It
may be necessary to rub away the figure of the snake
as many as a hundred times, in which case the ceremony
is prolonged over several weeks. Each time that the
snake design is destroyed, one or two men, with torches
in their hands, perform a dance, keeping steps to the
Pullavans music. The snake deity will, it is believed,
not manifest himself if any of the persons or articles
required for the ceremony are impure, e. g., if the pot-
drum has been polluted by the touch of a menstruating
woman. 1
It may be added here that at certain stated seasons
Pullava females go from house to house singing bal¬
lads in honour of the serpent deity keeping time by
beating on their Pullava Kudams. These are earthen-
pots whose mouths are covered up by means of a small
circular piece of thin leather which is fastened on to the
vessel with strings tightly tied round its neck. Another
string is adjusted to the leather cover which when played
2. Ethnographic Notes. Thurston pp. 290 to 291,
 N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 482

on by means of the fingers produce a hoarse note which

is said to please the ears of the snake deity, appease its
anger and lull it into sleep. The Puilava woman gets
her customary dues and the house-hold repose under
the belief that its serpent gods have been propitiated for
the time being.
The high priest ot serpent worship in all MalabSr
is the Psmpummgkkat Nampu{iri in the Cochin State.
The Nambysdi of Ma^arsSla in Travancore and Padi-
rakunnatjh Namputiri in British Malabar are priests
of lesser note. The first of them is the special priest
at certain sacrifices offered to the serpents, and he
alone can remove a serpent grove from one spot to
another. If a grove is too near a house or is incon¬
veniently situated, the high priest is got down and
he after certain costly ceremonies removes the Kavu
to the desired distance by plucking a twig from the
grove and planting it at the new site. After this the
old one is cut down and cleared and the new one care¬
fully reared. The family of the Psmpummgkkst
Nampujiri exercise singular and seemingly effective
control over serpents in general. The power is said to
be a special gift handed from father to son. The ladies
married into the family are initiated into the mystery,
every bit of ground in the Namputiri’s house is infested
by snakes and the house itself is said to be full of co¬
bras. Inside the house is a mound full of these reptiles.
The inmates cannot move about without treading on
one of them, but the snakes are so obedient that they
slowly glide by without in any way molesting them.
The magic influence that they exercise over these
animals is such that they dare not and will not bite the
inmates of the IHam. The serpents are at their beck and
call and render unquestioning obedience to their com¬
mands. They are said to guard the Illam and its
treasures and no one dare enter the house with any evil
intention lest he falls a victim to these venemous rep¬
tiles. The Namputirls also claim to possess the power
 I

482 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

of curing the effects of snake poison. The very house
name of the Nampupri indicates the profession of
the family. It means the snake infested jungle.
(Pampummekkatu)
The Nambyadi of Ma^arSala belongs to an in¬
ferior order of Brahmins known as Elyctdus, priests
who officiate at the sraddhas of Nayars. Mannarsala,
{man-Aarv said), means “the place where the earth was
cooled”, and tradition says that this spot was miracu¬
lously cooled down by the gods at the prayer of the
serpents who fled in confusion when Arjuna set fire
to the Khanidava forest, an episode in the great Epic of
the Mahabharata. The family of the Nambyadi declares
that an ancestress of theirs had a vision in which the
Naga Baja appeared before her and requested her to
dedicate the piece of ground thus spared which had be¬
longed to her family for the abode of the serpents. She
did accordingly. A temple was built and a grove
reared. The Naga Raja was very much pleased and
ever after became her family deity. In virtue of the
founding of the worship, the female members of the
family enjoy exceptional privileges which are even now
exercised by them. Thus, during the eleven months of
the year, the month of Vrischigam excepted* the female
members alone can perform the mid-day service in the
temple. Out of the 13 Puyam asterisms of
the year, 9 Puyam days are exclusively set apart
for the female members to perform services. This it
may be remarked is perhaps the only instance in which
females are allowed to do puja in a temple in Malabar.
The tradition goes on to relate that the serpents who
were spared from the fire at Khandava-dahanam and
who were afforded an asylum at MaijijarsSla were the
progeny of a lady of the Vettikulam Illam who being
married to a male member of the Mannarsala Illam
brought with her as her dowry the stone image of the
Naga Raja, her house being too poor to give her any¬
thing better. The girl was counselled by her parents
to take care of the image and to regularly worship it
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 483

with devotion. Subsequently, it is said, she became a

mother and brought forth a boy and a snake, whereupon
the latter was located in the underground cellar of the
house and brought up there. Henceforward th & Illam
prospered. This woman and the snake are believed to
be the cause of the affluence of the family, and to this
day to the names of the male members of the house are
prefixed by way of distiction, the names of the serpent
god and that of the female. Mr. V. Nagam Aya tells us
that his informant who gave him the account and who
was at the time the head of the family was called
Vasuki Sridevi Krishnan; Vasuki, name of the ser¬
pent, Sreedevi, the name of the woman, and Krishnan,
the name of the individual. The serpent located in the
cellar is said to guard the family treasure which is sup¬
posed to be immense. The cellar is held very sacred
and no one has access to it except the senior lady of the
house. She has to live a monastic austere life on at¬
taining seniority, even though her husband is living.
On the occurrence of this event,’ the lady’s husband mar¬
ries another wife. The senior lady takes her bed
every night over this cellar. The wealth underneath
is theirs no doubt, but they dare not touch it without
the sanction of the Nsga Raja, who gives his consent
as occasion arises in a vision to the senior lady. Se¬
veral curious rites are still performed in this cellar.
The day next after the Siva Ratru Noorum Palum is
offered. Flour and milk are served in a vessel ac¬
companied by the recitation of mystic mantras, a lamp
is lighted and a palmyra leaf umbrella is placed as a
cover. The door is then shut and not opened for 4
days. It is said that on reopening the light will be
found still burning while the milk and flour have been
consumed. The daily routine of ceremonies performed
in the temple are thus described by Mr. V. Nagam
Aya:—
“In this spot are stone idols put up for the king
and queen of snakes, known as Njgaraja and
484 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

Nagayekshi, and for various members of the family which,

according to my informant, number about 3,000. There
are as many stone images in this grove now. In the
cellar of the house, as well as in the grove where the
stone images are placed, a solution of noorum palum is
offered once a year, that is, on the day following the
Sivarajri in the month of Masi. The same kind of of¬
fering is made to the Chittrakodam also. About 12^
Edangalies of dough and milk are mixed together and
kept in the cellar. Thereafter the door of the cellar is shut
for three days, and lest anybody pry into what passes with
the cellar, the women of the household cover the crevices
and holes of the door by the big cadjan umbrellas of the
female inmates of the Illam. On the third day the door is
opened, and whatever remains in the vessel of the dough
and milk placed there is thrown into a tank as unfit
for human use. The mixing up of noorum palum
and the performing of the pujas are done by
the eldest female member of the lllam. The noorum
palum is made of rice-flour, saffron powder, cow’s
milk, water of the tender cocoanut, fruit of the Kadali
plantain, and ghee. In the Nalukettu of the house,
offerings of noorum palum and cooked rice, as well as
kuruthi (a red liquid composed of flour, saffron and
chu^Sm), take place every Ayilyam (star) day. Every
morning the king and queen of serpents are washed,
and an offering of fruit and milk is made to them; in the
noon offerings of Vellanivedyam (cooked rice) and
afterwards of fried grain (Malar) follow. During the
month of Ksr^ika, a special puja called navakom and
offering of noorum palum are daily observed. On the
Sivarsjri day, in the month of Mssi, the customary five
pujas and navakom are performed, and in the even¬
ing of the same day sacrificial offerings to the serpents
and kuruthi, as stated above, are made, and, at the con¬
clusion of the day’s pujas the idols are taken in pro¬
cession round the temple. On Ayilyam (star) days, in
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 485

the months of Purattasi and Alpasi, all the serpent

idols in the grove and the temples therein are taken in
procession to the Illam, and offerings of noovum palum,
kuvuti and cooked rice are made there in propitiation
of the serpent gods. The person who carries the idol
of the Nsgarsja is the eldest female member of the
Illam, and the procession is conducted with great pomp
and rejoicings. According to my informant the eldest
female member of the house, though married, is expect¬
ed to lead a celibate life when she becomes the oldest
female in the family. During the festive days at Man-
riarssla, about 5°od people assemble to worship and
propitiate the serpent gods, and their offerings include
gold and silver coins, and gold, silver, copper or stone
effigies of snakes, grains of all kinds, pepper, salt,
saffron, tender cocoanuts, bunches of Kadaii plantain,
melons, oil, ghee, sandalwood, silk and other things.
On the day previous to the Ayilyam ceremonial, about
two or three thousand Brahmans are fed. The annual
expense of this institution and worship at Manmarsala
is estimated at about two thousand rupees. The kSvu
has its own paddy fields and gardens, from the revenues
of which it is maintained. All the land about it, mea¬
suring a mile square, is said to belong to it. This
would be enormous property, as the taluk where this
kSvu is situated is one of the richest in Travancore.
A trifle is given by the Sirkar every year. If more
funds are required, the Nambysdi is expected to meet
them from his own private income. The grove and its
temples cover an immense oblong space measuring
about 16 acres in extent. The inmates of the Illam are
the pujaries of the gods of this grove. It is believed
that whenever the puja is not performed with the
strictest personal purity or care to small details, the
serpent god get offended, which feeling is exhibited by
the largest cobras coming out of the grove. It should
be remembered that, as a rule, the serpents are not seen
out of their holes, though hundreds of them are known
to exist in these large groves.”1
1. Travancore Census Report for 1891, Vo!, 1, pp, 356 et sea
486 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

The members of the Nambysti’s family like those

of the Pampummekkat Illam have no fear of snakes.
Mr. S. Krishna Ayyar who gives an interesting account
of MarjtjarsSla and the worship carried on there
observes:—
“The members of the NambySp’s household
have not the least fear of snakes. They even court the
presence of the snakes within their Illam. There is a
general impression that, if a snake stays a night within
a house, it would bring luck to the occupants. So cal¬
lous have the Nambyatls grown that they are said not
to feel any concern even if a snake tumble on their bed
of a night. The present senior lady (it is said) rears a
few pets which would fondly trail over her hands and
feet. She addresses them “children” and pats them on
the head to still their frolics. I have myself seen a
NambySti endearingly stroke the back of a golden-
brown serpent, that was slowly gliding over the granite
steps leading down to a tank in the middle of the forest.
She assured us that any Brahmin who lived a pure life
might touch the serpents without fear. Accordingly,
a Brahmin present, reputed very holy, took courage
and stroked its back gently. The serpent did not seem
the least bit affronted, and did not even raise its head
at the presumptuous touch of a stranger. Around this
tank, a serpent or two might be seen gliding along
at any time. The water of this tank is always insuffer*
ably cold, and is reputed to be an antidote to poison.*’1
Mr. Krishna Ayyar gives us an account of the
grand festival of Sarpapattoo performed once in 12
years at Ma$$5r§sla for the propitiation of the general
body of serpents. “The grandest of these ceremonies
is what is known as a Sarpapsttoo, literally serpent
music. This has to be performed once in twelve years,
and is intended for the propitiation of the general body
of serpents* But being rather expensive and difficult
to arrange, it is performed only on rare occasions at
1. Malabar Quarterly Review, Vol 2, p. 169,
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 487

M a^SrSSla. There was a Sarpapattoo in 1073 M. E.

The one preceding it was in 1032, and the one
next prior to it in 990. It lasts twenty*seven days, and
costs over Rs. 3,000. Nine virgins are selected for
performing the services. If all the nine are not avail¬
able from the NambySti’s family, representatives from
a few Nayar families of the same kara are admitted;
but these latter have to qualify themselves by a preli¬
minary period of fasting. Some of the incidents of a
Nvorum palum have to be performed by them. But their
chief business seems to be the Tullal or the frantic dance.
From the moment they begin the dance till they cease,
attendants have to be ready with areca flower stalks,
as many as are called tor, with which they jump and
whirl about in a frenzy, wriggling and twisting them¬
selves like real serpents. As many as ten or twenty
thousand stalks may be used up in a single day- All
the neighbouring Taluks are laid under contribution-
Every virgin has her special attendants, lamp-bearers,
etc. Sometimes they dance off in different directions,
entering the thickest part of the jungles and returning
without a scratch, though the jungles are everywhere
full of the thorny cane. The attendants are not, how¬
ever, so invulnerable. Wonderful stories are told of
the miracles performed by these virgins during the
dance. All, however, end in some' unwarranted act
being punished by the presence of a snake in some un¬
looked-for place. And it is a wonder, seeing that the
grooves teem with snakes, that there is never a casuality.
It may be a grave question as to how anybody in this
age of boilers and explosives Acts, and shooting and
dog licenses can be allowed to keep a preserve
of animals, the most dangerous to human life.
The necessity for proscription has not arisen at
Maj>$5r$Sla, as much probably from the inoffensive
disposition of the NambySti’s serpents as from their
reputed sanctity. There seems to be a theory, indis¬
tinctly set forth, that about fifty per cent of the variety
of snakes found in India are non-poisonous. If this
488 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.
is true, and the tenants of the Ma$nara§ala groves
belong to the non-poisonous species, the whole business
becomes explicable.'’1
Next to ManriarasSla the important snake shrine
at the house of the Namputiri of Patirakunnatth Ulam
claims our attention. The whole place looks like a
snake asylum. In the front verandah are a series of
snake holes, which communicate with ant-hills inside
the house. The Namputiri’s source of income is
derived from the shrine to which visitors from all parts
of the district resort bringing with them rich offerings
for the snakes. The worship here does not differ much
in form from what is found elsewhere though it is of
less grandeur.
The killing of the cobra is considered a most
heinous sin. If a snake is found inside the house or
in its neighbourhood, it is carefully managed to get into
an earthenware pot which is covered over with a
cocoanut shell and taken to a secluded spot where the
snake is quietly let out and the pot destroyed. When
a snake is found dead, if it belongs to one of the
hooded species, pious Malayans see it burnt with
full solemnities as at the cremation of high caste
Hindus. The carcase is covered up with silk and
burnt with sandalwood fuel. When the flame rises,
incense and myrrh are added to it. A Brahman is
hired to observe pollution for 10 days and elaborate
funeral oblations are offered to the dead snake. Of
course all these mummeries are fast ebbing away under
the stress of the advance of liberal education.
The serpent worship of Malabar has attracted the
attention of early European travellers and writers
Varthema, speaking of the serpents found at Calicut,
observes:-—
“And you must know that when the Kincr of
Calicut learns where the nest of any of these brutal
animals is, he has made over it a little house, on
x. Malabar Quarterly Review, Vol. 2, pp. 17!_I72.
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 489
account of the water. And if any person should kill
one of these animals, the king would immediately put
him to death. In like manner, if any one kill a cov,
he would also put that person to death. They say
that these serpents are spirits of God and that, if they
were not his spirits, God would not have given them such
a power, that biting a person a little he would immedi¬
ately fall dead. And it is from this circumstance that
there are such numbers of these animals who know the
Pagans and do not avoid them * * and when the said
Pagans go on a journey, if they meet any of these
animals they receive it as a good augury.” Faria also
observes:—“ They adore and sacrifice to venomous
snakes, that they may not hurt with their poison.”
It may not be out of place to mention that the
Malayans like other Hindus believe that eclipses are
caused by the attempt of Rahu, a huge serpent, to
devour the sun o he moon as the case may be. The
eclipse is said ;o over when the monster spits out
its victim. Undei this idea they observe pollution for
the period during 'hich the eclipse lasts, abstaining
from food and drin After the eclipse, they bathe and
resume their genera work. If the eclipse falls on the
star on which any one is born, he makes donations of
money along with figures of the serpent, sun or moon
made of gold or silver to Brahmins. Sometimes
cucumbers, gingelly-seed, etc., accompany the gift. The
Malayalis observe this in general with other Hindus.
Another popular superstition regarding serpents
may also be noticed. It is thought that there exists a
most precious stone of great lustre and beauty in the
bosom of the earth called Manikkakallu. It is supposed
to be the product of the endeavours of certain serpents
which have been blowing continuously for ages on the
gold that is believed to be imbedded underneath the
earth. It is also said that the moment the gold is trans¬
formed into this precious stone, the blowers are also
transformed into winged serpents. They fly up in the
490 LETTERS FROM MALABAR fL. 27.

air with the resplendent stone and may perchance drop

it on the ground. If any finds it, his fortune is made,
but the serpent—it will never forget or forgive—such
are the beliefs of the untutored.
The origin and development of the serpent cult in
Malabar is of special interest not only from a religious
but also from a historic and ethnic point of view.
While some associate serpent worship with the adora¬
tion of the Phallic emblem, others think that it had its
origin in sun worship. In almost every country there
is some tradition, if not actual practice of serpent
worship. It may be traced from the low level of the
culture of the Red Indian to the higher plane of Hindu
civilization. We can trace the belief of the supernatural
character of the serpent among the ancient Chaldeans,
Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, Persians, even
amongst the early Christians.
Even after the introduction of Christianity, traces
of sun and serpent worship remained in Syria and other
parts of Western Asia. The Gnostics not simply
adopted a curious blending of this ancient form of reli¬
gion with their ritual, some of them actually wor¬
shipped the serpent1 . The Manicheans held the
serpent to be a beneficent agent2 . Major Oldham
thinks that the legend of St. George and the Dragon,
although it assumed its present shape in Christian times,
was probably founded upon an older storys.
The Red Indians built temples to the serpents.
Other tribes on the continent of America traced their
descent from a serpent ancestor.
It has been said that “the serpent has been selected
of all animals as the distinctive type or emblem of wis¬
dom. Its silent, gliding motion, its habit of making its
haunts near human households, like an animal easily
domesticated, and yet retaining its native fierceness, the
1. Mosheim, Inst, Eccles. Hist. V, 8i.
a. Ibid. 109.
3. 1'he Sun and the Serpent p. 195,
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 491

remarkable effects of snake bite where death almost

immediately follows, and yet without dismemberment,
with4 little or no loss of blood and with hardly any per¬
ceptible mark of a wound making it appear as if the
soul of the dead man had been drawn out by the serpem
and dwelt in it; all these are phenomena calculated to
impress the mind most forcibly”. Froude says “The
snake throughout the East is the symbol of knowledge
and immortality. The serpent with his tail in his
mouth (an ancient Persian symbol) represents the
circle of eternity. The serpent, in annually shedding
its skin, was supposed to renew its life for ever. This
casting off of the slough is regarded as an emblem of
resurrection and immortality”. Here then we have a
clear indication as to why so many races in the early
stages of their civilization came to regard the
serpent as supernatural. It is worthy of note
that, while many religionists worshipped the animal as
endowed with divine attributes, Christian tradition
pointed to the arch enemy of God and man as being
represented by that crawling reptile. In the form of the
“infernal Serpent” did Satan tempt “The Mother of
Mankind” to eat off the fruit of the forbidden tree
“whose mortal taste, brought death into the world
and all our woe.” Thus did the Evil one cause “man’s
first disobedience” and its fatal consequence. Chris¬
tian tradition also pointed to a time when a man
should arise who would bruise the serpent’s head. As
the Evil Angel, Satan tempted “the third part of
heaven’s host,’’and as a punishment he was cast into the
the region of eternal fire. With this may be compar¬
ed the Hindu tradition of the destruction oFKalrka the
great serpent King by Krishna. Paintings of the
combat between the two show Krishna as bruising the
head of the serpent by treading upon it, even dancing
upon its hood.
Snakes and serpents have a conspicuous niche in
the Hindu Pantheon. Vishnu reposes on the serpent
 492 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

SS§ha, the one with a thousand heads and a thousand

tongues. Siva wears the serpent round his neck as an
ornament. Both gods delight in their company. The
Kri§hria temple at Ambalapula is as much the abode
of snakes of the hooded species as the Siva temple at
Vykom, both in the Travancore State. With the Hin¬
dus the fifth day of the bright half of the month
Sravana, called Nagapanchami is “Sacred to the demi¬
gods in the form of serpents who are enumerated in
the Padma and Garuda Puranas.” The story of Ka-
dru and Vinata and their progeny as related in Maha,'
bharata shows with what superstitious regard the
serpent race was looked upon by the early Aryans. 1
1 he veneration for the serpent is intimately con¬
nected with the worship of the sun, says Major Oldham,
and is thus closely related to the orthodox Hindu
religion. He considers that the hooded serpent was a
totem of the people who claimed descent from the sun
and that the Naga demi-gods who are described in Brah-
manical writings as “The Celestial serpents belonging
to Sur^a (the sun-god) were deified chiefs of solar
race”. He points out that the Asuras and Serpas of
the Rig Veda, the Asuras and Nagas of Manu and the
Mahabharata and the Asuras and demons of the Brah¬
mins, all represented hostile tribes, who opposed the
Aryan invasion. These Asuras, Dasyus, or Nagas,
with whom the Aryans crime in contact on approaching
the borders of India, were no savage aboriginal tribes
but a civilised people who had cities and castles built
of stone. One of their great cities was Patala the
capital of the territory w'hich bore the same name, and
which appears to have been included in the dominions of
Vritra the great A hi. The Asuras are identified with
the Dravidians some of whom had made early settle¬
ments in the south of India. The earliest civilization of
southern India is generally ascribed to the Dravidians,
1. The recent excavations at ISanchi reveal elaborate repre¬
sentations of serpent worship on the gates of the Buddhist Tope
there. F
N. i4.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 493

and most authorities consider that the Dravidians

came from northern India. It has been supposed that
they were displaced by the invading Aryans. Dr. Cald¬
well, a very eminent authority asks “Were the Dravi¬
dians identical with the Dasyus, by whom the progress
of the Aryans was disputed, and who were finally sub¬
dued and incorporated with the Aryan race, as their
serfs and dependents?” “Here as elsewhere’’, observes
Major Oldham, “it is assumed that the Aryas were con¬
querors, who reduced the AsurSs to slavery. It has
already been shown, however in these pages, that
this was not the case. We have seen that there was a
fusion of the two peoples. We have also seen that,
whatever may have been the fate of the aborginies, the
Asuras were not subdued by the Aryans, and never
became their serfs or dependents, but were gradually
converted to Aryan usages”. He goes on to point out
what Dr. Caldwell himself says: “Neither the subju¬
gation of the Dravidians by the Aryans, nor the
expulsion from northern India of the southern Dravi¬
dians by the Aryans, is recognised by any Sanskrit
authority or any Dravidian tradition” However the
northern Dravidians had in very early times established
colonies in the south. A legend of the Mahabharata
relates how Kadru, mother of the serpents, compelled
Garugla to convey her sons across the sea “to a beauti¬
ful country, in a distant region, which was inhabited
by NagSs”. After encountering a violent storm and
great heat, the sons of Kadru were landed in the country
of Ramariika, on the Malabar Coast 2. Here we may
remember that Malabar is styled by Sanskrit writers
A hi Desa> the territory of the serpents (NagSs or
Asuras in ail probability) and in the Rig Veda the term
A hi or serpent is applied to the AsurSs or Dasyus.
The Dravidian colonies, some of which may have
been established before the Aryas entered India, appear
1. Pp. 148—9.
2. Oldham, pp. 60—1.
494 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27

to have been founded by expeditions sent, some by sea,

from Patala and other ports and some by land.
Ancient legends refer to conflicts between the
Hindu colonists of later times, said to have been led by
ParaSu Rama and the NagSs from Patsia, whom they
found in possession of the country. The Keralolpathi
says that the first Brahmin colonists of ParaSu Rama
did not remain, because they were not able to bear the
incessant attacks of the serpents which infested the
country It adds that Kerala was for some time under
the undisturbed control of Nagathanmar, serpents.
Parana Rama, incarnation of Vi§hnu as he is asserted
to be, was unable to subdue the Nagas ; he is said to
have made a compromise by allotting a portion of the
Brahmin’s estate or Brahmaswam to the NsgSs, order¬
ing the Brahmins to regard them as their' Sthaladaivam
or Bharadevata, i. e., tutilary or patron deities. The
Brahmins were also ordered to propitiate them by
offering Bali (sacrifices) and Pujas (offerings). And
it is added that the serpents were pacified by this. Who
can doubt that this legend refers to the actual conflict
that took place at one time between the Dravidian
Njga settlers from Patala and their Aryan rivals?
Major Oldham refers to Inscriptions of the 10th
and nth centuries which show that several of the
chiefs of south-western India claimed to have been
born of the race of the Nagas; to have held the Naga
dhwaja or ccrpent banner; and to have had the heredi¬
tary title of “Supreme lord of Bhogavati”. They thus
claimed direct descent from the Nagarajas of Pataia.
A part of the country of Canara was called in inscrip¬
tions Nagarkhanda, or the territory of the Naga people.1
We know that the worship of the hooded serpent,
the Naila Pampu or good snake, is as prevalent in the
south as among the Dravidian races in the north. The
offerings made to living serpents as well as to their
sculptured representatives consist of milk, flour, fruit
3. Pp. 149—50.
N .14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 495

and grain, which are not the usual food of snakes but
are the food of men. Flowers and lights are also
offered as to ancestors. We find too that should
a Cobra be killed, it is burned as if it were a
human body. It is said that the serpents whc
dislodged the early Brahmin colonists in Malabai had
human faces. We have seen that the serpents in Mala-
bar are worshipped in Kavoos or groves, and it is just
so in many of the Punjab villages. There too the groves
are left untouched by axe or spade. It is significant
that the name of the serpent prefixed to the name of the
Ma$$SrsSla Nambiadi is that of Vasuki, the name of
the Nsga Raja of Pstaia and the deified hero of the
Nsga people in northern India. In Malabar the region
of the Nagas, who contested the right to hold the land
with the Aryans, was known as Nagalokam or Pata-
lani* The language used in the services at the unortho¬
dox shrines is the local Dravidian dialect, while in the
Brahmanical temples the worship of the orthodox deities
is conducted in Sanskrit.
The Dravidian people of south India have been
divided, from ancient times, into Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas. Chgra, or Sera (in old Tamil Sarai) is the
Dravidian equivalent of Nsga;Chgra-Mandala,therefore,
has the same meaning as Nsga Mandala, Nsga dwlpa
Nsga Loka or the Nsga country. This seems to point
distinctly to the Asura origin of the Dravidians of the
south. But in addition to this, there still exists, widely
spread over the Ganges valley, a people who call them¬
selves Cherus or Seoris, and who claim descent from
the serpent gods. The Cherus are of very ancient race;
they are believed to have once held a great portion of
the valley of the Ganges which was occupied in very early
times by Nsga tribes. There can be little doubt that
these people are the kinsmen of the Dravidian Cheras.
These have some peculiar customs, amongst them which
seem to connect them wit a the NgwSrs of Nepal, and the
Newsrs have many customs in common with the DravL
dian Nayars of Malabar. Property amongst the N5wSrs
496 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

descended in the female line, their sister’s sons and not

the issue of their own loins being their heirs. This is
still the Malabar Law of inheritance. Other affinities
and likenesses between the NewSrs and the NSyars such
as similarity in marital relations, in architecture and in
name have already been referred to before.
Major Oldham refers to an inscription discovered
by Col. Tod at Kanswah near the river Chambal in
which, a Raja, called Salimdra “of the race of Sarya, a
tribe renowned amongst the tribes of the mighty”, is
said to be ruler of Takhya.1 He then identifies the
Takhya of the above inscription with the kingdom of
the Punjab of the same name visited by Hiouen Tsiang
and observes that the Nsga people of Takhya were
known also by the name of Sarya. A tract of country
called Saraj, or Seoraj where the Nsga demi-gods are
the chief deities worshipped, situated in the outer Hima¬
laya between the Sutlej and the Beas valleys, is also men¬
tioned. There is yet another Seoraj in the upper Chenab
valley and this too is occupied by a Naga worshipping
people. The name Seoraj or, Saraj appears to be the
same as the Sarya of Col. Tod’s inscription. Major Old¬
ham argues that this “is the alternative name of the
Cherus of the Ganges valley. It also seems to be identi¬
cal with Sarai, which, as we have already seen, is the
old Tamil name for the Chera or Nsga. Apparently
therefore, the Saryas of Takhya, the Saraj, people of
the Sutlej valley, the Seoris or Cherus of the
valley of the Ganges, and the Cheras, Seras, or Keralas
of Southern India, are but different branches of the
same Naga-worshipping people”. 2 We have the
authority of Dr* Caldwell that “the name Chera and
Kerala were originally one and the same, and it is cer¬
tain that they are always regarded as synonymous in
Native Tamil and Malayalam lists”, and Rev.
Mr. Foulkes observes that “Chera and Kerala denote
the same country, the term Kerala being that the
1. Page 158.
2, P. 159-
N. 14.] SERPENTS ESTEEMED SACRED 497

Canarese dialectical form of the word Chera.” Dr.

Gundert defines the word Keralam as “ChSram, the
country between Gokarnam and Kumari.” (Mai*
Diet.). Major Oldham also refers to the similarity in
name between the Kiras of the Himalayas where the
term Kira means a serpent and the Kiras, Cheras, or
Keralas of the south, and while guarding himself against
the tendency to jump at conclusions from such delusive
coincidences observes:—“Similarity of name is not
always to be trusted, but here we have something more.
These people whose designation is apparently the same,
are all of Solen race; they all venerate the hooded ser¬
pent and they all worship, as ancestors, the Naga demi¬
gods.” 7

Major Oldham then examines the evidence afforded

by language and finally comes to the conclusion, “that
the Dravidians of the south of India were of the same
stock as the AsurSs or NagSs of the north*” It may
also be noted in this connection that a Scythian origin
of the Nayars has been recently advanced. 1 2 3 It is sug¬
gested that the modern Nayars are the representatives,
if not the descendants, of the original Nsga settlers and
that the word Nsyar is but another form of ftagar, the
plural of the word Aaga. It has also been suggested
that both the Brahmans and Nayars of Malabar,
are of homogeneous descent and that they are of a
primeval Turanian race. 3 If there is anything in these
suggestions, the prevalence of serpent worship in
Malabar is easily accounted for.
Dr. Caldwell observes, “Seeing the northern
vernaculars possess with the words of the Sanskrit a
grammatical structure, which in the main appears to
be Scythian, it seems more correct to represent those
languages as having a Scythian basis with a large and

1. P. 160.
2. Mai. Qua. Rev. Vol. I p. 20 et seq.
3. Native Life in Travancore pp, 17—8.
 498 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

almost overwhelming Sanskrit addition, than as having

a Sanskrit basis with a small admixture of a Scythian
element.” 1

The earlier Asura or Nsga colonies to south India

must have left the north long before the fusion of the
Asuras with the Aryans with the result that the Dra-
vidian languages of Southern India retain a more inti¬
mate connection with the Scythian or Turanian tongues
than the northern vernaculars. Since the peaceful
penetration of Southern India by the Aryans, the one
prominent feature we notice is the sustained endeavour
made to enrich the Dravidian vernaculars with Sans¬
krit grammatical forms and words, and at this moment it
is the pride of the Malayalam language to claim a large
admixture of Sanskrit than in any other Dravidian
language of Southern India.

Of the many stories related by early travellers

regarding the serpents of Malabar, the following by
Nicolo Conti is remarkable for its extraordinary nature.
“This region” says Nicolo “also produces other ser¬
pents of a remarkable form, one cubit in length and
winged like bats. They have 7 heads arranged along
the body, and live in trees. They are extremely rapid
in fight, and most venomous of all, destroying men by
their breath alone.”2

15. Crocodiles. Yule and Burnell observe that the

word ‘crocodile’ is seldom used by the Anglo-Indians
in India, “alligator” being the term almost invariably
employed. Forbe’s description of the animals that
infest the Travancore rivers and lakes is typical of the
Malabar crocodiles. He says:—“The eastern districts
of Travancore, intersected by lakes and rivers, abound
with amphibious animals, especially alligators and seals.
There seems to be no essential difference between the
alligator of India, and the Egyptian crocodiles; lacerta
1. Gram: Drav: Lang: Intro\ p. 58.
2. Major’s India in the 15th Century, p 18,
N. 15.] CROCODILES 499

alligator, and lacertus crocodilus. Naturalists seem

to confine the alligator to South America, the crocodile
to Asia and Africa; but in India the lacerta crocodile,
generally called the alligator, is from 5 to 20 feet long,
shaped like the genus to which it belongs: the back is
covered with impenetrable scales; the legs short, with 5
spreading toes on the fore foot, and 4 in a straight line
on the hinder, armed with claws; the alligator moves
slowly, its whole formation being calculated for strength,
the backbone firmly jointed and the tail a most formid¬
able weapon: in the river it eagerly springs on the
wretch unfortunately bathing within its reach, and
either knocks him down with his tail or opens a wide
mouth for his destruction, armed with numerous sharp
teeth of various length; by which like the shark, he
sometimes severs the human body at a single bite. The
animals of the Nile and the Ganges although wonder¬
ful, are not fabulous. The upper jaw only of the al¬
ligator was thought to be movable; that is now com¬
pletely disproved; the eyes are of a dull green, with a
brilliant pupil, covered by a transparent pellicle, mov- .
able as in birds: from the heads of those of large size
musk is frequently extracted.

“The alligator sometimes basks in the sunshine on

the banks of the river, but oftener floats on its surface;
there, concealing his head and feet, he appears like the
rough trunk of a tree, both in shape and colour; by this
deception, dogs and other animals fearlessly approach,
and are suddenly plunged to the bottom by the insi-
duous foe, even the royal tiger becomes his prey,
quitting the cover to drink at the river; the wily alli¬
gator, concealed under water, steals along the
bank, and suddenly emerging, furiously attacks the
tiger, who never declines the combat: the alligator
generally loses his eyes, and receives dreadful wounds
on the head, but at length plunges his adversary into
an unnatural element, and there devours him.
500 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

“The astonishing strength and size of the alligator

and crocodile render them very terrible; the small ones
live chiefly on fish; and far from attacking the human
species, dive instantly on their appearance. The female
sometimes lays 3 or 400 eggs, which she covers with
sand to be vivified by the sun; in about a month the
brood break the shell and instinctively take to the
water.” 1
* * *

16. A certain species of kite.—This is apparently

the Brahmani kite. Friar Jordanus describes it as
“having a white head and belly, but all red above,
which boldly snatches fish out of the hands of fisher¬
men and other people and indeed (these birds) go on
just like dogs.” And Dr. Fryer points out that1*.
’tis Sacrilege with them (the Hindus) to kill a cow or
a calf; but highly piacular to shoot a kite dedicated to
the Brahmans for which money will hardly pacify.”

17. Fire-flies. These insects are very numerous

in Malabar especially on the backwater-sides and in
marshy places where there is rank vegetation. The
splendour of the light emitted by them has excited the
wonder of many. So also the rhythmical or synchro¬
nous flashing of the fire-flies when visible in great
numbers. Bishop Heber gives a glowing description
of the sight in the following lines:—
“Yet mark! as fade the upper skies,
Each thicket opens ten thousand eyes.
Before, behind us, and above,
The fire-fly lights his lamp of love,
Retreating, chasing, sinking, soaring,
The darkness of the copse exploring.” 2

x. Pp. 224—226.
2. Ed. of 1844-1—258*
 Supplementary Note—Malayalam Language
and Literature.
THE COUNTRY WHERE MALAYALAM
JS SPOKEN.

Malayalam is the language of the south-west dis¬

tricts of the Madras Presidency. It is the third most
important language of the Presidency, the first and the
second being Tamil and Telugu respectively. It is
spoken in Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. It is the
mother-tongue of 9,137,615 persons. Malabar, Cochin
and Travancore, taken as a whole, are bounded on the
north by South Canara, on the east by the far-famed
Malaya range of mountains, on the south by the Indian
Ocean, and on the west by the Arabian Sea.
Properly speaking, Malabar is the name of a
small district of which Calicut is the capital. But the
term is now and then loosely applied to that tract of
land which, besides the above, includes Cochin and
Travancore also. The natives love to call it Keralam
and Malayslam. These names are well suited to it,
the former (KSram=coccanut) ‘on account of the dense
forest of cocoanut palms which constitute the wealth of
the country*, and the latter (Mala=hill and slam=dale)
from the undulating nature of its surface. Other devia¬
tions are possible and are given for these place-names.
But there is no need to delay over them here.
“The low belt which borders on the sea and the
backwaters is by nature flat and swampy, but has in the
course of ages become rich with the works of man, and
the landscape shaded and fanned by ‘the feathery palm*
presents a chequered scene of light and shade. As we
leave the seaboard, an undulating country, diversified
with grassy flats, naked hills and wooded terraces, inter¬
sected by numerous torrents and rapids dashing down
from cliff to valley, and profusely dotted with simple
homesteads, orchards and cultivated fields, rolls up to
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR
S02

the foot of the western ghats, where the landscape, now

become nobler and more intensified in grandeur, merges
itself in wide forests of continuous shade, leaving ‘a
woody theatre of stateliest view’ amidst ‘a variegated
maze of mount and glen.*
Geology supports the tradition which asserts that
the Kerala country was raised out of the sea; but the
ancients have dressed the tradition in the garb of Para-
surSma. It is possible that the great pioneer
Parasursma led the first Aryan settlers into KSralam,
which, long before their advent, had evolved a culture
unique in its own way.
The Aryans must have found the country divided
into villages or jaras. Each village was self-contained
and consisted of’houses situated in. detached gardens.
‘These villages had their own organisation for agrarian,
social, civil and administrative purposes. They were
in fact miniature republics so far as their civil life was
concerned. It was the ftsttSr (people of the country) who
administered the country with the help of the Kuttam, the
National Assembly. For political purposes, the country
was divided into I?e$ams and Naddus under I?55ava-
lies and Nsduvalies, while, for military training, it carr.e
to be divided into 18 samghams. Each of these had six
systems of training. The Kaiaries or the fencing-
schools were held in the vicinity of a Ksvu. That is
how we find reference in hymns and old records to 108
kaiaries and the same number of DurgalaySs in KSrala.
At one period in the political evolution of the
country, the groups of villages called ftads were placed
under chieftains known as 'J'aliyS^iries nominated for
three years by special electors. There were eighteen
and a half Talies in Kgrala, a tali being the area cover¬
ed by the jurisdiction of a chieftain. The dissensions
among the Taliyafiries and the unrest among the peo-
le due to the bad rule of these led them to appeal to
powerful, neighbouring rulers for help. This is how
the Perumals, Viceroys chosen from the royal houses
 MALAYALAM LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 503

of ChSra, Chola and Psndya came to rule over K5rala.

Some of them did not rule out their term of 12 years,
as a few died premature deaths, while others were re¬
placed for their misrule. The dates of the Perumal
period have not yet been definitely determined. Some
give the kali, bhuman bhupoyam prspa (A. D. 216) as
the date of its commencement, while others state that
cryptogram dudurdharam (B. C. 113) is the correct
year.
The capital of the Perumals was Tiruvanchikulam
near Cranganur in the vicinity of the port of Muziris
which Pliny calls primum emporium Indiae. The
Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks and the Romans
came to this port for commercial purposes. The Jews,
the Muslims and the Christians claim Cranganur as
their first settlement. There was a great university at
Mafilakam, near Cranganur, where the Vidvalsabha,
the assembly of the wise, directed the studies of the
university and enacted laws for the country. It was
presided over by Iiankoadigal, the author of Silappadhi•
karam, and the son of Bsiia Varman NetumchfcranStan,
who is said to have ruled Kgraia from A. C. 115 to 129
A. C. It was Ilankoadigal’s friend, Chitftfalay Chatta-
n2r, that wrote Manimekhala. These and the Patittip•
pattu by another Kerala Kavi were all published from
'firuvanchikuiam.
Bhaskara Ravi Varma was the last of the Peru¬
mals ; he turned out to be so popular and his rule so
wise and just that he was permitted to rule the country
for 37 years. UrudhlsamSSraya (342 A. D.), Ch5ra-
mandeSamprSpa (A. D. 343), ShodaSamgam sursjyam
(A. D. 385) are some of the kalis associated wifh his
name. The Malayalam kingdom was, for various
reasons, partitioned, so some say, by him among his
friends and relatives. Malabar, Cochin and Travancore
_ arose out of the dismemberment of that ancient Malaya-
am kingdom
5°4
LETTERS FROM MALABAR

From very early times, some.ofthe produces pecu¬

liar to the Malabar Coast were known to several of the
nations of Asia and Europe, and were the objects of
maritime enterprise and commerce throughout the suc¬
ceeding centuries. “The Phoenicians by way of the
Persian Gulf and, subsequently, by way of the Red
Sea; the Jews under David and Solomon; the Greeks
under Alexander the Great; the Syrians under the
Seleucidae; the Egyptians under the Ptolemies; the
Romans under the Emperors; the Arabians after the
conquest of Egypt and Persia; the Italians, the Portu¬
guese; the Dutch; the French”—each nation had its
share in the trade with the Kerala country. And it
is no secret that for the last two centuries, the English
have been carrying on a brisk trade with the ancient
‘land of pepper.’
From its commercial prosperity, it should not be
supposed that the Malayalam territory had all along
enjoyed peace. For, there are reliable records to show
that, for some centuries before it came under the Eng¬
lish sway, the country was the scene of battles, internal
feuds and foreign invasions, a fact which clearly
explains the slow progress of the Malayalam literature
in those days and its rapaid growth within the last
hundred years.
Between the years 1792 and 1795 A. D., Malabar,
Cochin and Travancore came under the supremacy of
the British. With this supremacy came schools and
books and all the paraphernalia of modern civilization,
and people began to take an interest in the language,
arts and industries of their ancestors. The Malayslis
took to the new system of instruction with great avidity.
The result has been very remarkable. In the words
of one of the Imperial Census Reports, “In education,
the rate of improvement is highest in Malabar. Both
Cochin and Travancore have a larger degree of educa¬
tion than the Madras Presidency as a whole, larger
too than the adjoining district of Malabar, though this
 MALAYALAM LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 50$

s true only of male education, so far as Travancore is

concerned. The people of Cochin, both males and
females, are more educated than the inhabitants of any
other district except Madras.” It is therefore not very
strange that the Malayslis are now taking a lively in¬
terest in the development of their language and liter¬
ature.
MALAYALAM LANGUAGE.

Malayalam is one of the Dravidian languages.

Dravidian is from Dravida, the adjectival form of
Dravida. This term is a ‘generic appellation of the
south India peoples and their languages.’ The Dra¬
vidian cultivated languages are—
1. Tamil 4, CanarHse.
2. Telugu 5. Tulu.
3. Malayalam 6. Kodagu.
From the scanty materials that we possess, it is
not easy to trace exactly the origin of the Malayalam
language. The opinion of some great philogists seems
to be that there must originally have been some
dialect spoken by the tribes of Malabar. According to
Mr. P. T. Sreenivasa Iyengar, the languages spoken
in India in olden days were all dialects of proto-
Tamil, while Dr. Maclean, though he does not go
so far, still holds that there is little doubt that the
Dravidian languages are comparatively older in point
of time than Sanskrit. Dr. Gundert says that Tamil
and Malayalam differed as dialects of the same
member of the Dravidian family. The late Chattambi
SwSmi whose encyclopaedic knowledge was the wonder
and despair of his erudite contemporaries, held that
Sanskrit, Samskrtam, is refined Tamil, or, to be more
accurate, proto-Tamil. In Lilatilakam, a very old work
on Malayalam grammar, it is shown that Ma^ipravalam
is a combination of Malayalam and Sanskrit, ©ooaaocnj*
cru°<2)Ctn«cQ)o«cEo asrol^ajoa.0* The work then says that
Tamil there means Malayalam. Tamil was a generic
term for all Dravida languages in remote times#
go6 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

Kullkkstt Bhattatiri, a dependent of Ravi Varma, who

was known as Dakshina Bhoja, is the author of Lila-
tilakam. He was a contemporary of the author of
Unninili-sandesam. Mr. AfMfur K. PishSroti in his
Critical Survey of the Malayalam Language and Literm
ature shows how the term Tamil became Damila,
Damida, Dramida and finally Dravida. The late
A. R. Rajaraja Varma, the author of Kerala-Paniniyam>
says in that classical work that the literary Tamil was call¬
ed Chentamil, while the popular, spoken Tamil was call¬
ed Kotumtamil. There were different varieties of this,
one of which, Karintamil, grew to become Malayalam.
Very few means are there to trace the growth of this
dialect to its modern form. Separated from the old
stock and its other branches by the ghauts, this variety
underwent gradual changes. Sanskrit has affected
the grammar and vocabulary to a great extent. It
was very much influenced by Tamil, and, to a
less extent, by Tulu, Canarese and Telugu. “The
resultant of these forces acting upon the original dialect
of Malabar is the present Malayalam Language.
Terms connected with the Mahomedan religion,
government and commerce have found their way into
Malayalam from Arabic, Persian and Hindustani;
while Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin have contri¬
buted terms connected with Christianity. A few words
current in the language are derived from Portuguese,
Dutch and French. English tends to influence its
idioms, gives birth to new terms of expression and
thus moulds the public thought into different forms.

“In the Dravidian languages all names denoting

inanimate substances and irrational beings are of the
neuter gender. The distinction of male and female
appears only in the pronouns of the third person, in
adjectives formed by suffixing the pronominal termi¬
nations, and in the third person of the verb. In all
other cases the distinction of gender is marked by
separate words signifying male and female. Dravidian
 MALAYALAM LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE go7
nouns are inflected by means of suffixed post-positions
and separable particles. Dravidian neuter nouns are
rarely pluralised. Dravidian adjectives are incapable
of declension. A peculiarity of the Dravidian dialects
is the existence of two pronouns of the first person
plural, one inclusive and other exclusive of the person
addressed. The Dravidian languages have no passive
voice. The Dravidian verbal system possesses a
negative as well as affirmative voice. It is a marked
peculiarity of the Dravidian languages that they make
use of relative participial nouns instead of phrases
introduced by relative pronouns.” The chief difference
between Malayalam and the other Dravidian tongues
is that in the former the verb has gradually got itself
divested of all distinctions as to gender, number and
person.
DIFFERENT EPOCHS.
A well-known writer on Malayalam Literature
divides the growth of Malayalam into four epochs:—

I. KARINTAMIL.
3100 B. C.—100 B. C,
From the songs, religious and other, composed
by KulaSekhara Alvar, PakkanSr and others, we get
an insight into the language of this period. There is
a strong admixture of Tamil in it. Sanskrit had not
then begun to influence it.

II. OLD MALAYALAM

100 B. C.—325 A. D.
We find innumerable Sanskrit words in the
language by the close of the period. There were
personal terminations for verbs, and these were conju¬
gated for gender and number. But it is very doubtful
whether this was true in the case of the spoken
language. From the copper-plate deeds of this period
and from the records of daily events that used to be
kept in certain ruling families at this period, we see
what progress the language had made by this time.
go8 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

It is only from this time onwards that we see compo¬

sitions in prose.
III. MIDDLE MALAYALAM.
325 A. D.—1425 A] D.
The traces of the adjuncts of verbs had disappear¬
ed by this time. The Jains seem to have encouraged
the study of the language. From the court chronicles
referred to above, Ramackaritam and from
from
Ka$nas§a Paniker’s Ramayanam, we get a clear idea
of the language of the period.

IV. MODERN MALAYALAM.

1425 A. D.
By this time, Malayalam got itself entirely divor¬
ced from Tamil, and we find modern Malaysiam in all
its distinctness. This period may profitably be
divided into two parts, the first ending about 1795 A. D.,
the year in which the English got complete posses¬
sion of the Kerala country, the other commencing
from that year.
The coolness with which these four main periods
are marked off with their corresponding dates is really
astonishing. The duration of the first epoch seems
to be fabulous, while I shall be the last to accept the
designation of Karintamil, if by that it is presumed
that; Malayalam had its origin from Tamil.
The styles of writing that were in vogue and of
which we have any knowledge were the Koleluttu and
the Vatteluttu scripts. The present is called
Malayalam grantha characters*
Kerala PSnini has suggested another division:—
Early Malayalam- 1 to 500 M. E. (825 A. D.—
1325 A. D.)
Middle Malayalam 500 to 800
Modern Malayalam 800 and onwards.
A recent historian of Malayalam Poetical Litera¬
ture has adopted this division and has clubbed together
certain outstanding works under these heads.
 MALAYALAM LANGUAGE 509
Early Malayalam—Raniacharitam; Unninili-.
Sondes am*
Middle Malayalam—Champus; Chandyolsavam\
Ramakatha\ Niranam works;
Krish nagatha.
Modern Malayalam—Works ofTunchan, Kunchan
and Puntanam ; those of
Kotiayam Kerala Vafma, of
Pumtottam, and Chelappara-
mbu; those of Rsmapurath
Varier and UnnSyi Varier;
Kris knot torn; Kathakalies
of Kotfcarakkara and Kotta-
yam TampurSns, and those
of Irayi Vafman Tampi.
To these he also adds another division which he
calls New Malayalam, under which he puts the works
of modern poets headed by Valiya Koil Tampursn and
Kotungallur Tampurans. To most of these I shall
have to refer in their appropriate places in this brief
sketch.
MALAYALIS WHO HAVE WRITTEN
WORKS IN SANSKRIT.
No sketch of Malayalam Literature can be com¬
plete which does not make mention of Malayans
who have won renown by their works in Sanskrit.
I shall therefore take a rapid survey of them. I can
find space only for a few among a host of very im¬
portant names. Keraia claims among her sons, Vara-
ruchi, the great progenitor of astronomical science in
Malayalam, and Bhartrhari, the renowned author of the
three Satakams. The early literary history of the
Malayalam language contains so many stories about
their doings in the land that it would be impossible for
any one to believe that they were not Malayalls. The
great theologian and philosopher, Sankarachsrya, was
born at Kalafi, on the banks of the Churrii up the
Alwaye river, which in his time belonged to Cochin# His
516 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

commentaries on the Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutras,

and the Bhagavat Gita are well-known to the world.
No Indian need be told that his system of Advaita
Philosophy is one of the grandest products of the
human genius* The great ved^nta ahd mlmsmsa
scholar Prabhakara too was a Malayali. He belonged
to the VSfiftanat gramcm, reputed for its scholars
and praised for that in Suka Sandesam» His Kaumarila-
matam get a firm foothold in Kerala through the
sponsorship of it of Payyur Bhattatiries. He had as
one of his disciples a person from Veiisngallur in the
Mukundapuram Taluk of Cochin, who speaks of his
master, in his Manameyodayam> a mlmamsa work, as a
master in both the mimamsas.' He is also the author of
Govindacharitam Kavyam> and of the commentaries to
Raghuvamsam called Padarthadipika, to Kumar a-
sambhavam called Vivarajaam and to Uilararama-
charitam called Bhavarttadlpika.
KulaSekhara Ahvar, the author of Mukundamala and
of the dramas of Tapatisanivaranam and Dan am jay am
was a patron of letters. Tholan has written Mahodaya•
puracharitam, a mahakavya in praise of the Kulasekhara
royal house. He is also the author of a Malayalam
work on dramaturgy called Attaprakaram and of several
humorous verses to be used at Kutiyattam and Samkhak-
kaii. The diction of Attaprakaram is imitated in
Unnunili Sa7idesam and by Champu writers. Katha-
kaii also helped to popularise it.
The drama Ascharya-Chudamani by Saktibhadra,
a disciple of Sri Sankara, has received the blessing of
that sage, while the Krishnavijayam Kavyam of
Sankarakavi has been the object of unmeasured praise
of Uddanda SSStri. Raman NambiySr of Vettajtuftsd
was a great favourite of Marttanda Varma of V£riad
and of DevaftSraya^an of Ambalappula. He wrote two
mahaksvyas. His Rasakrida and Vruttavarttikam are
highly spoken of by scholars. Krishnavilasam by
SukumSra kavi and Balabharatam by Agastya kavi bid
 MALAYALI SANSKRIT-WRITERS sn
fair to compete with Kalidasa’s Kttmarasambhavam,
and Raghuvamsam respectively. Yudh is lira v ijay a m,
(a yamaka kavya) a Kavya of a peculiar structure, is
the work of Vasud^va Bhattatiri. He was the son of
Ravi Namputiri, a friend of KulaSgkhara Alwar and
the annotator of the two dramas of that king
VSsudgva was, like SankarSchSrya, a Namputiri
which means a Malayaii Vedic Brahman. The
Kavyamala editors have done an injustice to Malabar
by ascribing the authorship of this poem to a native of
Kashmere. Vasudevavijayam by one Vasudevan Nam¬
putiri is a Prakriya-kavya, in imitation of the Batti-
kavya, as a continuation of which Mgppattur Naraya-
na Bhattatiri wrote his Dhatu-kavya. Karingampiili
Namputiri, the author of Suka-sandesam, lived about
A. D. 1480. Suka-sandesam is after the model of
Megha-sandesam. He gives us vivid sketches of many
parts of Malabar which are dear to every Malayali. A
hundred years thence, lived Meppathur Nara-
yana Bhattatiri, a poet, grammarian and scholar of
unquestioned ability. He is the author of Naraya-
neeyam, which treats of the life and teachings of Sri
Kris’na and is, more or less, an abridgement of Bha-
gavatham Dasamam. It was finished in 1558. From
its pathos, and the sublimity of its religious sentiment,
from its pure diction and fine melody and the display
of Sanskrit scholarship, it is placed in the front rank
among the classics of Sanskrit literature. Sense and
sound seem t j be wedded in this poem of undying fame.
His grammatical work, Prakriya Sarvaswam, is much
more lucid than Battogi Dlkshitar’s Sidhanta Kan•
vtudi.
His illom was near the ChandanakSvu in Vettattu-
• •

nad. His father, Matrdattan Bhattatiri was a Vedic

scholar and was learned in both the mimamsa-. His
mother was a sister of the seven Payyur Bhattatiris,
about the eldest of whom it was that Uddanda Sastri
praised in these terms:
sosaoiu daagjajo&Mo j3j0susmjuaL><oo
«®aJQ$(00 CUD |j aaOCnSuJ «0? Oil CO) 0 & 0 • CO JUc8jDgjPsOCn)0(B) J3o*
512 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

He is thus a nephew of the Payyur Bhattatiris

whose wide, varied and profound scholarship and
generous hospitality are referred by Sastri in his
Kokila-sandesam. Sastri’s Mallika-marutam contains
an appreciation from Parameswaran Bhattatiri, one of
the brothers who has written an annotation to Jaimini-
Mimamasa; while another is the author of Grdhra-
sandesam, where Trkkandiyur Achyuta Pisharoti, the
author of Pravesika and Bhugoladipikay is extolled.
Narayana Bhattatiri learned grammar under this
Achyuta Pisharoti and Jyotisham under Talakkulatt
Bhattatiri, the author of Dcisadhyayi and Muhurta-
padvi.
Narayana Bhattatiri married from Trkkandiyur
Pisharoti’s house. Bhattatiri was a friend of Vlrakfcrala
Varma of Cochin as evidenced by his Matamaharajycr
prasasthi, and of Chempakasseri DevanSraya^a at whose
instance he wrote Dhatu Kavya and Prakriyasarva-
swam. At the court of the latter he had as his cosadasya
Mukot Nilakantan Namputiri, the author of Aaraya-
neeyam and Chelliir~Nathodyam champus. A7iranunasikam
prabhandam was written at the request of Iravi Chskyar.
Prakriyasarvasvam is, so to say, a miraculous work; for
it was composed in two months. The difficulty and
importance of the work may be gathered from the fact
that no less a scholar than the late Valiya Koil Tham-
puran thought it worth his while to write a second
commentary for it, although another one by Trkandi-
yur Govinda Pisharoti, a disciple of RamapSniivSdar
and Manorama ThampurStti already existed.
To go back to the ancients once again, there is
Vilvamangalath Swamiysr, the famous author of
Ki ishuakarnamrutham. He has written a kavyam of
singular interest. It is in prskj*fam, and every slokam
serves as an example of a separate rule on the gram¬
mar of that dialect. From this any one conversant
with that dialect will have an idea of the brain power of
that great ascetic. He has also to his credit a com¬
mentary to Kenopanishadi and one to the grammatica
work Daivay called Purushakaram* Dipaprabha rivals
 MALAfALI SANSKRIT-WRITKRS 5,3

Purushakaram. That is the work of one Narayana,

a native of Vsftnaflatu. Of the learning and scholarship
found in this grSmam near Ernakulam, Sukasandesam
praises in no stinted terms. He has also written com¬
mentaries to Patafijali’s Mahabhashya and to Kaiyatan s
Pradipam. A member of Kssi Illom in Ramanallur in
north Travancore, a great grammarian himself, has
written two commentaries in verse to PSnini’s Sufras
Amodam is also a poetical commentary to Ba'na’s
Kadambari by one Ashtamurt{i, evidently a Namputiri,
who lived near to and to the east of TrkkanSmajilakam.
When Dandi, grandson of BbSravi, was living at
Ksnchjpuram as the chief court poet of the Pallava ruler
Sim ha Vishnu, he was invited by LalitSlayan, a master
of Silpasctetra, to visit Mahabalipuram where, the
architect seems to have told Dandi, the latter could
meet great souls like Matrdafta and others from
Kerala whose company would be sources of honour
and of pleasure to the poet.
Mention must be made of the names of KakkaSSgri
Battathiri, the author of VasumcifamitrafHi Mana-
vikrama the Strong, and Rama Varmah the Learned
of Kodungallur, and a host of others, great intellectual
giants, who were at once the delight and despair of
many an erudite scholar from other parts of India.
One is tempted to linger over the names of Mana-
v5(|an Raja who composed the Manaveda Champu
which treats of the stories of Mahabharata not treated
in Bharata Chambu by Anandakavi, of Mal’amangalam
Nampu{iri, the author of the famous Bhanam called
after his name, and of Pariivadan, the author of the
Raghaviya kavyct and of SitaragkcLvanatakani, and of
Vitanidra, a Bhspam, with Mahodayapuram as its
scene of action. They were masters of the Sanskrit
tongue and owed their predominance to the towering
intellectual powers which they possessed. Arur Bhatta-
{iri produced Uttara Naishadham, a fitting comple¬
ment to the work of Sri Harsha. H. H. Rama Varma,
514 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

a Maharaja of Travancore, wrote an excellent didactic

poem called Bhakthi Manjari and also innumerable
musical compositions known as Kirttanams. K. Rama
Varier may be appropriately styled the MallinStha of
modern times. On various difficult works he has
written commentaries. There is no subject that is
foreign to him, and every subject he has treated about,
he has treated in a masterly fashion. Visakha Vijayam,
Kamsavadha Champu, Pranama Satakam and Tula•
bhara Satakam of H. H. Kerala Varma, the late Valiya
KoilThampuran of Travancore, show how elastic Sans¬
krit language becomes when wielded by a master-hand.
They are remarkable for the felicity of their diction,
the richness of their varied imagery, the skill and art
displayed in the several figures of speech and for the
vast sweep of his powers as a poet. From An gala
Samragyam, one can confidently assert that his
nephew and pupil, Mr. A- R. Raja Raja Varma comes
as a good second to his uncle. Kochunni ThampurSn
of Kodungallur has easily won the name of a first-class
Sanskrit poet. His Vipra Sandeam and his Bhanam
have cheered not a few of the erudite scholars
and critics of several parts of India. Punna$S5ri
Nambi Nllacantha Sarma edited a Sanskrit Journal
which reflected great credit on his Sanskrit scholarship
and philanthropy, and the Sanskrit College he has
started at Pattsmbi will be for ever a monument to his
wide and varied erudition more enduring than any storied
urn or animated bust. Another who has won renown
is PurQasarasvafi whose annotations of Meghasandesam
and Malati-madhavam are considered works of unusual
merit.
Towards the growth of Jy^tisha, Kerala has contri¬
buted not a little. There used to be a Pa$(Jitasadas dui>
ing the time of the Msmamkam which was held once in
twelve years on the banks of the Bharatappula near
the JirunavSya temple, to renew ksrjam deeds, and to
select a ruler. Among the subjects that were taken up
 MALAVALI SANSKRIT-WRltERS 5i5

for consideration by the assembly of the pandits, one

would be the science of Jyotisha, with a view to make
corrections and deviations to suit local conditions.
The Balasankaran of Malamangalom and the
Tanlrasam graham and Aryabhatiyabhashyam of Nila-
ca$tha Somayagi are worthy of mention. It is of this
Nilacanthan that Tunchath Eiuthassan speaks as his
guru in his works. He was a native of Trikantiyur and
a dependant of the_ Aiu\5ncheri Mana.'
In other departments too of Sanskrit learning,
Malabar has never been behind other parts of India.
In SilpiSSStra, it followed the mayamatam. Uiiiyan-
t 1^ ^ ^ ^ kost in himself. Tantra-
samuchhuyam of Chefmas Namputiri is a classic con¬
nected with matters relating to temples. Vivara^am
and Vimarsini are two of its well-known commentaries.
Kerala has made solid contributions to the science and
practice of Tachu SSfstra. Ancient temples and parti¬
cularly certain Kuttampalams (theatres) exist as finished
products of indigenous sculpture and architecture.
The system of AyurvSda as practised in Malabar
bears the impress of the country. Its growth there
stands unrivalled. In Dhara and Pilichil and mas¬
sage, in bone-setting and the treatment of cuts and dis¬
locations, the Kerala system is seldom excelled. It has
also specialised in the treatment of elephants and poison
cases. In specialisation, one finds intensive earnest¬
ness in Astronomy and Astrology and AyOrveda. In
what other country have you heard of Ashtavaidyans,
members of eight famous, hereditary families of physi¬
cians who are ever ready to attend on the needy sick
and give them their skilled services not for fame nor
for money but out of the love for humanity?
A commentary inMalayalam for Kautilya’s
sastra by a Vanchi Raja, Arthasastrabhashyavakya is
about iooo years old* The late Ganapati Sastri based
his Sanskrit commentary on this work. Uttejini} a
516 LETTERS FROM MALABAR [L. 27.

commentary to Kavyaprakasinu Manidarpanam> Bala-

rambharatanh and Kanadaddhantachandrika are all
works by Malayalis.
Before bringing this subject to a close, it will not
be out of place to refer to the high standard of profi¬
ciency in Sanskrit attained by many of the members of
the ruling, and several of the other aristocratic families
in Malabar. This used to be so from very ancient days.
Those palaces and families were centres of Sans¬
krit learning. There students were fed and taught
kavyam, alamkaram and SSStram free. Trikkanamati-
lakam, KSijtalur Sala, Srimulavasam and Trchhara-
jiattmala, and several mutts were famous for the pro¬
vision they had for the higher studies on those subjects.
Until very recently, Kodungallur Rajas’ family contained
experts who could and did teach different subjects to
aspirants for proficiency in learning. The Sanskrit
Colleges at Trivandrum and Trppunittura, at Psttambi
and Annakara show that the love for higher studies in
Sanskrit is still strong in Kerala. Several Rulers of
Travancore and of Cochin were scholars and patrons
of learning. A few of them wrote works of great merit.
The interest the Rulers of these States take in the Sans¬
krit Colleges, and in the work of the Malayalam
Improvement Committee in Cochin and of the Com¬
mittees to publish Sanskrit and Malayalam works in
Travanccre evince their interest in the maintenance of
ancient culture and the development of Sanskrit and
Malayalam literatures.
MALAYALAM LITERATURE.
Early Malayalam to 500 M. E.
The innumeral folk songs that have come down to
us make it clear that the Malayali nation began to lisp
in numbers at this early period. From these and from
certain religious songs, such as Sastham Patta, Bhadra
Kali Paltu, which to this day pious souls chant to pro¬
pitiate their favourite gods and goddesses one can get
 MtDDLE MALAYALAM 517

an idea of the language of this period. The one note¬

worthy work of this time is Ramacharitam, said to be
the work of a Raja of Travancore. He composed it,
it is said, as a patappattu, a martial song, to be sung
by soldiers when they went out for battle. There is
only thus the Yuddha-khandam in it. What original
he followed for his rendering, it is difficult to surmise.
The admixture of Tamil in the language used in it is
so pronounced that certain Tamil scholars class it as a
Tamil work. This it is not. That Tamil lent its colour
to the language of that period is seen from Unninili-
sandesam, an admittedly Malayalam classic. That is a
remarkable poem. Materials for history, geography
and social life of that period can be gleaned from it.
Its texture, its ideas and imagery are themes for admir¬
ation among modern poets and scholars, while among
these the authorship and the identity of the messenger
are still contentious matters.
It is a matter for congratulation to the Malayalis
that prose literature also was cultivated in this period;
for prose is an essential factor in the progress of civili¬
zation. The copper-plate grants of VirarSghava Cha¬
kra varti show where Malayalam prose stood in those
days.
MIDDLE MALAYALAM
500—800 M. E.
Many songs were composed during this period for
the people to sing when they sowed and reaped and
when they engaged themselves in work and worship.
Some of them are popular even in these days. Here in
Kerala too as elsewhere the people had their feasts of
music and dance: the songs that welcome the birth of a
child, those to rock the cradle; the bridal ^ongs; ‘the
ballads to chronicle the deeds of their heroes ; their
chorus-songs for their golden harvests; their solos for the
lovers to sing; the mystic hymns of the rustic saints.’
These show the heart-beats of the village life and cul¬
ture. Some of these songs are very popular even now
as Kaikottikkalippattus; so also are certain ballads called
5jg LETTERS FROM MALABAR

V adakkanpattus. Of these the most popular are Tha*

chcholippattus• These narrate the gallant exploits of
Mgppayil Kufthi Ot5nan,a valiant Nayar of 'J'achcholi, a
village in the Kurumbranad Taluk in North Malabar.
These display the life of the Malayalis of those days
in a realistic manner, of their rough and ready ways,
and of their bold and straight dealings, and also clearly
indicate the stage in the development of the language.
One notes a great advance in these from the days of
Ramacharitam, and Ramakatha and Mavaratam pattus•
Pattu means a song in Dravidian metre; or, as Lila-
thilaka puts it, qciiTciiktoo
(mo)cu1«ooa±»oQ/ ojo§°. It has several varieties: Kriship-
pattu, Kalameluttupattu, Velanpattu, Pananpattu»
Tan tu n ip pa ttu, Bhadrakalippattu, Byahmanip pattu,
Sastrakkalippattu, Sasthampattu, Purappattu, Onap-
pattu, Tiruvatirappattu, Vanchippattu, and number of
other varieties.
Many pattus (songs) are devotional or had their
origin in connection with ceremonies performed in
temples. The Kerala Temples always stood not only
for the cultivation of the spiritual life but also and more
‘for the administration of charity, the dissemination of
education, the encouragement of fine arts and the em¬
ployment of a great number of people’. Some of them
show “the wonderful development that the country has
reached in architecture, sculpture and iconology. The
paintings on the walls and panelled ceilings are marvels
of art. Temples are also centres of festive gatherings.
During the time of these festivals, there will be proces¬
sions, dancing and drumming, music and piping, drama,
Kuttu and Patakam and sports of various sorts... The
songs that accompany the sports and dances, the dra¬
matic literature and the hymnology which are the
outcome of these temples are of a high order. Many
of these are rightly ranked as classics.” The perfection
of the drumming, dancing and the music of Kerala have
reached a stage which is beyond the pale of contro¬
versy.
 MIDDLE MALAYALAM 5*9

The poems of ftira^aftu Pa^ikkars are compo¬

sitions of no mean merit. Their Ramayanam* Bharatam
and Bhagavatgita appeal to the ear and to the mind.
The history of the Malayalam language, observes
a writer, ‘commences, if inscriptions on copper and
stone are omitted, with the Ramacharitayn^ the oldest
Malayalam poem extant. Composed as it was before
the Sanskrit alphabet {Malayala grantha characters)
came into existence, it is deserving of notice, as it
exhibits the earliest phase of the alphabet, probably
very many centuries before the Portuguese .
CheruSSSri Nampupri, the morning star of Mala¬
yalam song, lived in this epoch. It was a fortunate
day for Keralam when one of the lNTamputiries, a class
of people who then professed to dislike the Malayalam
tongue, began to compose in that language. But
this is the least important recommendation for Krishna
gatha for our acceptance. For, the work, considered
even on other grounds, has scarcely been surpassed by
similar writings of subsequent days. It has raised the
status of the Malayalam language. The poet had a
keen eye for beauty and knew how to express it in
words that catch the fancy and touch the heart of man.
It is a monumental piece of work and has rightly raised
its author to that ‘kingly breed who starry diadems
attain*.
It was Cherusseri who first showed that, if he is so
minded, a great poet can practise his art in Malaya¬
lam without a large admixture of Sanskrit words. He
was followed by Punam, Pnm^nam and Chelappa-
rambu and latterly by the Venma^is and the two great
Cranganore poets.
It should have been stated before this that almost
all the poetical pieces of Malayalam are written in what
is called Manipravalam which means a string of gems
and corals. It receives its name from being composed
in a mixture of Malayalam and Sanskrit words. Ihe
addition, here and there, of common Sanskrit words
S3* LETTERS FROM MALABAR

only gives grace and majesty to Malayalam which

otherwise would be bald. It is, therefore, to be under¬
stood that there is nothing of the Babylonish dialect
about manipravalam. The metres of the Malayalam
SlSkams are the same as those of the Sanskrit ones; and
those that are peculiar to the language, as in the case
of the famous works of Tunjan and Kunjan, are known
and distinguished by their matras, the time required
to utter them.
Cherusseri wrote his gatha in simple, graceful
Malayalam so as to be appreciated not by the learned
alone but to be easily understood by the masses as well.
It is significant that, about the same time, a class of
works, called Champus, came into existence which
could be understood and appreciated by the learned
only. Gadyapadyamayam Kavyam is champu—that is
the definition; but even the gadya (prose) has an affinity
to padya (poetry). The language employed is mani.
pravslam, the poets love to speak of it as d cy <o 21 cv to
®oa23om>o(TO".£OTo®rojomjm)«aaig.cncrv)<o@'l&i<9,oajj • tut jn
certain places it will be pure Sanskrit, while in rare
instances, it will be pure Malayalam. Prskj-t of both
one can meet with in these works. The authors
freely use ideas and language of old poets. After the
Bhoja (Ramayana) Champu and Ananda Bhatta’s
Bharata Champu, Malayalis have written Sanskrit
Champus, like Rajasuyam, Kiratam and Niranunasikam
of hleppattur Bhattathiri. The first two, Ramayana
Champu and Bharata Champu, have been rendered
into Malayalam by Krishna Variar and the nirnunasi-
kam by Vaikkara Mussad. But the number of mani-
pravala Champus is legion. Ramayana Champu, Bharata
Champu, Cheelurnathodayam of Punam Namputiri and
the Bhashanaishada Champu, and Rajaratnavaliyam
of Malamangalam (Mahishamangalam) are worthy
to be mentioned here. The authors of these were
gifted poets and had an amazing power of expression.
Among the moderns who have successfully attempted
 MODERN MALAYALAM 521

this sort of composition are the late Ravi Varma,

the author of Uskakalyanam, Rao Sahib Ullur Parame-
swara Iyer, M. A., B. L., who wrote Sujatodvaham and
Mr. P. Sankaran Nambiyar, M. A., who is responsible
for Palazhimadhanam. One main reason for the large
output of Champu prabamthas is that these were and
still are used by Chakyars for their Kuttu.
Chandrolsavam is a remarkable product of the
Champu period. It is not a champu, but its language
is very like that used in champus. As a work of art
it stands in the front line. It narrates the incidents
of a village festival. Some take it as a work that depicts
the rural life of the day in a northern district of the
State of Cochin. There may be some substance in the
contention. But the statement does not represent the
whole truth. For it will be clear from the poem that
the gifted poet has drawn largely on his imagination for
the development of the appropriate rasas.
Certain Namputiries who had, in ancient times
suffered social degradation, formed themselves into a
separate caste called Chakkiyars. Their duty was to
tell Pauranic stories in an impressive way to the people
who assembled to hear them. “They recite sacred
legends before large audiences; they amuse and enter¬
tain their hearers by their wit, or move them to laughter
or to tears by their eloquence; and they thus teach the
public in the traditions of the past, and preserve from
age to age the literary heritage of the nation”. In
doing so, they are permitted to make the defects and
bad traits of the community the butt of their sarcasm
and satire which often times operate as a healthy cor¬
rective. Their women, Nangyars, sit by their side
and beat two metal gongs, while the Nambiyar help
them in the play by beating a big drum.
MODERN MALAYALAM.
800 M. E,
The one name that shines forth with exceptional
splendour in the literary firmament of Keralam is that
522 LEITERS FROM MALABAR
of Tunchathu RsmSnujan Eluthachchan, a man of the
Nayar caste. “The Nambutiri Brahmans envied his
genius and learning and are said to have seduced him
by the arts of sorcery into the habit of inebriety, wish¬
ing to overshadow the mental powers which they
feared. The poet, however triumphed over the habit,
though he could not abandon it, and in revenge against
those whom he considered to be the cause of his de¬
basement, opposed himself openly to the prejudices
and intolerance of the Brahmans. The mode of ven¬
geance which he chose was the exaltation of the Mala-
yalam tongue, declaring it as his intention to raise it to
an equality with the sacred language of the God and
the Rishis. In the prosecution of this purpose he
enriched the Malayalam language with the translations
of Ram ayan am, Mahabharatam and Bhagavatam\
These are called Kili-pSttus (parrot-songs; of Eluthach¬
chan, who was the first to introduce this sort of com¬
position into the Malayalam language. They receive
this name from the introductory invocation to the bird
of the Goddes^ of Learning which these works contain.
Other causes also one can easily be given for the name.
Of him and his works, wre can only speak with rever¬
ential admiration. His works are even now considered
models for imitation. Not a page is there in his works
which does not contain passages glowing with religious
eloquence or gleaming with wordly wisdom which lend
itself at once to citation and repetition. He was an
intensely religious man, and his prayers to and praises
of the supreme God in which his work abound have
never failed to raise the sympathetic thrill of religious
enthusiasm in the mind of him who reads or sings
them. He has spent the rare gifts of a genius in his
strenuous service to elevate his language, to proclaim
to us in new words, ‘the mighty hopes that make us
men’; and, therefore, it is not too much to say that his
name shall be ‘an echo and a light unto eternity’.
He has written many works besides the three
already referred to. He also adopted Aryan script in
 MODERN MALAYALAM 5*3

the place of Vatteluftu. He bad many disciples who too

have composed numerous works, some of which are of
lasting merit. His first and last disciples were Karu-
nakaran EluttaSSan, the author of Bramhdndapuram
and Vetalacharitam and SuryanSrSya^an EluttaSsan,
the author of Parvativayamvaram. In this connexion
reference must be made to the name of Eluva^u
Na^ukkutti Menon of Chittur (b. 1835 A. D.) who, by
his translation of Ekadesam, has shown how much he
has caught of the literary spirit and religious fervour
of his great forerunner Eluthachchan. Nachiketu•
charitam of Kottur U^ittan requires a reference here.
U^ayi Vsrier’s Girijakalyanam too is a good kilippSt-
. Kerala Varma Raja of north Kottayam is the
author of Ramayanam and Vairagyachandrodayam.
Ramayanam is a free rendering of the immortal work of
Valmiki. The brofher of this Raja was also a gifted
member of the literary hierarchy. He was the origi¬
nator of Ramanattam> popularly known as Kathakalies.
Some portions of these are incomparable for their sub¬
limity. He was a great poet and grammarian.
Kathakali or the Malayalam Drama is one of the
most intensely national departments of our literature.
This branch may be the result of the natural develop¬
ment of Purakkallh Mohiniyattanu Ashtapadiyattam and
Kutiyattam. These dramas are written in mixed verse
and prose; I shall not say pure prose, for its ticket of
entry into sober prose is very questionable. The epi¬
sodes of Ramayanam and Mahabharatam form the
subjects for these dramas. The verses simply connect
the incidents of the story, while the prose portions
represent the dialogues of the characters of the play.
The actors, representing the several personages, gene¬
rally paint their faces and dress in a peculiar fashion.
They, by means of appropriate (mudras) gestures,
convey to the audience the meaning of the prose por¬
tions when they are sung to the accompaniment of the
beating of drums and other instruments. No doubt
 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

some of these pieces when sung by clever singers with¬

out the accompaniment of the discordant sounds of
drums and metal gongs, bring with them such charm
and inexpressible delight to the hearer as may
Dissolve one into ecstasies
Or bring all Heaven before one’s eyes.
In the Kathakali and the Kutiy attain, acting has
reached its acme of perfection. It is time that the
Kathakali is made more popular and understandable by
the masses than now, and acceptable even to those
carping but cultured critics who consider the perform¬
ance *a compound of noise and nuisance only tolerable
if not too loud’.
There is so much misconception about this art of
Kathakali that it will be worth the trouble to extract
here what an English lady and a well-known Indian
Weekly have to say on this subject. Miss Alice Bonner
writes1: “In Kathakali, legend and mythology come
actually to life... It has preserved, alone among the
arts of India, the fulness, the vitality, and the passion
of life, to which ancient poetry, paintings and sculptures
bear testimony.., It is a dance-play, a kind of panto¬
mime in which the actors represent the stories by means
of gestures, facial expressions and dance-movements,
interpreted by songs and attuned to the rhythm of
drums, cymbal and gongs... There are no stage-set¬
tings to depict the situation... By the eloquence of his
hand-gestures, his body movement and facial expres¬
sions, he has to convey to his audience not only the
mood and the action of the play, but also the situation
in which it takes place... Kathakali has been found
to be a living demonstration of all the principles laid
down in Bharat Natya Sasira... From the composi¬
tion of the drama to the dress, the steps, the ‘Mudras*
and the smallest quiver of an eye, everything is govern¬
ed by hard and fast rules.” The Illustrated Weekly of
India2 has a very informing article by one who also
1. The Hindustan Times April i, 1936,
2. Of 28th June 1936 .
 MODERN MALAYALAM 525

seems to have mastered the subject in all its aspects.

Kathakali is the growth of ages. The primitive,
classical, medieval and modern strands that adorn its
rich fabric tell the evolution of Natya Sastra. The
Kerala Theatre is a combination of Kuttu, Krishna-
nattam, Mudiyettam, Mohiniyattam and Tullal. A
combination of facial expressions, hand gestures and
dancing renders the language of the tongue useless.
The mudras project the idea, the bhavas enliven it.
Every limb and muscle of the artist has its appropriate
and significant movement... This descriptive and
realistic method renders the comprehension of gesture
symbols easy, while the text of the drama sung by the
musicians assist intelligent appreciation. No scenic
settings are provided. The actors must conjure up
before the audience all the scenic effects required-..
Suppose it is the story of Kuchela. Let us think of
one scene. Kuchela, the poor Brahmin, a devotee and
Classmate of Sri Krishna, sets out at dawn to Dwaraka
to meet the Lord. In the morning, he performs his
ablutions- Step by step he gets into the water of the
tank, splashes it with his palm; bathes, puts' on holy
ashes and performs his prayers. Then he ascends and
starts on his journey. All this is enacted on a bare
piece of ground, a few feet away from the squatting
audience. Not one of them realises it all an illusion
and acting till th« actor leaves the stage”.
The poet who invented this sort of composition
was a Rajah of KottSrakara family. The subjects of
his dramas are the episodes of Ramayanam. There is
a tradition connected with the origin of Kathakali. The
then Zamorin of Calicut, for some reason or other,
refused to send his troupe of artists to the southern
parts to enact Krishnanattam. The inventor of Katha¬
kali produced his first work to make light of the deci¬
sion of his northern compeer, and called it Ramanattam
in contradistinction to Krishnanattam, the subject of
his pieces being taken from Ramayanam.
526 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

But the Kathakaii works that still captivate the

minds of the educated people and capture the hearts of
even the illiterate are the Nalacharitam of UniiSyi
Verier (b* 1740), the Uttarasvayambaranu the Kichaka-
vadhom and the Dekshayagam of Iravivarman Tampi
(b. 1783 A. D.); the Bakavadhom, the Kalycmasau-
gandhikam and the Krimiravadham of Kottayattu Tam-
puran, the Rajasuyam of Ksrtika Tirunal MahSrSjS
(1724-98 A. D.). The Narakasuravadham and the
Ambarishacharitam of Asvati Tirunal Mahsrsja
(1756-88 A D.) and the Ravanavijayam of VidvSn Koil
Tampuran (b. 1812) also still hold the stage. It is
needless to name all, and profitless too. But it may be
of interest to note that, while some are fit to be staged,
others are fit to be sung, and yet a third set is good for
both, Tampi’s works eminently fit in with this third
class. His Taralt, in language and sentiment, stands
as the first lullaby in the language.
Besides Kilippattu and Kathakaii, there is
another department of Malayalam Literature which is also
entirely indigenous to Kerala; and that is the TullaL Its
origin is amusing. A certain Chskysr made a NampiySr
the object of much clumsy ridicule for not doing his
duty properly. The latter retorted upon the Chskyar in a
singular way. The next day, just when he began his
performance, the NampiySr, in an adjoining place, pro¬
duced another piece which attracted such a large crowd
that the ChakySr was left alone. The Nampiyar was
no other than Kalakkath Kunjan Nampiyar, and the
work that he porformed was a TullaL Indignation
maketh verse it is said; and the proverb has come to be
true.
Mr. V. M. Kuttikrishna Men on has given in his
Kerala Natana Kala another version of the origin of
Tullals. That seems to be more plausible than the one
given above. Kunjan NambiySr was a dependent of
the Ambalappula Raja’s family, and lived there for some
time, In the invocatory verses in certain of his works,
 MODERN MALAYALAM *27

NampiySr refers to the deity of the Takiliyil temple which

is about two miles from Ambalappula. In that temple,
for 12 days from the ist of Medam every year, there is
a festival called Patayarii, at which the villagers divide
themselves into parties that will compete with each
other in military formations, in mock fights and in bur¬
lesque and buffoonery. Msttur Panikkar, the Prime
Minister of Ambalappula Raja, got NampiySr to
compose many Tullals for the artists and combatants
to sing on that occasion. These lines,
esacnsTOas cn§cule]gg.or® qjs0Q)sro1c9s)1ao <s>.aiog|ajooii
CUslailcfySKYDOKB ,QJ0(a?<8d3o(0g3.<§0o3dCOSXTD -QJ 1(0)0 01(03

in the Sabhapravesam Tullal give colour to the theory.

“Tullals, literally dances, are sung to the accom¬
paniment of music, pantomime and dancing* There are
three classes of Tullals'. Oattan, Seethankan and Para-
yan\ but as the poems of the first class predominate,
the poems of other classes are also termed Oatians.
They are based mostly on the episodes of Bharatam
and Ramayanam. Oattan Tullals as the name indi¬
cates (<9#/Az7z-running), consists of a variety of rapid
metres well-suited for amusing narratives. The pure
Oattan is more vigorous than Seethankan, while the
Par ay an is the best suited for pathetic style. Nalacha-
rit ant and Kiratam are instances of the first class,
Kalyana Saugayidhikam is an example of the second set,
while Gajendramok sham and Sabhapravesam form
instances of this sort of Tullals.” All these Tullals
are the works of the Nampiysr who invented this sort
of composition. Besides fifty or sixty Tullals, he has
composed nine Malayalam dramas, Panchatantram,
Sri Krishna Charitam, Pathinnalu Vntham, parrot-
songs and poems in different kinds of metres.
From the wide extent of his literary activity, it
should not be supposed that his works have suffered in
quality. Kunjan NampiySr is second only to Tunjath
Eluttachan. Those who have not read the works of
these authors and carefully collated the rules which
they have laid down in their compositions are considered
528 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

to be incompetent to speak with any authority on

Malayalam Literature. Cochinites can legitimately feel
proud that the birth-places of,these in their days be¬
longed to Cochin. About 940 M. E. KiilikurisSi temple
which NampiySr praises in his works was renovated by
the then Raja of Cochin.
Patricians and plebians alike joined to do honour
to Kunjan NampiySr. He was under the special
patronage of the Maharajah who began to adorn the
throne of Travancore in the year A. D. 1758, and who,
besides being a man of letters, greatly encouraged
literary men of all parts of Malabar.
There is a strong individuality about his works.
From any collection of quotations, his lines could be
easily picked out. The cadences of the verses are per¬
fect. His verses flow with a grace and elegance that
are charming indeed; now and then, they are spirited;
at other times they rise to an indignant and dignified
eloquence; here and there, are passages of keen sar¬
casm. His works are strewn with jewels that will
sparkle for ever.
He was the censor of the age; he had a profound
scorn for humbug and sham; and against all such things
he has directed his acid epigrams. His allusive satire
on popular morals and manners must have had its biting
effect on the people beyond the power of rod or
sermon. He loved Malayalis and, therefore, wished
to direct them in the way that they should go. Kunjan
NampiySr was nothing if not humorous* His humour,
warm and all-embracing, ‘bathed his ideas in a genial
and abiding light’.
Two others of NampiySr’s family have contri¬
buted works to our literature* Rsghavan NampiySr is
the author of Sakuntalam Kathakalu and Damodaran
NampiySr composed Ekadesimahatmyam and l itvam
puranam Kilippattus.
During this golden age of our national literature,
there were others who worked to give a lead and to
add to the output. Of many of these, only a few
 MODERN TIMES S29

slokams remain to remind us of their having lived and

to make us regret that there are not more of that sort.
Pumtottam and Chslapparambu, Etapattiksd and
Machchatt Eiayatu and Kottur UnnittSn belong to this
class. Many assert that the Tullal Kalakeyavadham,
is a work of the first. PuntSnam and RamapSipd-
vsdan have left much that have enriched our language.
The Bhashakarnamrtam, Njanappana and Santana-
gopalam Pana of the former are popular even to-day;
and that fact speaks volumes in their favour. He was
a true bhakta, a pure devotee whose Karnamrtam
will not fail to touch a sympathetic chord even in those
among the moderns who consider they can change
their creed as their dress. While PuntSnam was a de¬
votee of Sri Krishna, Rsmapa^ivada was an adherent
of Sri Rama. He has composed many hymns about that
Deity. His other important works are Raghaviyam%
Vishnuvilasam and Sitaraghavam in Sanskrit, and
Vishnugita and Panchatantram in Malayalam. Though
Rsmapurattu Varier has not left much, his Kuchela-
gopalam boat-song was considered a marvel even by his
contemporaries.
OUR OWN TIMES.
In writing of the very modern epoch, it is not my
intention to refer to the names of the several writers:
they and their works are legion. In the case of living
writers, I am alive to the perils of selection and exclu¬
sion, and to the difficulty of giving estimates of works
yet unfinished. One discerning writer has said that
to step into the field of the moderns is to step into a
battle-field. I do not go so far. But, anyway, I shall
be on my guard. I shall only attempt to point out a
few of the manifold forces that have been at work since
the advent of the English rule to improve and to
develop the Malayalam language; and, while doing so,
I may, now and then, say a word or two of those who
have been foremost in originating or directing such
forces for the good of Malabar. To attempt anything
more than this would be impossible.
 530 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

The year 1795 saw the establishment of the Eng¬

lish supremacy in Malabar. With the commencement
of the rule of this civilized nation, the Malayalis
began to enjoy, with but few exceptions, uninterrupted
peace and prosperity. It is not, therefore, strange that
we see a vigorous impetus given, at this period, to the
growth of the Malayalam Literature.
The Christian missionaries were the first to enter
the field, and their schools and printing presses have
contributed not a little to the development of the lan¬
guage and the literature of Keralam. The first print-
ing press in India was established on the Malabar
Coast by Christian missionaries. The dictionaries and
grammars which they have made to aid those
engaged in studying this language, display an amount of
labour, research and erudition that is simply marvel¬
lous. And even where they have gone wrong, they
have done so not because they lacked care or diligence,
but because they have not been able to rightly inter¬
pret the spirit of the language. In this connection, the
late Rev. Gundhert’s name comes prominently to my
mind. Whatever may be the defects of his Malayalam
Grammar, it is a veritable storehouse of information;
while his dictionary of the Malayalam language is a
monument of his intelligence and perseverance. It is
no matter for surprise that the Malayalis venerate the
name of the man who spent the best years of a long and
laborious life to discover and develop the resources of
their mother-tongue. Malayali scholars like Pachu
Muttatu and Kovu^ni Medungsdi have imitated his
example and have produced each a capital work on the
grammar of the Malayalam language. The work of
the latter is in verse and covers a large field. It is a
wonderful work, his Kerala Kaumudi. But the best
of the existing work on the subject is Kerala Panv■
***** by th? late A* R. Rajaraja Varma. He was a
great Sanskrit scholar, a sound logician, and a pro¬
found glottologist and his book, ‘in spite of its errors
both of omission and commission, generally satisfies
 MODERN TIMES 53i

the criterion of a good scientific grammar.’ His Sabda*

sodhiniy Sahitya-sakyam> Vrtta-manjarii and Bhasha-
bhushanam are other works of great merit intended to
develop the language and literature of Malayalam. He
has also enriched the literature by his trans¬
lations of Meghdutu. Kumarasambhavam, Sakuntalanty
Malaviganimitram and Charudatta. His commentary
to Nalacharitam Kathakali and to his uncle’s rendering
ot Sakunlalam are models in thatline. Before I leave this
subject, I think it proper to mention the name of Govinda
Pillai, the author of the History of Malayalam Literature.
The amount of patience and perseverance he has shown
in collecting and arranging the materials comprised in
his work is marvellous, remembering that people in
these parts, like the proverbial dog in the manger,
refuse to give up any manuscript in their possession.
Mr. P. Sankaran Nambiyar, Mr. R. Narayana
Panikkar.* and VidwSn • T. M. Chummar are others
who have written works on this same subject.
The inauguration of a system of University educa¬
tion, such as at present obtains in this Presidency has
led to important results. In the curriculum of studies
for the different examinations, the University has given
a high place to the several vernaculars of the Presi¬
dency. Thus the Malayalis who "are trained in Eng¬
lish schools not only imbibe western modes of thought
but are also intelligently instructed in the Malayalam
language. These Malayalis, in their turn, begin to
publish old and useful books, to produce new ones and
to translate into Malayalam the important works of
English master-minds, as also to disseminate the seeds
of education throughout the length and breadth of the
country. Women also have begun, as of old, to occupy
their proper place in society. In every nook and
corner of Keralam, one meets with schools and even
colleges for girls. Many young ladies of respectable
families possess every desirable accomplishment. There
are many ladies in Malabar who are celebrated for their
Sanskrit scholarship or for their systematic knowledge
532 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

of the science of music. “Nor are feminine authors

wanting in the country. The names of Manorama
lampuratti, Kutti Kunhi Tamkachchi and Ikkavu
Amma are only a few out of hundreds of talented
authoresses still unknown to fame”*
Ikkavu Amina’s Subhadrarjunam is the first
dramatic work by a Malayali lady. Even apart from
this fact, it is worthy of a high place among dramatic
works. It has went through several editions already.
Taravath Ammslu Amma and Srimathi T. B. Kalyani
Amma and Srimathi T. C. Kalyani Amma are other
lady writers who have enriched Malayalam literature in
no small measure. What is more, their racy style has
such a grace and charm about it that it has served as
models for others. Bhakta-mala, Budha^charitam, are
a few of the great works of Ammalu Amma. Vyalvatta-
smaronakal of Srimathi T. B. Kalyani Amma is a
very popular work. Amma Rani, Visha-Vrkskam and
Krishnakanta s Will of Srimathi T. C. Kalyani Amma
are well-known in Kerala.
Princes have not been slow to recognise the alter¬
ed conditions of the times. The names of Rama Varma
Maharajah and his brother will be honoured by poster¬
ity as the patrons of Malayalam Literature at the time
of its revival. The name of the latter has already been
immortalized in Visagha Vi] ayam, a Kavyam in Sanskrit
by His Highness the late Kerala Varma, Valia Koil
Tampuran of Travancore.
This Koil Tampuran was the first to translate a
Sanskrit dramatic ,vork into Malayalam. His trans¬
lation of Sakuntalam is not free from a few faults, and
no one was readier to own them than the translator him¬
self. It is, however, a true and dignified rendering of
the original. Its popularity is unquestioned; it has
reached its fourth edition, an honour paid only to one
or two recent works in Malayalam. It is impossible
to exaggerate the effect of this work as a guide
and as a timulant. Since 1881, the year in which
 MODERN TIMES 533

Bkasha-Sakunthalam was published, up to the present,

no less than four score dramas have seen the light of
day.
During his lifetime, his nephew and pupil,
A. R. Rajaraja Varma published a Malayalam rendering
of Sakunthalann After him, recently, two other transla¬
tions by Messrs. A. Krishna Pisharoti and Valiathole
Narayana Menon have been published. Will these dis¬
place the time-honoured version of Valia Koil
Tampuran ? Let Time decide that question.
Another work of his, Mayura Sandesam, by the
beauty of its sentiments, the melody of its verse and the
intensity of feeling to which it gives expression, has
reached the high-vvater mark of Malayalam poetry. It
is after the Cloud-Messenger of Kalidasa. But Valia
Koil Tampuran has one distinct advantage over the
bard of Ujjayini. In Meghci Dutha> Kalidas only
shaped what his imagination bodied forth; while the
thoughts of the Peacock-Messenger are those that have
passed through the cruicible of our poet’s experience.
Even in the case of this poem, as in the case of the
former work of his, critics were not wanting who think
that the language of the poem is a great deal too Sans-
kritic. Sanskrit or not Sanskrit, ‘it is poetry and
magnificent poetry from the first line to the^last—poetry,
such as there is not, perhaps, more than a small volume-
full in all languages.’ Amarukasatakam, Anyapadesa•
satakaniy Hanumadulbhavam are some of his other poe¬
tical works in Malayalam. Besides Visaghavijayam
kavyam, he has written several other works in Sanskrit
too.
As President of the Vernacular Text-book Com¬
mittee of Travancore, he did yeomen service to the
cause of Malayalam prose literature. His Akbctr> one
of the best prose works in Malayalam, is published
under the auspices of this Committee. He was also
President of the Bhaska Poshini Sab/ia, a society whose
avowed object was the encouragement and development
of the language and literature of Malabar,
534 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

He is to a certain extent instrumental in giving a

healthy tone to prose literature, and writers are begin’
ning to understand the imperative necessity that there
is for prose compositions as well to follow certain defi¬
nite rules.
His unique devotion to literature was recog¬
nised by Her Majesty’s Government, by the local
University and by learned Societies in England. He
was a liberal patron of literature and art, and was revered
by his contemporaries.
The work of translation started by Koil Tampuran
was taken up by Chattukkutty Mannatiyar, Kunhi
Kudtan Tampuran, Kochunni Tampuran, Valiathole,
Kundur iNarayana Menon, Kottarattil Sankunni and
others. Mannatiyar was a veteran in the art of trans¬
lation, and his Vthara-Rama-Charitam as well as his
Janakiparinayam and Halasyam display the rare abilities
he possessed as a translator and poet. Kunhikudtan
'J'ampuran was a voluminous writer. No less than
eight dramas, not to speak of several other works, are
to be put down to his credit. There was an ease and
facility about his making verses which was phenomenal.
He translated the whole of Mahabarotam in a^pheno-
menally short time. He was called Kerala VySsan
after that. His renderings of the Suka-Kokila San-
desams are beautiful, while his Keralam is valuable from
the standpoint of history as well.
The ease he possessed in making verses has, to a
slight extent, brought with it a corresponding degree of
carelessness. But it must be said to his credit that he
was one who was ever ready to further the cause of
literature. He was a good Sanskrit scholar. His best
work is his Malayalam rendering of Asckarya Chuda-
mani. Though ignorant of English, he has, with the
help of a friend of his, done Hamlet into Malayalam.
Mr. SankuijiM is, no doubt, incapable of soaring to the
heights of Kunhi Kudtan Tampuran. But he is more
careful, more methodical in his work than his friend.
 MODERN TIMES 535

His translation of Vikrama and Urvasi is a good piece

of work, better than the rendering of the same by Kunhi
Kudtan Tampuran. His translations of Adhyatma-Rci-
mayanam and Malati-Madhvam are much appreciated
by the scholars. But his most popular work is an ori¬
ginal drama called Kuchela Gopalam. The periodicals
of the present day are also greatly indebted to Mr. San-
kunni. Some of his contributions to them have been
collected in seven or eight volumes under the name of
Aithihyarnala. The easy, graceful style of prose he has
adopted and the variety of interesting topics dealt with
by him have made the volumes very popular among the
young and the old alike.
Kochunni Tampuran of Kodungallur was one of
the best poets of his day. His vast and varied learning,
his retentive memory, his poetic talent and his cultured
tastes are even to this day topics of constant conversa¬
tion among those who knew this prince. His Kalyctni is
the first original dramatic composition in Malayalam. It
portrays the Malayali society of the present day and
indicates the spirit of the times. He is the author of
some other dramas and several works both in Sanskrit
and Malayalam. His Viprasandesam, Kollam and
Bhadrolppathi may here be referred to as examples
of his works. He has also rendered Pd h a ^ CIU Cl WT
Malayalam in the gat ha metre. Gosrisaditya-Charitam
and Vanchisavcimsam are two Mahakavyas by him.
Every Malayali will gratefully acknowledge that he was
one of those few who by precept and example have im¬
proved the tone of the Malayalam poetical literature of
the day. He was great in other walks of life as well.
Venmani Nampuripsds, father and son, and Ravi
Varma Raja belonged in their time to the band of great
poets referred to above. It is impossible for any Mala
yali to speak of them without rapture. Some of their
slokams, the most captivitating productions of Malaya¬
lam poetry, have shown the capabilities of Malayalam.
Nay more; they have fully emphasised the truth of the
$36 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

saying Poeta nascitur non fit, and have won for them,
a sovereign station in the history of Malayalam Litera¬
ture. The works of Venmanis have been collected and
edited in three volumes by Mr. C. Achyuta Me non and
myself. Ushakalyanam, Champu, Devisatakam, and
Kavisabharanjanam drama of Ravi Varma are also in
print. Before I close this part of the sketch, I wish to
refer to the names of K. C. K&ava Pillai, Kaviynr
Raman Nambiyar, Sivolli and Oravankara Nampufiri,
and N. Rama Kurup. The works of Kesava Pillai show
that he was a scholar and born poet. His drama Ragkava
Madhavam and his Mahakavya, Keaviyam, are meri¬
torious works, while his Bhasha Narayaneeyam was con¬
sidered a marvel from the pen of a young poet as he
then was. His Kerala Varmak Vilasam, a Kavyam on
the life of the author of Mayura Sandesam, reflects
great credit on his Sanskrit scholarship. Kaviyur
Raman Nampiyar was a very bright, promising young
poet. But cruel fate did not permit him to live long.
He has done Mataman gala Bha?iam> Subkadradhanan-
jay am and Sri Krishna Vilasam into Malayalam.
These fruits of his, though ‘gathered ere their prime*
were not wanting in ‘the quickness and sweetness
which come of years.’
Chiftfur Varavur SSmu Mgnon, a good poet, belong¬
ed to the land of Elu^achchan. His Yogavasishtam,
Devi Bhagavatam and Tripuraraliasyam, Albhuthara-
mayanam have become popular works in Malabar.
The works of Sivolli and Oravankara Namputiris
have fortunately been collected and published by their
grateful and discerning relatives. Though by nature
unobtrusive, their works have contributed in no small
degree to direct the course of Malayalam literature.
Sivolli’s Datyuha Sandesam it was that put a stop to the
production of trashy Sandesams. They were scholars.
The works of K. C. Narayanan Nambiyar,
V. C. Balakrishna Panikkar, K. Kesavan Nayar and
others must be classed as fine poetry, such as of those
of born poets#
 MODERN TIMES S3?
When Rama Kurup wrote his Chakee Chankarantf
there were coming into print so many dramas and
poems which were drivel and unmitigated trash, not
worth the paper and ink spent on them. But the sati¬
rical hits and withering sarcasm of Rama Kurup s
burlesque put an end to that ‘hopeless bog of poesiless
verse*.
C. Anthappayi, a writer of some eminence and the
author of Sanmargamprakasika and Dharmopadesikay
also contributed his vitriolic redicule to parch up these
poesiless swampes.
It will be interesting and perhaps profitable as well
to take a brief but a general survey of the several
departments of the Malayalam literature of recent times
instead of making references to individual writers and
their wrorks. From this we shall also be able to dis¬
cover in some measure the general tendencies of the
age.
At one time it was thought that the art of Katha-
kali was languishing and that it might disappear from
the stage. But the Kalamandalam started by Vallattoie
resuscitated it in a remarkable manner, and well-known
artists are coming from distant lands to learn at his
Institute the technique of this wonderful art. Vallathole
has put his whole part in the scheme, and he is a name
to be reckoned with. He is a great poet. He has
rendered Valmiki’s Ramayanam into Mala)alam, besides
several of the plays of Bhasa. He has camposed a
Mahakavyam called Chitrayogam. Some of his small
poetical pieces are gems that are likely to sparkle for
ever on the forefinger of time. The late Ruler cf
Cochin whose lamented demise took place at Madras
conferred on him the title of KavisSrvabhauman. He
has written a Kathakuli work. Other moderns too,
like Kesava Pillai, Padmanabha Kurup, Padmanabha
Panikkar and Mr. T. C. Achyuta Menon, have pro¬
duced kathakali compositions-
Kilippaltus too have not suffered much under
adverse mystic winds. Kalkipuranam and Skanda-
puranam have been rendered as Kilippatlus by
S33 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

Mr. Otuvil Sankarankutti Menon, that gifted blind bard

of Talappalli. His is an epic of endeavour and con¬
quest over great obstacles. He is a brother of Otuvil
Kunhi Krishna Menon whose Kavimrgavali created
quite an unprecedented stir in the world of Malabar
poets. 'I here is an ease and grace in his poems which
do not fail to charm those who read or hear them. The
Ramasvamedham of Ksttuiiil Achyuta. Menon and the
Kilippattus of Varavur Samu Menon will not suffer in
comparison with the great models of old days. The
Bkasha Pur attains of Vallathole and Vasudevan Mussad
alsj have successfully adopted the Kilippattu style.
There is a craze for Dravidian metres and a cor¬
responding hostile attitude against rhyme and Sanskrit
metres among a certain section of the Malayalam poets.
This mentality a nong a few moderns is to be highly
regretted, for a little thinking will show that there is no
real substance, much leis sufficient reason behind it.
It is a matter for gratification that the contagbn is not
spreading and the output is not affected.
Of the famous works cf Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Sri
Harsha, Bhasa, and Sudraka we have fine Malayalam
renderings, and some of these are by those who have
leanings for the Dravidian metres. Some Shakes¬
pearian dramas are also done into Malayalam. Makottu
Krishna Menon stood for Sanskrit culture. His render¬
ings of Chandakausikam and Lalitopakhyanam deserve
mention. C. Govindan Elayadam was an ideal Pandit
of the old type who love J his pupils and was revered by
them. He has invested his translations of Tempest and
Chandrahasa with a simplicity and charm all his own.
Kundur Narayana Menon, was a compeer of Kodungal-
lur Tampurans, Natuvom and Venmani Mahan. He
has worked hard for the development of the Malayalam
literature. His translations of Malavikagnimit* amy
Meghadutu and Kumarascimbhavcim are familiar to
students of Malayalam. The artless piety and the
simple diction of Natuvath Achchan’s Bhagavatdutu
have appealed to the masses to a very great degree.
 MODERN TIMES 539
Of Mahakavyas of the Sanskrit classic type we
have a fair number. Ramachandravilasam of Padma-
nabha Kurup, Kesaviyam of Kesava Pillai, Vanchisar
vamsam and Gosrisadityacharitam and Pandavodayam of
Kochunni Tampuran, Rugmangadacharilam of Panta-
lath Kerala Varma Tampuran, Umakeralam of Rao Sahib
Uliur Parameswara Ayyar, Chitrayogam of Vallathole,
Sri Yesuvijayam of K. Cheriyan Mappilay and Rag/iu-
viravijayam and Raghvabhudayam of Mr. Vatakkankur
Raja Raja Varma will arrest the attention of any scholar.
Ullur is admittedly a profound scholar and a great poet-
What is more: he works by day and by night to enrich
the Malayalam language and its literature, in both of
which he is acknowledged to be an authority. Mr.
P. K. Narayani Pillai is also great as a scholar and
poet, but his strenuous life as a lawyer and politician
has left him little leisure to bring forth as many works
as his friend. His Prasangatarangani and Prayoga-
dipika sufficiently indicate his scholarship and his fine
critical taste for literature. Vatakkankur Raja Raja
Varma has, besides his two Kavyas, written a work
called Sahitimrvasvam, a very useful book for advanced
students. His Sahitya Manjari contains a collection
of his valuable essays on literary subjects. His style
is free from verbal jugglery and enigmatic conceits.
He is a good scholar and a fine poet, hie is above all
an enthusiast in the cause of the ordered progress of
his mother-tongue. Kumaran AsSn has composed a
number of fine poems on a variety of subjects. His
Fallen Floiver, Nalini, Lila, Duravastha and Chandala
Bhikshuki are noteworthy for their style and suggestive¬
ness. He was one of those honoured during the visit
of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to Madras.
Mr. Etamarath Victor’s Palaya Pana and Garland of
Hymns contain many elevating devotional songs. Mr.
A. D. Hari Sarma, though a member of the Gauda-
Sarasvvath community, is a fine student of Sanskrit and
Malayalam, a fact that is amply borne out by his several
540 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

prcse and poetical works. But the one remarkable fact

is the advent of Pandit K. P. Karuppaninto the literary
firmament of Malabar. He entered it with his Balam
kalesam, which securred the first prize in a competition
instituted by a generous donor for the best drama fit to
be staged at the completion of the sixtieth year of the
penultimate Ruler of Cochin- I shall here transcribe
a few lines from a Preface I wrote to that work at the
time of its first publication in 1913. “Mr. Karuppan
is a Valan, a boatman, by caste -a fact he is happily
not ashamed of. But, if you expect to see in him an
illiterate man tanned by the Indian sun, with a dirty
bit of cloth round his head, armed with a paddle and
seated at the helm of a country dug-out, you will be
greatly disappointed. He is a fair young man, and
dresses as decently as the reader himself. He is a
good Sanskrit scholar and a poet of no mean order, and
he deservedly occupies to-day the proud position of the
Sanskrit Pandit cf the Ernakulam Sirkar Girls' School.
1 should not be understood to have decried the calling
of Mr. Karuppans castemen. Certainly not; for his is
as honourable, useful, and exciting a profession as that
of any other community.'*
Bolakalesam did not escape criticism and that of a
virulent type. But the malicious attacks of a carping
critic only produced, as its after-effect, a clearer sky for
Mr. Karuppan, and he rose in his official position and
in the sympathetic estimation of the disinterested edu¬
cated public of Malabar. The late Ruler of Cochin
honoured him with the title of Kavitilakan and the
University once appointed him as the Chairman of the
Board of Examiners for its Oriental Titles Examination.
Honours have not inflated his head nor made him
proud. His rendering of Bhaimiparinayam and his
Lalitopaharam and the numerous poems and musical
dramas he has composed for School Day celebrations
n ark him out as one of the best poets of modern times.
Speaking of musical dramas, the Sadara tuim of Kesava
pillai and the Sangitanaiskadham of Mr. T, C* Achyuta
 NOVELS 54*

Menon deserve special reference. Even illiterate

coolies go about with snatches of songs from them in
their mouths, so catching has been their melody. The
number of clever poets and of prose-writers, males and
females, who have risen and of others who are rising
is legion. It is not possible in this short sketch
to find space for them all. Using a lawyer’s phrase,
I can only submit that the names given are illustrative
and not exhaustive. However, the name of Mr.
G. Sankara Kurup merits mention here not alone as
the author of several poems but also as a clamant
advocate of mystic poetry.
Another department of literature that is being
cultivated is prose fiction. T. M. Appu Nedungadi s
Kundalatha led the way. In form and finish it has
reached a high level. But the novel that first attracted
thousands of readers was Chandu Menon’s Indulekha.
It is a society novel and treats of the upper ten, their
fashions and frivolities. There is a firmness in his handl¬
ing his story. His racy diction and his graceful humour
mark him out as the Thackery of Maiayalam literature.
He has in his novel hit off certain characters with
wonderful accuracy, and his Suri Namburi, Vythie
Patter, Panchu Menon and others will live as long as
our literature lasts to enliven passing hours.
Marthanda Varnta of C. V. Raman Pillai, has
revivified a forgotten chapter of Travancore history. It
enchains the attention of the reader from the first line
to the last There is life in his story, his persons and
his dialogues. His characters have the variety, as they
have the truth of history. It is one of the most brilliant
things of its kind and will hold its own with any histo¬
rical novel of any other country. He is also the author
of several farces. Many novels have come to light in
these years; originals and translations. Among these
originals, the most recent is Sakuntala Devi% a two-
volumed novel by Srlmati De*aki Amma, a grand¬
daughter of Chandu Menon, of which her forebear
kJ
g4a HISTORY OF KERALA [L. 27.

would have felt proud if he were alive to-day. Among

translations, those of Srlmaji T. C. Kaly^i Amma
deserve a reference here. For her literary works she
was given the title of Sshitya Sakhi by the late Ruler of
Cochin. A. Narayana Puduval and Mr. E. V. Krishna
Pillai are well known as tellers of short stories.
History, biography, science, and critical studies
are successfully trying to have their voices heard in
Keralam. Malayalam can now boast of a few books on
the first three subjects; while the beginnings of the last
can be met with in the decent periodicals of the day.
To the making of the History of Cochin by the late
K. P. Padmanabha Menon much patient research work
has gone. Lives of many of the Malabar Men of Letters
have been published recently. Though they lack the
form and the finish of similar series in English, yet it
has to be said to their credit that they have made a fair
start. Except a few works by Christian Missionaries,
which, from their quaint phraseology, are of little or no
practical value at the present day, Dr. Krishnan
Pandalay’s translation of Sir H. Roscoe’s Primer on
Chemistry may be said to be an epoch-marking book.
Others have followed him, notably Mr. M. Udaya Varma
Raja with his Introductory Primer and Mr. M. Rajaraja
Varma, with a primer on Physical Geography. The
latter has written several other useful w orks on scienti¬
fic and historical subjects. The want of a standard
glossary of scientific terms stands in the way of the
writing of useful manuals on scientific topics.
Many works in the range of Malayalam literature,
notably the great epics, contain gems of philosophical
thought, pure and serene. The several Malayalam render¬
ings of the great Puranas, the brochure on Advaita
Philosophy from the pen of H. H. Kerala Varma, the
late learned Elaya Raja of Cochin, and the translations
of the Bhagavat Gita by A. Govinda Pillai, Dam adaran
Kartha and T. V. Ananthan Nayar, will, I dare say,
give a proper setting to the above s ) as to enha nce their
value and to induce Malayalees to venture to still higher
 MALAYALAM LITERATURE S4S

levels in the search after the purest and the most precious
jewel of all. The scholarly commentaries of the
Bhagavat Gita in Malayalam by K. M. and Dr.
L. A. Ravi Varma and also those of some of the Upa-
nishads by the latter will contribute greatly to popularise
the Advaita Philosophy among the educated Malayalees.
I would fail in a pleasing duty were I to omit the
names of those who play the not very ambitious but
by no means insignificant role of text-book writers.
A. R. Rajaraja Varma, Kuppakstt Narayana Menon,
M. Krishnan, Joseph Muliyil, Mr. Krishnan Thampi,
and others have written several useful books in Mala*
yalam which are being taught in several schools in
Malabar.

It is becoming the fashion of the day for officials

and professors to air their self-importance by declaring
that they are literally chained to their official duties and
that they get little or no time to engage themselves in
literary or scientific pursuits. Every one who has read
anything of the life and work of the great politicians and
professors of England anc of other countries will know
what idle talk this is. Even here, there are examples
of those like A. R. Rajaraja Varma, A. Govinda Pillai,
Mr. M. Rajaraja Varma, Mr. C. Achyuta Menon, Kun-
dur Narayana Menon, Ullur, Pailo Paul, Mr. Krishnan
Thampi, Mr. L. V. Ramaswami Ayyar and others to
falsify this newlangied notion. Among these, the
names of Mr. M. Rajaraja Varma, Professor Krishnan
Thampi and M r. L. V. Ramaswami Ayyar deserve special
mention. They work not for fame, nor for money, but
for the sole purpose of enriching Malayalam literature.
Besides the renderings of In Memorian and of Gold¬
smith’s Hermit, and a commentary to Koil Tham-
puran’s Anyapadesam and Rajaraja Varma’s Meghadata
the first has published several works in prose. Professor
Thampi is the author of several works in Sanskrit and
in Malayalam, and is always trying to introduce new
forms of poetical literature into Malayalam. Mr.
L. V. Ramaswami Ayyar is a linguist who, by his
544 HISTORY OF KERALA [L. a*.

researches on the morphology of the Malayalam

Language} has gained an international reputation,
PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
Newspapers and Magazines have breathed fresh
life into the literature of the land. They have introduc¬
ed a large race of literary men to the public. By their
well-timed and judicious criticism, they have arrested
the growth of poisonous and ephemeral literature and
facilitated the production of much of what is healthy and
vigorous.
Many of the papers and magazines are conducted with
honesty, devotion and ability, while a few exist more
to parade the passions and prejudices of ill-advised
partisans and to gain notoriety by constant appearance
in law-courts than for the political, social or literary
advancement of the country. It is indeed a matter for
regret that journals of this class are on the increase
which, no doubt, points to the prurient taste of a cer¬
tain section of the reading public that stands very
much in need of some drastic remedy- There are a
number of daily and weekly newspapers conducted in
Malayalam.
When speaking of newspapers, the one name that
suggests itself to my mind is that of Kunhi Raman
NayanSr. He was the best Malayalam newspaper
correspondent of his day. His chaste diction anci his
humour invest his writings with an indefinable charm.
If only he had worked he could have easily gained an
undying name in the journalistic history of his country.
He started Kerala Sanchari, a weekly. He used to
style himself as Kesari. Some of his writings have
been gathered together in the form of a book. Another
able journalist was Ramakrishna Piilai. His wife
Srimaty T. B. KalySni Amma, who wields a facile pen,
has written about her husband in her Reminiscences
called Vyazhavatia Smaranakal.
The first Malayalam Magazine was Vidya Vila-
sinu It made its name as the medium of publication
of Bhasha Sakunthalam. It closed its career after a
 MONTHLIES 54$

fitful life of a few years. Then came Vidya Vinodinu

under Mr. C. Achyuta Menon. It soon became a
power in the land. To gain a public audience even
great poets availed themselves of Vidya Vinodinu while
young writers of talent and genius served their ap¬
prenticeship under Mr. Menon. Mr. Achyuta Menon
is a great writer indeed. Wit and beauty, reason and
grace, all are sweetly blended in his inimitable articles.
His reviews of several works are real gems of prose.
Vidya Vinodini also had its day and ceased to b^»
Its place was filled up for a time by Rasika Ranjini, a
monthly that was owned and conducted by H. Ii. Rama
Varma, Appan Tampuran of Cochin. It speaks volumes
in favour of this prince that he, despising a life of learn¬
ed leisure, should love to live laborious days for the
benefit of his country and its literature. ‘To write
perfect prose1 it has been rightly put ‘is as difficult as
to lead a perfect life,’ His Highness is showing how
to do both. His Bhaskara Menon and Bhutarayan are
very good novels. His stray writings to journals are
collected in four or five volumes called Mangalamala.
Bkasha Poshini is the name of the monthly con¬
ducted by the society of the same name. The late
Varughese Mappillai, its first editor, was a man with
a many-sided activity. He was a poet and the Secre*
tary to an educational institution and to several societies
and trading concerns. His capacity for taking pains
was so wonderful that nothing produced by him or
placed under him suffered for want of attention. His
Abraya Kutti is a meritorious work. His contributions
to periodical literature are marked by vigour, and
breadth of view. He was the life and soul of the
Bkasha Poshini Sab ha. In fine, he was a man with a
heart to do good to his fellowmen; and after his lights
and might he did it admirably well. Mr. M. Kumaran
is the master of a melodious prose style effective to
express every shade of feeling and of fine thoughts.
Kavanodayam, a journal published by the late
Udaya Varma Raja of Kadathanad, was mainly devoted
546 HISTORY OF KERALA [L. 27.

to the publication of poetical compositions. Udaya

Varma (b. 1867 A. D.) maintained the high traditions
of his ancient family. Himself a literary man he neve
failed to encourage men of letters.
There is an idea among certain persons in Cochin
and Travancore that the output of literary works in
British Malabar has not been commensurate with its
extent and importance. This is an appropriate place
I trust to enter my caveat against that wrong notion.
The palaces of Kolattiri, Kottayam, Kolikote, Kottakkal,
Chirakal and Kolathufisd Rajas were centres of learn¬
ing in ancient days, and sources of generous patronage
to literature. Sukumara Kavi, the author of Sri Krishna
Vilasam was a Malayali from North Malabar.
Krishnattam and Purva Bharatha Champu are the
works of Manavedan Raja (1125 A.D.) of Calicut. And
what of Ramanattam, popularly known as Kathakali ?
Veerakerala Varma (1665—1743) the originator of that,
and the author of eight dramatic pieces, was a
Northerner; so too was his brother, Kerala Varma,
the author of Bhasha Valmiki Ramayanam and of
VairagyaChandrodayam. He helped Travancore during
the Mogul invasion (1680—3). CheruSSeri and Pump-
nam, and Sankara Wsrriar, who composed the Sri
Krishna Vijayam in Sanskrit and Panchar atnam in
Malayalam, were all from British Malabar. Mgppatjur
Bhattatiri was a Northerner. Besides his famous Sans-
krit works, he has written in Malayalam Advaita Sata-
kam, Chandrika Maholsavam, Kuttappathakam and a
number of Champu-prabandhams. So also Kalle-
kulamgara Raghava Pisharoti, the author of Vetala
Char it am, Panchatantram and Seturnahatmyam, hails
from British Malabar. K5la{|iri Swarupom had
Yogams and Sadassukal for the encouragement of poets
and the development of literature. Ravi Varma of
Kolattiri composed Udaya Parma Charitam, and Rama
Varma made Bharata Samgraham% and Katafjangt
Appan Tam pur an wrote Sadratnamala. Kuchela Vrttam
of Kottur Nambiysr, Gautama Charitam of Olayattu
 MALAYALAM LITERATURE 547
Sankara Poduval, Harischandra Charitam Tullal of
Kunhi Bappu, and Nalacharitam Manipravalam of
MatSyi MSmman Gurukkal are well-known works.
Vedic hymns were for the first time rendered into Mala-
yalam by a Namputiri in Talipparambu, and the first
translation of Bhagavat Gita was by Kunhappu Guruk¬
kal, and of Koran by Mayankutti Haji. It was a Nam¬
putiri from Etakkat that wrote Prasnamargam] Bhas•
karanu a Malayalam commentary to Ashtangahrdayam
is by Uppote Kaij^an; and about 200 years ago Kerala
Varma of Chirakkal Kovilakam wrote an annotation to
Ekadesam. PunnaSSeri Nampi, Sheshagiri Prabhu,
Muliyil Krishnan, V. C. Balakrishna Panikker,
K. C. Narayanan Nampiyar, Kuttyappan Nampiyar,
Mr. Unnikrishnan Nayar, Mr. KuttamafJ Kunhikrishna
Kurup, Mr. Balakrishnan Nayar, Mr. P. S. Warriar,
Mr. P. K. Warriar—each of them can be considered
a host in himself. I can multiply instances. But I
believe I have said enough to show that the contention
is not just.
What LJdaya Varma and his Kavanodayam did for
Malayalam Literature will ever be recorded in its glo¬
rious history. He was assisted by Krishna Warriar,
whose scholarship and poetical talents are seen in his
Bhasha Ramayana Champu. The Raja is the author of
Rasikabhushanam, Priyadarsika and Kavitabharanam.
Vyavahara Chinthamanu a monthly devoted to law,
and Dhanvanthariy one devoted to medicine, did very
useful work; Another magazine that once came into
prominence was Sarada. It was edited by three Nayar
ladies and was intended for the instruction and amuse¬
ment of the ladies of Malabar.
LekshmibhaU another monthly that served the
same purpose, has long been in the journalistic field. A
few years ago, it celebrated its Silver Jubilee. To have
lived to do it is itself a creditable feat. But when one
remembers of the silent but solid service it has been
doing tor the popular education of the ladi s o( Mala¬
bar, one cannot but give it its meed of praise with a
548 HISTORY OF KERALA [L. 27.

grateful heart. Keralan> that was edited by Mr. Attur

Krishna Pisharoti, was a high-class magazine devoted
to scholarly articles. It was in that that Mr. Raman
Nambiyassan’s brilliant romance Keralesvaran was first
published. Mr. Krishna Pisharoti is an erudite
scholar, and he has done a yeoman’s service to Malaya-
lam Literature by his scholarly editions of Lilatilakam
and LnniniliSandesam and by his rendering of Sakumtha*
lam. His articles on the Bhasa question, his booklets
on the early history of Keralam and on the history of
Malayalam Literature are all marked for their scholar¬
ship and research work. Of the new ventures, the All-
Kerala Parishat Magazine under the editorship of
Ulloor, and Sahrdaya under the guidance of Professor
V. Krishnan Tampi are expected to do substantial work
in consolidation and research work and in the mould¬
ing of the future growth of our language and literature
The former is the organ of the Samastha Kerala
Sahitya Parishat, a learned body which has secured the
patronage of the Rulers of Cochin and Travancore.
Under the head of newspapers, there are at present
several dailies and weeklies that are doing good work
to promote the cause of the Malayalam language and
literature. I should also here record the great service
that has all along been rendered by respectable printing
and book-selling firms to the growth of Malayalam
literature.
MALAYALEES WHO HAVE WRITTEN IN ENGLISH.
To give at least an apparent completeness to this
sketch, 1 think it is necessary to take a cursory view of
the work done in English by the natives of this country.
For ‘the work of administration and of the Courts of
Justice is more or less carried on in English, higher
education is imparted in English, and English is the
one language in which the people of the different pro¬
vinces in Inciia could at present communicate with one
another’. But it does not fall within the purview of
this sketch to speak of those Malayalees who have won
 malayalam literature 549

a name as statesmen, as administrators, judges, lawyers,

public speakers or educationists. I shall refer only to
a few of those who have won fame by their published
works.
P. Sankunni Menon’s History of Travancors is
a valuable work. But with much that is good
one finds in it much of what is bid also. The writings
of his son, K. P. Padmanabha Menon, are, however,
free from this defect. His history of Kerala in four
large volumes is marked by historical accuracy and by
the logical rigour in its treat nent, and is the outcome
of a life-long study and of patient and persevering in¬
vestigation. Seshagiri Prabhu, Balaknshnan Nayar,
Mr. T. K. Gopala Panikkar and Mr. Rama PishSroti
and Mr.Balakrishna Warriar, like the late Mecon, have
worked at the rich, unexplored mines of the anti¬
quities cf Keralam. Prabhu was an enthusiast in his
work and was, besides, a profound Sanskrit scholar.
Many of the Census Reports of Cochin and Travancore
are veritable storehouses of information concerning those
States. They are very rea lable volumes and reflect
great ere ^ic on the historical researches and literary
ability rf Mr. C. Achyuti Menon, M. Sankara Menon,
N. Nag .miah and Drs. Subranaoia Ay^ar and Ku ljan
Pillai. So too the Rep art of the Jerrmi-Kutiyan Com nit-
tee written by the late Judge R .man Thimpi. Bat fore¬
most among this band of workers stood th.» late Profes¬
sor Sundaram Pillai. His Sovereigns of Vevad is a sub¬
stantial piece of work which would do credit to any
antiq uarian of any 1 <nd. His services to the cause of
historical literature deserve to be remembered with
gratitude.
Nor are poets wanting in Malabar. Firebrand,
evider tly a political drama, shows that its author,
T. Oovinda Menon, was conversant with the subdeti s
of English prosady and that his mind w as saturated with
the b st works of Shakespeare.
It is a matter for congratulation that at one time
two of the four dailies of Madras were edited by
 ss© HISTORY OF KERALA [L. ty.

Malayalees. The late G. Parameswaran Pillai, who ably

ediled the Madras Standard, has also written two books,
Representative Men of India and London and Paris which
have won tor him a European reputation. He was a
self-made man. In spite of his poverty, G. P. Pillai
worked himself up to the pinnacle of fame. The story
of his life is worthy of being written, because of the
lessons of patience and perseverence which it teaches to
his countrymen, because of the originality of his thought
and effort and because his life exemplifies in an empha¬
tic way that real worth will rise though by poverty de¬
pressed. C. Karucakara Menon was fora long time
the Editor of the Hindu. The ability and earnestness
he brought to bear on his work gained for his paper a
wide circle of readers. K. Menon edited The
Madras Review also. This review as well as the Madras
Law Journal were originally started by the late Sir
Sankaran Nayar who rose to be the Advocate-General
of Madras, a High Court Judge and a member of H. E.
the Viceroy’s hxecutive Council. His writings and
speeches were marked by sound common sense and manly
vigour. The Malabar Quarterly Review of C. V. Subra-
mania Ayyar devoted itself to the discussion of topics
relating to Malabar and was a first class magazine.
I shall now close this somewhat desultory paper.
I have spoken of the dim beginnings of Malayalam
Literature, of the clouds that Overcast it for a time and
of the effulgence of brilliant constellations that followed
the darkness. The future is with us. By arduous work
and with patriotic zeal, it rests with the sons of Malabar
to hasten the advent of a glorious future. We may in
the meantime console ourselves with the encouraging
thought that wre are in the dawn of a great era and in
that dawn to be alive is very heaven.*

♦The copyright of this Note, s of all the ether Not.s supplied

to the four volumes by the Editor, ttAs with hi a only.
 INDEX TO THE NOTES.

Abhlsheka, 51. Aratpula, festival at, 347—

Alfonso do Sousa, 35* 35°-
Alvancherl Tambrakal, 741 Arattu Puzha, See Aratpula,
82, 83, 85. 347—350.
Amavasi, 35*- Architecture of Malabar
Ambalapuzha Raja, 95, 17*. 'temples, 16—22, of mosques
See Porakad, in Malabar, 17—18, Editor’s
Ampalavasl, 50. foot-note on 138—141.
Amusements, See Games and Areca, note on, 412—416.
amusements, 377—394* Ashtami Rohini, 351. 352—
Animal life in Malabar, note 353.
on, 451—500* Astley, 151, 17°-
Animism, 1, n. Athachamayam, 294.
Annamanada Temple, 87, 88 Avarodham, 70, 71.
—90. Avatars, 3°6- 323. See Dasa
Approach to threshold, note Avatar.
on, 48—49. Ayanikkoor Chiefs, 83, ioo,
See Kakkad

Baawu, note on, 2S6. Belka Paru, 113—115, See

BaldeUs, 331. Velichha Padu.
Barbosa, 32. 58, 9*» *49. 376» Betel—note on, 417—422.
423, 424* Bending knees—note on, in.
Barki, 438. Bharani, festival of, 333—
Bartolomeo, Fra, 153, 154, 343! 344*
195,*89, 304, 343, 33*1352; Bhavishyat Purana, 65.
354.358,361,36s. 366, 452. Biloo, 282, See Vishu.
459* 460, 462. Brahmani Kite, 500.
Barugoza, 396, See Bpry- Brahmans, 348, 349
goza, Buchanan, Dr, 274, 399.
Barygoza, 396, 397—4°°- Buddha, 3x8—319.
Becare, 396. 397—400 Buddhism, 105, 106.
Burnell, Dr. 274, 275.

Cabral, Jarge, 36. Camoens, 45, ir,6—167

Caldwell, Bishop, 16, 397. Cardamom— note on,, 409—
447, 496, 497- 41?
55* LETTERS FROM MALABAR

C—(cont.)
Cashew-nut—note on, 445— Coffee -note on, 450—451.
447* Coilam Era—note on, 265—
Cassia, 448, 449. 275.
Changadam, 91. Coilumin, 450.
Chankarakanda Kaimal, 76. Coir, 431.
Cheraman Perumal, 266, Collins, Rev. Richard, 59
267, 268, 271. Conolly, Mr. 66.
Chera empire, 267. Consecration, 49.
Cher as, 495* 496, 497. Consecration of temples,
Chilapatikaram, 331* note on, 115—122; of new
Chirayath Muthathu, 75. houses, 142.
Christians, superstitions Copper cow—note or, 48
among, 252, 253. Cosmas, 400, 424.
Chronology of the Bible and Cottonara, 396, 397—400
of eastern nations, note Cows—gifts of, 455—456; and
on, 258—260; of India and purifications, 456—457,
Malabar, 260—276, Cranganore—origin of, 331—
Cinnamon—note on, 44.7— 332.
449. Crocodiles—note od, 498—
Cochin Raja’s Palace— early S°o.
account of, 170. Cubebs, 450.
Cocoa Palm—note on, 422 — Curries—for feasts in Mala¬
436. bar, 297—299, 409.

Daily services—in a Mala¬ Delia Vella, 149, 152, 167,

bar temple, note on, 49- 169—170, 419.
63. Demonolatory, 10—11, 186.
Desa Avatar, 306—323. Devaswams, 65—105.
Day, Dr., 7r, 252, 463. Devi Purana, 190.
Deepali, 35*, 356- Diparadhana, 52.
De Gama, Vasco, 3*. 53. 42c, Division of the year—note
423. on, 276—281.
Dutt, R. C.t 15
E
Edappiily Chief, 95- Endow ments—charitable,
Ekadesi, 351. 360. note on, 11c—in.
Elankunnapuzha temple, Eras in use its Malabar, 280.
90. Evil eye—note on the, 142—
*47
F
Faria-y Sousa, 31, 32, 36,37, Fawcett, Mr , 54, 113, 114,
41, 331, 33*. 3Si. 4*9. *45* *59.*6o, 161, *11,212,
'-’$0. 303. 304.333, 337* 340.
 INDEX 553

F —(£0#/.)

Feast of souls note on, 203 Festivals—annual in Mala¬

—204. bar, note on, 281—377.
Feeding Brahmans, note on, Fire flies,5°o.
106—107. Fitch, Ralph, 152.
Ferguson, Mr., 16, 272. Forbes, 150, 303, 44Q, 450*
451, 452.

G
Games and amusements— Gobhlla Grlhya Sutra, 186.
supplementary note on. Gollenesse, 95.
377—394- Gouvea, 95, 96.
Games during Onam, 3^— Gundhert, Dr., 266.
306. Guruvayoor Gkadesi, 367—
Ginger—note on, 449 - 451- 369-

H
Hamilton, Alexander, 65,171, Houses— building of, note
419. on, 147—183, of different
Hannyngton, J.C.,89,92, 94- castes, names of, 171—172,
Heber, Bishop, 188—189. dimensions of, 173—*76,
Holy animals in Malabar, auspicious times for build¬
453—455*
ing of, 176—178, poojas
Hook-swinging. 344—347 and ceremonies on com
Hough, 95—96- pletion of , 178—183.

Ibn Batuta, 148, 402, 43s, note on, 45—48. consecra¬

448,
tion of, in—122.
Idol worship, 14—15- Images with bags —note on
111am Nara—festival of, 287— 105—io5*
288, Incarnations of Vishnu—
Images—-materials for, note See Dasa Avatara
on, 41—441 description of, Itteyetath Nampiyar, 77.
Izhavas, 111, 112*

Jack-fruit, note on, 437-441* Jewish Copper Plates, 91,

Jainism, 105, to6. 92.

K
Kaimals of Nanthipulam, Kali Yiigam—note on, a So-
& 26$.
Kakkad, Karnavapad of, S3, Kalpathl Theru 367, 369
85, too. — 37®*
S 54 LETTERS FROM MALABAR

K—(com,)
Karaima, 68. Keraiotpatti, 8, 475, See
Karala, 70, 83, 85. Keralolpathi.
Karappu, 447, See Cinna- Koima, 67.
mon. Kollam Andu, 265. See Coi*
Karimadi Kuttan, 105. lam era.
Karpiou, 447, See Cinna- Kolom Muttathu, 75, 77, 78,
mon. 80.
Karuvappatta, 447< See Cin¬ Kottiyur Utsavam, 367,369.
namon. Kunhi Raman Nayar, Justice,
Kazhakakkar, 50. 93-
Kerala Mahat my am, 66. Kurumpernad Raja, 83, 85,
Keralolpathi, 207, 268, 375. palace of, 171.
Kutippaka, 91.

L
Linsehoten, 152, 437. Luck and Ill-luck, days of,
Logan, 17, 18, 92, 154-158* note on, 247-257.
238, 248, 266,269, 270, 278,
333, 336, 337, 34o.

M
Magam, note on, 306-323. Marble arches and facings,
Mahabharata, 263, 264. note on, 41.
Ma Huan, 151. Marco Polo, 402, 417, 418,
Malabar Law, 324. 448, 449, 450, 452, 453.
Malabathrum. 447. Marroe, note on, 107—no.
Malayans, 144, 145 • Mateer, Rev., hi.
Mamankani, 91, 350. Max Muller, 14.
Mandapa, 116. Medlycott, Bishop, 152.
Mango, note on, 444-445. Melkoima, 67, 68, 69.
Manakulam Chief, 83. Moens, Adrian Van., 95.
Manimekala, 331. Mouton, 112.
Mannarsala, 476, 4S2-488. Muhammadan Tangals, 253.
Mantra Tanfra Prakasha, Muir, Dr., 14, 263.
51.
Munro, Col., 103, 104.
Manu Smriti—263, 264 Muriyatathu Namplyar, 76.
Marans—50. Muzirls, 397-

N
Nampikkoors, 82. Newars, 495.
Namputiri houses, 158—160. Nicolo Conti, 403, 439, 498.
Navaratri, 351, 353—356. Nieuhoff, 15^171,
Nayaf houses 160—166,
Nyikinda, 356, 397—400,
 INDEX SS5
O
Ochchlra Kali, 367* 372—375- Olloor Nayar, 75, 78, 79.
Oel Fournam, note on, 347— Omens, 247—252.
350 See Pooram. Onam festival, 270,271,
Odsagam, note on, 350— note on, 286—306.
377, See Utsavam. Onitterl, 171, Se2 Kurumper-
Offerings of the faithful, nad.
note on, 63—105, Oottupuras, 106, no.

Pagodas, note on, 37—40, Pisharikavu ceremony, 367,

derivation of word, 37—40. 370.
Paldurti, note on, 343—344- Pisharoti, 51.
Pall! Unarthal, so. Pliny, 188, 395, 396, 397.
Palluruthi, 343-—344, See 398, 399, 447*
Paldurti. Ponnazhiath Kalmal, 82, 85.
Pampumekkatt Namputiri, Poonunoo], 53.
4S1, 482. Pooram Festival, 343,344,
Parasu Rama, 66, 315—318, 347 35°*
348, 475, 494- Porakad, palace of the Raja
Paroese Raman cycle, note of, 171,
on, 275—276. Pornathukara Qramam, 82.
Past life, conduct in, note on, Portuguese, the—objects of
i97‘—201. incoming to India, 35*
Pathillam, 82, 83. Pournami, 365.
Patoor Qramam, 82. Pradosham, 35364—365.
Fat tarn all, 68, 69, 70. Prasadam, 52, 53.
Pattamoedasjam, note on, Ptolemy, 16, 397, 398, 399*
286, See Pattamudayam. Pudu Vaipum, note on, 275.
Pattamudayam, 286, See Pulluvans, 480—481.
Pattamoedayaro. Punnathur Chief, 83,85.
Pattola Menon, 82,83,84. Punyaham, 49*
Pepper, 303 note on, 39s— Purappada Santi, so.
407, cultivation of 403—-407, Purchas, 32, 4*, 46* 418,425.
contract for sales of 407— Puthuvaipu eya, 93, See
409, monopoly of, 408—“409, Pudu Vaipum and Putu
Perusnpad^ppii Mooppu, Vyppu
82, S$s PuthuvaJ, si®
PcyipIUS, 16, 396, 497. Put tad, festival of, 287—
peruvanam, 348* 288.

Pineapple, note on, 437* Putu Vyppu, 2$s» 275, See

Pudu Vaipum,
R
Religion, of the Malabar Roth, Dr.r 26
people.
5 5<> LETTERS FROM MALABAR

Sacrifices, 57—5$. Sivaratri, 351* 357—3$° +

Salagramam, worship of, Siveli, 52.
11, nature and value of, Siva worship, 186.
11—12. Skanda Puranam, 355, 358—
Samketams, what they are, 360.
86—103. Snakes, in Malabar, note on,
Samudayam, 68, 69, 70. 457—49S.
Sankara 105, 266, 267, 268, Snake Physicians, of
2t9. Malabar, 464—474, medi¬
Santa, 68, Sec Santikaran. cines of 469—474.
Santikaran, 49“ 50, 51. 5?. Sree Couroumba, 33 r. See
Sculptures, Buddhist and Jain, Sri Kurumba.
105, 106. Sri Kurumba, 331, Sec Sri
Serpent worship, in Malabar Couroumba.
474—498. St. Augustine, 258—259.
Shaki, 438. Sundaram Pillai, 266, 267,
Shangoony Menon, 265, 271, 272.
272. Surya Siddhanta, 262, 264.
Shashti, 351, 365* Syrian Copper Plates, 91 —
Siva Dharma, 64. 02.

T
Tamalapatra, 447. Thuruthikat Nayar 75* 80.
Tani mar am, 112. Tirawedira, note on, 324—
Tantri, 50, 54. 330.
Temples—of Malabar, note on, Tirtham, 52, $3.
1—37-, architecture of, 16— Tirumunpus, 85.
22; rules for the construction Tiruvalatur, 348.
of, 22— 30; description of, by Tlruvatira, 324—330, See
European travellers, 31—35; Tiruvedira.
destiuction of, by the Portu¬ Tookam, note on, 344^347,
guese, 35—37; classes of, 65; 382.
of some castes, 111—112; con¬ Transmigration, of souls,
struction of, ‘its—122; Pol¬ note on, 194^-197.
lution and purification of, 122 Trikkartika. 351, 356—357.
—137; entrance to and right Trisivaperur Pooram, 367,
to worship in, 337; See also 368—369.
pagodas. Turbit, 449, 450.
Thachudayakaimal, 71—82. Turmeric, note on, 409.
Tbekkenkoor Rafas, 83, 85, Tylor, Mr., 197, 198, 201,
98. 202, 203, 204.
Thye Pooyam. 367, 370—
372»
 INDEX 557

U
Udaya Marthanda Varma, Uralens, See Uralans.
265. Urallans, See Uralans.
Uaraima, 68, 69—70, See Utsavam, note on, 350—377*
Uralans. See Oelsagam, three sorts
Ural a ns, 66, 69—70. of, 350,

Valans, in. Velicha Padu, note on, 113—

Valdurti, 112. see Pallurtti. ii5-
VarahaMihira, 116, 117, nS, Veloss Nampidi, 76.
119, 121—122. Veloss Nampiyar, 76, 77.
Varaha Puranam, 64. Vinayaka Chathurthi, 351*
Variyar, 51. Vishnu Dharmothara,64.
Varthema, 31. 32,46, 57, 58, Vishnu Purana, 260—262,
151—-152, 167, 424, 451, 264, 316, 362—364.
488, Vishu, 282—286.
Vasco De Gama, see De Visit of Souls, note on, 201—
Gama. 204,
Vavu, 286, See Baawu. Vivekananda Swami, 119—
Velattukara Nampidi, 66; 120.
Vows to deities, 112-^113.
77* ^
Vykattu Ashtami, 367; 372*

Wadakkenkoor Raja, 83, 85. ineration of evil spirits, 212,

Wadakumkootil Nayar, 76, methods of propitiating them,
212—215, enumeration of
77.
Walluvanad Raja, 83, 85. good spirits, 2x5, Malabar
Wlgram, Mr., 69. treatises on, 215, acts of
Williams, Prof., Monier, 185, witchcraft, 216—217, prac,
ticesof, 217—233, ritual to
189,
ccunteract, 233—241, Yan-
Wilson, Prof., 13*
Witchcraft, note on, 204— trams of 242.
246, two broad divisions of, Women of Malabar, status
205, hereditary magicians of of 324.
Malabar, 208—212; enu-

Vantrams, 242. Yule, 397. 45©*

Yogam, 87. Yule and Burnell, 37. 39. 4^3,

Yogiathiripad of Trichur, 71, 447. 498.

his avarodham or installa¬
tion, 82—86,

Zamorin, 86, palace of the, Zingiber, 450.

166—170.
 .

u.. . til » I.

.
 INDEX TO SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE—MALAYALAM
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

A.
Abraya'Kutti, 545. Anthappai, C. 537*
Achyutha Menon, C. 545, 549. An gala Samrajyamx 514.
Achyutha Menon, T. C. 5 37. Appan Tampuran, 545.
54°> 54i. Appu Nedungadi, 541.
Achyutha Pisharody, 512. Arthasastra, 515.
Advaita Satakam, 546. Arthasastra bhashya Kavyat
Agastya Kavi, 510. 515-
Aithihya Malat 535. Arur Bhattatiri, 513
Ahbar, 533. Aryabhatiyabhashyam, 515.
All-Kerala Parishat Magazine, Ascharya-Chudatnani, 510,
548« 534*
Amma-Rani, 532. Attaprakaram% 510.
Ananthan Nayar, T. V. 542. Attur Krishna Pisharody, 506,
Amodam, 513. 548*
Ayurveda, 515.

B.
Balabharatam, 510. Bkasha Narayaneeyamt 536
Balakalesam, 515. Bkasha Poshini, 545.
Balakrishnan Nayar, 549. Bhasha Poshini Sabha, 5*3,
Balakrishna Panikar, V, C. 536, 545.
Bhasha Puranams, 531.
547
Balakrishna Warner, 549 Bhasha Ramayana Champu,
Balaramabharatam% 516. 547-
Balasankaran, 515* Bhasha Valmiki Ra?nayanam.
Bhagavat Gita> 510. 5*6.
Bhagavatham Dasamam, 511. Bhaskara Menon, 545.
Bhaimiparinayam, 540- Bhaskara Ravi Varma 503.
Bhakti Manjari, 514. Bhaskaram. 547;
Bhatiam, 514. Bhavarthadipika, 510.
Bharata Champu, 513, Bhugoladipika, 512;
Bhartruhari, 509. Bhutarayan, 504.
»

Centres of Sanskrit Profi¬ Chandu Menon, 541.

ciency, 516. Chathukutty Mannadiyar, 534.
Chakyars, 521* Chelaparambu, 529.
S6o LETTERS FROM MALABAR

Chakkee Chankaram, 537; Chennas Namputiris, 525.

Champ us, 509, 520. Cheriyan Mappilay, K, 539*
Champu-Prabamdhams, 546 Cherusseri Namputiri, 519, 520,
Chandala Bhikshuki, 539. 546.
Chandakausikam, 538. Chit ray ogam, 537, 539.
Chandrika Alaholsavatn, 546. Chummar, T. M, 531.
Chandrolsavam, 509, 521,
D.
Do tv a, 513 Devanarayan of Ambalapuzha,
Damodaran Kartha, 54*. 51°.
Damodaran Nambiyar, 528. Dhanvanthari, 547.
Dhanamjayam, 510. Dhatu Kavya, 511, 512.
Dasaadhyayi, 512. Dipaprabha, 513.
Dathyuha Sandesam, 535. Dr. Krishnan Pandalai, 542.
Devaki Arama, 541. Dr. L. A. Ravi Varma, 543*
Duravastha, 539.

Early Malayalam, 509, 516. Eluvattu Nanukutti Menon,

Bkadtsam, 547, $23.
Eluthaciichan, 522, Edamarath Victor, 539
F.
I alien Flower, 539. Firebrand, 539.
Female Authors, 532
O.
Gopala Panicker, T K, 549. Govinda Menon, T, 549.
Gosrisqditya Char Ham, 539. Govinda Pillay, A, 531, 542
Govinda Charitam Kavyam, Grdhra Sandesam, 512.
5*o- GundherPs Malayalam Gr i in-
Govindan Elayadam, C, 538 mar and Dictionary.

Hari Sarma, A D., 539, 540. History of Travancore, 549.

History of Cochin, 542 H. H, Kerala Varma, the late
History of Kerala, 549. Elaya Raja of Cochin, 543!
History of Malayalam Litera¬
ture, S31,

I.
Ikkavu Amma, 532 Indulekha, 541,

J
/aimini Mimamsa, 512. Jyotisha, 514.
Joseph Muliyil, 543
 INDEX.

K.

Kadambari, 513. Kokila Sandesamt 512.

Kaikoltukali-patlus, 513. Kolattiri Swarupam, 546.
Kakkasseri Bhaltatiii, $f3- Kottarakkara Tampuran, tog-
Kalamandalam, 537. Kottarathil Sankunni, 534.
Kalati, 509. Kottayain Kerala Varma, 509
Kalkipuranatny 537. Kolungalloor Tampuran, 509.
Kallenkulangara Kaghava Kovunni Nedungadi, 530-
Pisharodi, 546. Krishna Gadhay 509, 519-
Krishnakarnamrutham, 512,
Kalyani, 535.
Kalyani Amina, T. B., 532. 544- Krishna Kanla’s Will, 532.

Kalyani Amina, T. C., 532, 542- Krishnan, M„ 543.

Kamsavadha Champ v, 514. Krishna Pillay, E. V., 542;
Kandasidhanta Chandrika, 516. Krishnattam, 509* 54^
Kannassa Panicker, 508. Krishnan Tampi, 543* 5+8-
Karingampilli Nampootiri, 511. Krishna Vi jay am Kavyarn,

Karin Tamil, 507. 510.

Karunakara Menon, C., 550* Krishna Vilasam, 510,
Karunakaran Eiuthassan, 523. Kuchela Gopalam, 5 35*

Karuppan, K, P., SI-0* Kulasekhara Alwar, 507, 5io»

Kathakali, 509, 510, 523, 524, 511*
Kumar an Asan, 539-
525. 526, 537-
Kattullil Achyutha Menon, ^38, Kumaran, M.i 545*
Kumarasambhavam% 510.
Kavanodayamy 515, 517*
Kavimrigavali, 538. Kundalatha, ^41.
Kaviyoor Raman Nambiyar, 536- Kundur Narayana Menon, 534,
Kavya Malas 511. 538 .
Kunhikkuttan Tampuran, 534*
Kavya Prakasini, 516,
Kenopanishad, 512. Kunhi Raman Nayanar, 544.
Kunjan Nambiar, 509, 526, 527,
Keralan, 548*
Kerala Natanakala, 526, 528.

Keraleswaran, 540. Kunjan Pillai, 5 49-

Kerala Panineeyam, 506, Kulikkatt Bhattatiri, 506,
Kerala Sancharix 544.
Kuppakkalt Narayana Menon,
Kerala Parma Vilasam, 536. 543-

Kerala Varma Valia Koil Kutiyattam 510, 524-

Tampuran, 509, 514* 532, Kuttamatt Kunhikrishna

533* 534 and 54$. Kurup, 547-

Kuttappathakom, 546.
Kesava Pillai, K* C , 53^, 537*
Kuttayyappan Nambiyar, 547,
539* 540,
Kuttikrishna Menon, V. M.
Kesavan Nayar, K., 536,
526.
Kesaviyam, 536, 536.
Kili-Pattus, 522, 537* S3§* Kutti Kunhi Tangachi, 532.
Kochunni Tampuran, 514. Kuttu, 518, 52s.

S345 539*
 56* LETTERS FROM MALABAR
L.
Lalithopaharam, 540. Lila, 539.
Laltthopakhyanam, 538. Lihitilakom, 505, 506, 548,
Lekshmibai 547.
M.
Mahabhashya, 513. Malayali-Sanskrit authors,
Mahakavyas, 539. 509. 510. 511. 512, 513, 514,
Mahodayapuracharitam. 510. Mallika-marutam, 512.
Makkott Krishna Menon, 538. Malati Madhavom, 514.
Malabar 501, 502, 504. Manavedachampu, 513.
Malamangalam, 515. Manavedan Raja, 546*
Malayalani, 501, 505, 506, 507, Meppattur Narayanan Bhatta-
50S. tiri, gi 1, 512, 546.
Manameyodayam, 510. Middle Malayalam, 508, 509,
Mangala-Mala, 545. 517-
Matiidarpanam, 516. Modern Epoch, 529,
Marthanda Varma, 5^1. Modern Malayalam, 508, 509.
Marthanda Varma, 510. 521.
Matamaharajyaprasasthi, 512. Muhurthapadavi, 512.
Mayura Sandesam, 533. Mukundamala, 510.
Megha-Sa?idesam, 511, 514. Muliyil Krishnan, 547.
N
Nagamiah, N. 549. Narayana Poduval, A. 542.
Nach ikettucharitam ,523. Nilakantan Namputiri, 512.
JSalini, 539. Nilakantan Somayaji, 512.
tiarayaneeyam, 511, Niranam works, 509.
Narayana Panicker, R 331. Niranathu Panicker, 519.
Narayana Pillai, P. K. Niraminasika Prabandhom,
Narayanan Nambiyar, K. C* 512.

Oravankara Nampul.iri, 536, Otuvil Sankarankutti Menon,

Otuvil Kunjikrishna Menon, 538. 538 .
P.
Pachu Moothath, 530. Padarthadipika, 510.
Padmanabha Kurup, 537, 539. Palazhimadhanam, 521,
Padmanabha Menon, K, P. Pakkanar, 507.
542, 549- Pancharatnam, 546 .
Padmanabha Panicker, 537.
Panchatantram. 546. Pranama Satakam, 514,
Panthalath Kerala Varma Prasanga Tar an gani, 539,
Tampuran, 539. Prasnatnargam, 547,
Pandavodayam, 539. Pravesika, 512.
 INDEX 563

P.- —(cont.)
Farameswaran P.hattatiri, 512. Prayogadipika, 539.
Parameswaran Pillay, G550. Priyadarsika. 547.
Patakom, 518. Punnasstri Nambi Neelakanta
Paltu, 518. Sarma, 514, 547*
Pyyur Bhattatiries. 5 to, 511) 512. Puntanam, 509, 529, 546.
Periodical Literature, 544. Purnasaraswathi, 514.
Prabhakara, 510, Putushakaram, 513.
Pradipam, 513. Purva Bharata Champu, 546
Praknya Sarvaswam, 511, 512 !•

R.
Raghavabhudayam, 533. Raman Nambeessan, 548.
Raghava Madhavom, 536 Rarnan Nambiyar of Vettattu-
Raghavan Nambiyar, 528. nad, 51c.
Raghaviya Kav ya, 513. Ramanattam 323, 546.
Raghuvamsom 510, 511. Raman Pillay, C. V. 511.
Raghuvira vijayam. 539. Rama Pisharody, 549.
Rajaraja Varma, A. R., 506, 5J4, Rama Warrier, K. 514.
530, 53i* 533, 543. Ramapurath Warrier, 509, 529.
Raja Raja Varma, M. 542. Ramasvamedhom, 538
Ramachandravilasom, 539. Ramaswami Ayyar, L. V. 543
Ramacharitam, 508, 509, 517, 5*3. 544*
5*9-
Ramakatha, 509. Ramayanam, 508.
Rama Kurup, N. 536. Rasakrida, 510.
Rama'krishna Pillay, 544-
Rasikabhushanam, 547* Ravi Namputiri, 511.
Rasika Ranjini, S45- Rugmangada Char it am, 539.
S.
Sabd/ia-sodhini, 531, Sankunni Menon, P. 549.
Sadaramam, 540. Sarada, 547.
Sahitisarvaswam, 539. Seshagiri Prabhu, 547, 549.
Sahitya Manjari, 539. Sethumahatmyam, 346.
,S7*Ai7y<? S ah yam, 531. Sidhanta Kaumudi, 511.
Sah rday a, 548. Sitaraghava natakom, 513.
Sakuntala Devi, 541. Sivolli, 536.
Sakuntalam, 532* 53 3* Sir Sankaran Nair, 550.
Sangitha naishadhom, 540. Skanda Puranom, 537.
Sankarachaiya, 509, 5*°- Sovereigns of Penad, 549.
Sankara Kavi, 510. Srtkrishna Vijayorn, 546.
Sakthibhadra, 510. Srikrishna Vilasomv 546.
Samastha Kerala Sahitya Sri Sankara, 510.
Parishat, 548. Sri Yesu Vijayorn, 539.
564 LETTERS FROM MALABAR
S.—(con/.)
Samkhakkali, 510. Subhadrarjunam, 531.
Samu Menon, 536, 538* Subramanya Ayyar, C. V. 550.
Sankara Kurup, G. 541. Sujatodvaham, 521.
Sankara Menon, M. 549. Suka-sandesatn, 510.
Sankaran Nambiyar, P. 521, 531. Sukumara Kavi, 510, 546.
Sankara Warriar, 546. Sundaram Pillay, 549.
T.
Tachchu Sastra, 5x5. Tiruvanchikkulam, 503.
Talakkulath Bhattatiri, 512. Tulabara Satakom, 514.
T.intraiamgrahom% 515. Tullals, 526, 527.
Tantrasamuchayam, 515. Tunchan, 509.
Tapatisantvaranom, 510. Tunchath Ramanujan
ThachchoHipattus, 518. Ezhuthachchan, 515, 522,
Tholan, 51c. 523.

U.
Unninilisandesaniy 509, 510,
Uddanda Sastri, 510, 511.
. .
517 548
Udaya Varma Raja, 54*»545* 546, Upanishads. 510.
S47« Ushakalyanom, 52 r.
Uiloor, 521, 539* 548 Uttaranaishadham% 5x3.
Umaker atom, 539; Utta rci ra mack a rita m, 510.
Unnayi Warriar, 509. Uttcjini% 515, 516.
Jnnikrishnan Nair, 547.
V.
Vairagyachandrodayam, 546. Veiala Char it am, 546.
Vallathol, 534. 337. 538, 539* Vidya- Vilastni, 544, 545.
VanchUa Vamsam% 539. I ulya Vinodtni% 545
Vararucbi, 509. Vilvamangalath Swamiar 512.
Varughese Mappillay, 545. Vipra Sandesam, 514.
Vasumati-Mitram% 513. Visakha Vi jay am, 514.
Vasudeva Bhattatiri, 511. Visha- Vrksaam, 532
Vasudeva l ijayam% 511. Vitanidra, 513.
Vasudevan Moosad, 538. Vivaranam. 510.
Vatakkan Pattus, 518. Vrtta-Mnnjari, 531.
Vatakkankoor Raja Raja Vrutta- Varttikom, 510.
Varma, 339* Vyalavatta Smaranakal, 532,
Vedanta Sutras, 510. 544-
Veera Ktrala Varma, 546. Vyavahara• Chintamani, 547.
Venmani Namboctiripads, 525.
536.
Y.
1 udhtshttira Vijayam, 511.
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