Evaluation in Teaching-

Learning Process UNIT 3 APPROACHES TO

EVALUATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Approaches to Evaluation: Placement, Formative, Diagnostic and Summative
3.3.1 Placement Evaluation
3.3.2 Formative Evaluation
3.3.3 Diagnostic Evaluation
3.3.4 Summative Evaluation

3.4 Distinction between Formative and Summative Evaluation

3.5 External and Internal Evaluation
3.5.1 External Evaluation
3.5.2 Internal Evaluation
3.5.3 Strengths and Limitations

3.6 Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced Evaluation

3.6.1 Norm-referenced Evaluation
3.6.2 Criterion-referenced Evaluation
3.6.3 Distinction between Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced Evaluation

3.7 Construction of Criterion-referenced Tests

3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 References and Suggested Readings
3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 and 2 of this Block, we have discussed about the purpose and
perspectives of assessment. We have also discussed that assessment is an integral
part of teaching-learning process and assessment helps in enhancing learning of
the learner. In this context, you have already learnt the concepts of ‘assessment
for learning’ and ‘assessment of learning’. As a student teacher, you need to
understand various approaches to evaluation appropriate for different purposes.
This Unit basically caters to discuss on various approaches to evaluation. We
usually use three approaches of evaluation in assessing the student’s performance
in the school. They are: placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluation (on the basis of types and functions of evaluation); internal and external
evaluation (on the basis of school practices); and norm-referenced and criterion-
referenced evaluation (on the basis of nature of reference).
Discussion in this Unit will make you understand the purposes and processes
of using the above three approaches of evaluation in the school with examples.

[Note: IGNOU Programmes, B.Ed. (ES-333), D.El.Ed. (BES-002) and CPPDPT

(BES-052) have been referred to develop this Unit]
46
 Approaches to Evaluation
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain placement, formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation;
 distinguish between formative and summative evaluation;
 explain internal and external evaluation;
 distinguish between internal and external evaluation;
 describe norm-referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation;
 distinguish between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation;
and
 explain the processes involved in construction of criterion-referenced tests.

3.3 APPROACHES TO EVALUATION :

PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC
AND SUMMATIVE
Assessment is conducted in different phases of the teaching learning process.
We carry out assessment before the beginning of the teaching-learning process;
during the teaching-learning process and at the end of the instructional process.
Approaches of Evaluation on the basis of its types and functions can be classified
as follows :
 Placement evaluation
 Formative evaluation
 Diagnostic evaluation
 Summative evaluation
Each of four types of evaluation serves different purposes. In the teaching-
learning process, evaluation starts with placement evaluation and ends with
summative evaluation. All four types of evaluation are important, and are unique
in their functions. The four types of evaluation and their functions are
diagrammatically presented in Table 3.1 for your understanding.
Table 3.1 Types of Evaluation and their Functions

Areas of Function Types of Evaluation and their functions

Before instructional process Placement evaluation

(to know entry behaviour)

During instructional process Formative evaluation

(to know mastery in content)

Diagnostic evaluation
(to solve learning difficulties)

After instructional process Summative evaluation

(to certify the learner)

47
Evaluation in Teaching- Table 3.1 shows different types of evaluation which are conducted in teaching-
Learning Process
learning process. Generally, evaluation starts with measuring the entry behaviour
of the learners and conditions till the judgement of their terminal behaviour. Let
us discuss the main purpose and functions of each type of evaluation.

3.3.1 Placement Evaluation

Placement evaluation can be defined as a type of evaluation that provides
information to the teachers about the learners to whom he/she deals with relating
to their existing knowledge and experiences based on that the teacher designs
to teach new knowledge. You have seen in Table 3.1, placement evaluation
is conducted before undertaking the teaching-learning activities. It is basically
used to measure the entry behaviour or existing knowledge of the learners.
Another purpose of placement evaluation is to know whether the learner is able
to acquire the new learning experiences based on his/her previous knowledge.
The key word which is used for placement evaluation is the “entry behaviour”.
Assessment of entry behaviour is done just before teaching starts. In the teaching-
learning process, before teaching a new topic, teacher should know the previous
knowledge of students. This helps teacher to organise teaching-learning activities
according to the previous knowledge of learners. The technique of introducing
a lesson by asking certain questions from the previous knowledge of the students
is related to the topic taught or by any other techniques like demonstrating
something, telling a story, doing a role play, etc. are also the examples of
placement evaluation. In other way, conducting a type of entrance examination
for selecting learners to a particular course is also example of placement
evaluation.

3.3.2 Formative Evaluation

For the first time in the year 1967, Michael Scriven used the concept of formative
evaluation while working on curriculum evaluation. According to Scriven (1991),
“Formative evaluation is typically conducted during the development or
improvement of a programme or product (or person, and so on) and it
is conducted, often more than once, for in house staff of the programme
with the extent to improve”. If we analyse the definition, it is clear that the
purpose of conducting formative evaluation is to monitor the learning progress
of the learner. Though initially the concept of formative evaluation coined in the
area of curriculum development but subsequently the term got familiar to use
in the teaching pedagogy and the process of teaching and learning. It is also
conducted to know whether the learning objectives are being achieved or not.
The key word in formative evaluation is learning progress. As shown in Table
3.1, formative evaluation is considered as the second stage of evaluation which
is conducted during the teaching-learning process. The first stage of evaluation
is the placement evaluation . Formative evaluation starts from the very beginning
of designing instruction and it continues till the end of the course/instruction.
Conducting unit end examination, monthly examination, quarterly examination,
half-yearly examination, etc. are the examples of formative evaluation. It provides
feedback to the teachers to know effectiveness of their teaching and modification
required and the learners to know the progress of their learning. It also provides
scope for diagnostic evaluation. The salient features of formative evaluation are
as follows:
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 It builds on the prior knowledge, and experiences of the learners, and Approaches to Evaluation
ensures learner friendly assessment.

 It helps in enhancing the learning abilities of the learner.

 It provides scope for the use of variety of activities, and various tools and
techniques for promoting holistic development of the learners.
 It ensures learning in a non-threatening and supportive environment.
 It provides descriptive feedback to children for realising their strengths and
weaknesses.
 It provides a chance to the learners to reflect on their performance, as
it realises the role of motivation and self-esteem of students learning.
 It encourages learners to understand the criteria/parameters that have been
used to judge their performance.
 It helps learners to actively and continuously engage in learning.
 It provides feedback to the teachers to use teaching strategies according
to the needs of the learners.
 It is diagnostic and remedial, formal and informal approach of assessment.
Formative evaluation supports for continuous and comprehensive evaluation of
the learners. It provides scope both to the teachers and the learners to establish
a continuous assessment culture in the classroom (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Components of formative evaluation culture in the classroom

We use a variety of tools and techniques for conducting formative evaluation.

The use of tools and techniques are decided keeping in view the subject/topic
being taught, the abilities of the learners and learning objectives we want to
assess. Central Board of Secondary Education (2010) and Kendriya Vidyalaya
- Zonal Institute of Education and Training (2012) suggested to use the following
49
tools and techniques in assessment of the progress of learners.
Evaluation in Teaching- Table 3.2: Tools and techniques used in formative evaluation
Learning Process
Tools Techniques
Questionnaire Examination
Observation schedule Assignments
Interview schedule Quizzes and competitions
Checklist Projects
Rating scale Debates
Anecdotal records Elocution
Document analysis Group discussions
Tests and inventories Action plan
Portfolio analysis Experiments
Worksheet
Seminar

Symposium

Survey

(Source: CBSE, 2010, p.29 and KV-ZIET, 2012)

It is essential for teachers to realise, that they do not need to always use the
formal unit tests or performance tests; instead they should integrate formative
assessment in their day-to-day classroom practice in various ways, such as:
 Observation during classroom activities;
 Non- verbal facial expressions of children;
 Classroom discussion and homework review;
 Informal question – answer sessions;
 Classroom activities where children make presentations, such as, presentation
of project reports, etc;
 Student feedback periodically collected by the teacher on teaching- learning
process;
 Self –evaluation of children on different activities; and
 Maintenance of reflective journals by teachers which are reviewed by them
periodically.
The above aspects of assessment of learners performance can be done by the
teachers in daily teaching or periodically as per the situation and scope.
The use of any particular tool or technique depends on the nature of topic
being discussed, nature of activities undertaken, and the level of children involved
in these activities. We may often need more than one assessment tool/technique
50 to have comprehensive formative assessment. As example, if we practice
‘presentation of project’ as a technique of assessment in the class, we can equally Approaches to Evaluation
use the portfolio as a technique for assessment periodically. The learners will
make their portfolio periodically where presentation of project which has already
presented by the learners can also be preserved and included in the portfolio
for periodical evaluation.

3.3.3 Diagnostic Evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation is conducted along with formative evaluation during the
instructional process. It is carried out based on the data obtained from formative
evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is specially conducted to identify and remove
the learning difficulties of learner if it is observed and found during the formative
evaluation. For example, if a learner couldn’t understand certain concepts in
a particular subject and continuously performing poorly in that subject, we
conduct diagnostic test to know the causes of the difficulties and accordingly
provide them remedial treatment to overcome the difficulties. The key word
in diagnostic evaluation is identifying of ‘learning difficulties’. Diagnostic evaluation
not only solves learning difficulties of learners but also identifies and provides
remedies for personal, physical and psychological problems. This can be
exemplify as sometime you may find that few students in your class are very
nervous to come forward and say something, tendency of fear towards the friends
and teachers, suffering certain psycho-social disorders and physical disorders.

3.3.4 Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is used to find out the extent to which the instructional
objectives have been achieved at the end of a terminal period. It is used primarily
for assigning course grades or for certifying student’s mastery of the intended
learning outcomes at the end of a particular programme. The techniques used
for summative evaluation are determined by the instructional objectives. For this
evaluation, both external and teacher-made tests are used. Although the main
purpose of summative evaluation is assigning grades or marks, it also provides
information for judging the appropriateness of the course objectives and the
effectiveness of instruction.
So far we have discussed four types of evaluation. Though all types of evaluation
are conducted in teaching-learning process, but the use of formative and
summative evaluation are popular among them. You might have observed the
similarities and differences among them. The similarity among them is that all
are concerned with the assessment of learning. All are conducted at different
phases of the teaching-learning process. But they differ in terms of their purposes,
processes, techniques and tools used in collecting evidences, processes of
providing feedback, functions, time/period in the teaching-learning process and
their uses for future purposes. We can summarize summative evaluation as
follows:
 It is conducted after the completion of the instruction in a term, a course
or a school session.
 It ‘Sums-up’ how much a student has learnt over a period of time.
 It focuses mostly on assessing the scholastic abilities of the children.
 It contributes to the over all grading and certification of the children.
51
Evaluation in Teaching-  It is mostly structured and formal approach to assessment of learning;
Learning Process
 It provides terminal feedback, both, to the teacher and the children to
re-design their teaching and learning accordingly.
In the next section we will discuss about the differences between formative and
summative evaluation. But before that you should undertake an activity.

Activity 1
In case you observed in your class that a student is paying very less
interest in Mathematics and continuously getting less marks in the
subject, as a teacher, how will you deal with that student and help
him/her to solve the problem?
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Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of the
Unit.
1. What is the most important objective of formative evaluation?
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2. Write any two purposes of using summative evaluation.
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 Approaches to Evaluation
3.4 DISTINCTION BETWEEN FORMATIVE AND
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
In the Section 3.3 you have studied about the concept and processes of using
various types of evaluation including the formative and summative evaluation.
In this Section we will focus on the differences between formative and summative
evaluation. We can differentiate between formative and summative evaluation
based on different parameters. Table 3.3 will make you understand how both
are different from each other.
Table 3.3: Distinction between formative and summative evaluation
Parameters Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation

Time of use  During the process  At the end of a

of instruction.  term/semester or session
Purpose  To know the progress  To certify and grade
and mastery of learning. the learners.
 To provide feedback both  To provide feedback
to the learners and teachers. to the learners for
 To provide data for summative further study.
evaluation.  It includes formative
evaluation.

Learning  Are related with the  Are related with the

Objectives topic taught. objectives of the
 Are limited in scope. course and the
programme.
 Are vast in nature.
Process  By classroom observation  By conducting term
 Can be conducted through end examination.
oral and written teacher  Mostly external in
made tests. nature.
 By conducting peer and  By conducting mostly
group assessment. written type of
 Mostly internal in nature. examination.
 It supports criterion-  By using teacher-made
referenced evaluation. as well as standardized
 Formative evaluation is tests.
usually a quick evaluation.  It supports norm-
referenced evaluation.
 Output of formative
evaluation can be used in
summative evaluation.
Tools and  By using varieties of  Can only be conducted
Techniques assessment tools and through written test,
used techniques like text, paper and pencil test.
questionnaire, scale,
schedule, checklists,
portfolios, quiz, debate
and discussions, role
play, dramatization, etc.
Product  Enable learners to know  Award and certify the
their progress in learning, learners.
difficulties they face and  Make them enable and
the ways to remove eligible to pursue further
those difficulties. educational courses/
 Enable the learners for programmes.
their continuous and
comprehensive development.
 Provide suitable remediation
for further development
of the learners.
53
Evaluation in Teaching-
Learning Process Activity 2
Collect an annual progress report of any secondary school student and
analyse the progress report in view of formative and summative
components of assessment. Write your observations.
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3.5 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL EVALUATION

In the Section 3.3 of the Unit, you have learnt about formative and summative
evaluation. You know that the formative evaluation is mostly internal in nature
which is highly based upon formal and informal observation of the students in
various activities. Summative evaluation is a type of external evaluation as the
external experts are engaged in setting the question papers, evaluating the answer
scripts, and also conducting viva-voce of the students. Various education
committees and commissions at different times have emphasized balancing internal
and external evaluation in the school system. Keeping in view the above, in
this Section we will discuss the nature of internal and external evaluation with
their strengths and weaknesses.

3.5.1 External Evaluation

When examinations are organized and conducted by an agency other than the
institution giving instruction to the students, and all the students of the group
of institutions come together under the perview of the agency, the evaluation
carried out is regarded are an external evaluation. To this extent, the public
examinations in our country are conducted by the appropriate school boards
are external evaluation. In such public examinations, the teachers concerned do
not get directly involved in the process of evaluation. Ordinarily in such public
examinations are not conducted with a specific objective in view. Thus a public
examination may be conducted and the results of such an examination utilized
for a large number of purposes. Actual testing is restricted to a candidate
answering a question paper or a series of question papers each within a set
time-limit.
54
Also when the examinations are conducted by the same institution which teaches Approaches to Evaluation
but tests are prepared and marked by persons other than the ones who teach
the group, the evaluation is called external. Thus when the teacher who teaches
is not involved in the evaluation process, the evaluation should be called external.

3.5.1 Internal Evaluation

During the last decade, the popularity of internal evaluation has been increased.
Most of the continuous and comprehensive evaluation is conducted by internal
evaluation system. Internal evaluation supports formative and diagnostic evaluation.
This is conducted to know the learning progress of the students and the difficulties
that they face during the process of teaching and learning. Internal evaluation
is also provides a base for remedial teaching to the identified students. The
criteria that followed for internal evaluation are: evaluating the involvement of
the students in the teaching-learning activities of the class; setting of the question
paper by the class teacher teaching that class; and conduct of the examination
vis-à-vis evaluation of the scripts by the teacher himself or herself. In the present
days, internal evaluation in the school is quite popular and it is conducted by
observation, peer evaluation, using portfolios, projects, discussions, demonstrations,
etc.

3.5.3 Strengths and Limitations

The teacher concerned has always been regarded as the best judge of a student.
Based on this principle, internal assessment of the students by teachers of the
institution concerned has been adopted by many institutions in our country and
elsewhere. In an internal assessment, it is necessary that a variety of tests are
administered and proper statistical weightages are given to each and then an
over-all grade is arrived at, as a true index of the capabilities of a student.
There are also other aspects in internal assessment of different sections in a
class. If a class has four sections and each section is taught by a different teacher,
what will be the procedure adopted to realize uniformity in the evaluation. As
like uniformity in internal assessment within different sections in a class within
the school is an issue, the uniformity of internal assessment between schools
are also equally an issue. Even an internal assessment requires continued research
to improve its reliability and validity. Favouring attitude of the teachers to few
students is also again an issue of internal evaluation. Although, certain demerits
of internal assessment are there, still it is widely used in the system as it is
realized that the teachers those teach the students are the best person in judging
the abilities and over all performance of the students.
To minimize the limitations of internal evaluation, the popularity of external
evaluation has also been realized. It is always a debate between the educationists
and the teachers to determine the percentage of contribution for internal and
external evaluation. It has always been observed that the percentage of external
evaluation is more in comparison to internal evaluation specially in the board
classes like 10th or 12th classes, but in class examinations, it is realized that
the percentage of internal and external evaluation is more or less equal. The
merits of external evaluation system is that the teacher evaluate the students
hardly know to them earlier, so very rare chances are left in favour of a particular
student whereas it has also realized that a major part of students evaluation
should not be given in the hands of the external evaluation as they are least
concerned about the continuous development of the students. Only the class
teacher can be a best evaluator. 55
Evaluation in Teaching-
Learning Process Activity 3
Visit a near by Secondary School and interact with the head teacher
about the internal and external examination that they conduct in their
school. Write the way they conduct the external examination.
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Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end
of the Unit.
3. Define external evaluation.
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4. Why does internal evaluation is getting popularity these days?.
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3.6 NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-

REFERENCED EVALUATION
The alternative approaches to educational testing that must be thoroughly
understood are norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing. This classification
of test is also called as the typology of nature of reference. Although there
are similarities between these two approaches to testing, there are also
56 fundamental differences between norm and criterion referenced testing. Their
differences are based upon their construction and interpretation of the scores. Approaches to Evaluation
Let us understand, about norm-referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation.

3.6.1 Norm-referenced Evaluation

When we measure one’s relative position in a well defined known group, we
usually use the norm-referenced test. As example, if we want to know Sudhir’s
rank or position in the 10th Board Examination held in 2017 in the State of
West Bengal, that can be done through the norm-referenced test. In this example,
we compare Sudhir’s performance with others performance in that group. Let
us take another example. Suppose a student secured 70 marks in English. The
mark 70 is an individual score which provides very limited interpretation. A single
score never provide us the interpretation like how good or how poor the student
is in English. The individual score gives certain meaning when it is compared
with the other scores in the group. Norm-referenced test is also a type of
standardized test. The procedure followed for developing a standardized test
is also followed for developing norm-referenced test.
According to Nayak and Rath (2010), the various procedures adopted for norm-
referenced evaluation are as follows:
(i) When marks are evaluated with reference to average, it is norm-referenced
evaluation because the average is based upon the obtained scores. If it
is to be used, as measure of variability which shows the scatter of the
scores, should be taken into account.
(ii) We can express a mark in terms of its standing in the group. It is clearly
understood but it has certain difficulties. The 7th rank in a group of 10
does not have same meaning as the 7th rank in a group of 100. If number
of candidates is not the same, we cannot compare the merit of a student
in different examinations in terms of ranks.
(iii) Standing in terms of grades may serve the purpose. But, sometimes, scores
are converted in to grades, such as A,B,C,D & E, etc. is not precise
because grades cannot be added or averaged.
(iv) Standing or a rank may be expressed by percentile norms. It is more precise
than a grade report and comparable in precision with a rank report.
Norm-referenced achievement tests are more familiar. The norm may be set
up on a local, state or national group depending upon the use of the result.
As the norm-referenced tests are prepared for the wide range of the population,
so the test items are generally retained which are average in difficulty value.
It means that the very easy and difficult items are rejected. There are several
procedures to determine the standing positions of a student. We can not say
that a single method or approach is most comprehensive and accurate. All
approaches have its own merits and limitations. The methods are used in different
situations based on the nature of the test and nature of comparison.

3.6.2 Criterion-referenced Evaluation

Criterion referenced evaluation is related to performance of the students in a
well defined learning task. It has nothing to do with the norms or relative rank
or position of students in any well defined group. As example, if we say that
Sudhir successfully solves 60 percent of questions in the chapter of ‘Modern
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Evaluation in Teaching- History’ in class-IX text of History, is rightly an example of criterion-referenced
Learning Process
evaluation. In this example, the performance of Sudhir is defined in relation to
a learning task i.e., chapter of ‘Modern History’ in the class-IX text of History.
Thus in contrast to a norm-referenced evaluation we can refer an individual
performance to a pre-determined criterion which is well defined. In criterion-
referenced evaluation, a criteria is fixed i.e. a fixed standard in a learning task,
say 50% or 60%. In it, the individual’s status is ascertained with respect to
some performance standard. The standard is the measure representing the
criterion, the criterion itself being a specified performance. In criterion-referenced
evaluation, there is no question of comparing one student with the other in it.
To conclude, we can say, if we want to select the students who have achieved
a particular level of performance, we seek criterion-referenced evaluation but
if we want to select a particular percentage or number of students, we prefer
norm-referenced evaluation to criterion-referenced evaluation. In the next section,
we will discuss in more detail about the distinction between norm-referenced
and criterion-referenced evaluation.

3.6.3 Distinction between Norm-referenced and Criterion-

referenced Evaluation
After reading the earlier sections, you might have understood the concept and
purposes of developing and use of criterion-referenced and norm-referenced
evaluation. Let us discuss, how both of them are distinct and different from
each other.
Table 3.4: Distinction between norm-referenced and criterion-
referenced evaluation
Parameters Norm-referenced Evaluation Criterion-referenced Evaluation

Time of use  At the end of a term, naturally  During the progress of

school board examination. instruction, like conduct
of class examination.

Similarities with  It supports summative evaluation.  It supports formative and

other tests Standardized tests are suitably diagnostic evaluation.
used. Teacher-made tests are
usually used.

Purpose  To know the relative position  To know individual

rank of the students in a well performance in a well
defined known population defined learning task.
or group.  No comparison is possible
 Comparison of a student is with other students, only
possible with other students or standard of a student can
groups. be defined in relation to a
learning task i.e. called
criterion.

Relative or  A norm-referenced test is used  A criterion-referenced test

Absolute to ascertain an individual’s is used to ascertain an
status with respect to the individual’s status with
performance of other individuals respect to a defined
on that test. achievement domain.

Instructional  No instructional objectives are  Specific instructional

Objectives fixed. objectives are developed,
 Course objectives are given which may defined as a
58 importance. standard.
 Approaches to Evaluation
Parameters Norm-referenced Evaluation Criterion-referenced Evaluation

Population  This is organized on a vast  Can be carried out within

population, like students in a a limited area, even in a
State, region etc. school, class or section.

Process of the  All the steps of standardizing  A teacher-made

development a test are followed. achievement test can be
 Reliability, validity, norm, item used in determining the
difficulty, discrimination, etc. content validity.
are calculated.  Can be used without
 Is a type of external evaluation. knowing the reliability,
validity, etc.
 Mostly internal in nature.

Type of test  Can be used both in objective  All types of items can be
items and essay type of items. taken.
 Popularly, objective items are
mostly used.

Comprehensive-  A norm-referenced test typically  A criterion-referenced test

ness of the measures a more general typically focuses on a
Test category of competencies, more specific domain of
knowledge, or aptitude. examinee behaviours.
 A single norm-referenced test  Many criterion-referenced
covers many criterion-referenced tests categorically provide
tests. shape of a norm-
referenced test.

Product  Can be used to certify or  Can be used to know the

grade the students. learning progress and also
 Can also be used to provide to identify the learning
placement to the students for difficulties of the students.
higher study and to get entry  Minimum Level of Learning
in various job fields as well. of the students and
mastery of the students
on any learning task can
be determined.
 This can help the teachers
to know the entry
behavior of the students
and accordingly they can
plan for new teaching.
 On the bases of criterion-
referenced evaluation,
remedial instruction can
also be possible to
provide to the identified
students.

Activity 4
Cite one example each in norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
evaluation and also discuss the purpose they are used.
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Evaluation in Teaching-
Learning Process Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of the
Unit.
5. Define norm-referenced evaluation.
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6. Define criterion-referenced evaluation.
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7. Write any two differences between norm and criterion-referenced
evaluation.
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3.7 CONSTRUCTION OF CRITERION-

REFERENCED TESTS
There are varieties of criterion-referenced tests. Due to confusion in the nature
and scope of such tests, it is quite difficult to provide clear cut guidelines for
their construction. However, keeping in view the basic tenets of criterion-
referenced tests, the following steps can be suggested. Criterion referenced test
is highly used in the schools by the teachers. Some of these steps may be
combined while others can be split up into two or more steps. Steps of norm-
referenced test are not discussed here as it follows the entire process of test
standardization and development of norms for its use. Test standardization has
been discussed in Block-2 of this course.
i. Identification of subject area: The first step in the development of
criterion-referenced test is the decision about the subject matter area to
be worked out. For example, one may take up Mathematics, English,
Environmental Studies etc. depending upon the need of the area and the
resources one can utilize for one or more subject areas.
ii. Selection of unit/topic: After the decision taken about the area, the next
step is to select the unit on which the test is to be developed. This unit
may have more than one modules/sections/domains which comprise the total
unit. Depending upon the need, one or more than one sections or chunks
60 of content may be taken up for test construction.
iii. Delineation and description of domain of testing: Since domain refers Approaches to Evaluation
to a particular segment of the content, one may examine topic and delineate
it into various segments which can be developed into well defined separate
sub-domains. Each sub-domain can then be analyzed in terms of facts,
concepts, principles, processes, etc. That may be arranged in order of their
increasing complexity. Description of sub-domain is very important as it
provides the basis for item writing; it should reflect clearly the nature and
scope of the content specification in sequential, hierarchical or development
order.

iv. Specification of domain objective: Having decided about content

elements of a domain selected, the next task is to formulate the instructional
objectives on expected learning outcomes which may be categorized in
terms of knowledge, understanding, application, skills, attitudes, etc. These
objectives should be stated so precisely that the performance of students
is clearly interpretable in terms of adequacies or inadequacies of intended
learning outcomes. For more clarification, sample prototype items can be
framed, that may accompany each specific objective.

v. External review of steps (iii) and (iv): The tasks identified in steps (iii)
and (iv) should be reviewed by those who are not involved in identifying
the domain and its descriptions in terms of the content elements and the
specific objectives. However, a teacher who teaches that particular subject
may also be involved in this task so that he/she may be able to clarify
doubts, if any, raised by the external reviewers. The main purpose of this
review is sharpen domain description and the specific objectives in order
to make them more realistic and functional. For this, sample items
accompanying the specific objectives bare checked for their congruence
with each objective and content elements.

vi. Internal review: As step (v), the internal reviewer, i.e. the constructor
himself/herself will examine all specific objectives along with one or more
sample items which accompany each specific objective. The focus of this
review is on sharpening the specific objectives further, if necessary.

vii. Construction of test forms A & B: It is desirable to develop two forms

of test, A & B so that one of the two could be used after post instructional
remedial measures. Moreover, it would be easier to compute reliability on
the two forms. A copy of the key or the correct answer should accompany
the test and may be returned by the developer. As far as the construction
of items is concerned, these items are to be developed in accordance with
the domain description. This is, however, not always possible or practical,
especially, in teacher made test. Therefore, in teacher made tests, only one
test form will do.

viii. Internal review of step (vii): An internal review by the teacher is essential
after the test is ready, i.e. after step (vii). The purpose of this review is
to see whether all questions in the test are congruent with the specific
objectives, besides, having a cursory check for any glaring deficiencies in
the test e.g. placement of key, arrangement of items, sufficiency of
instructions etc. It is at this stage that items can be further improved and
the congruence of items with the specific objective is ensured.
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Evaluation in Teaching- ix. External review of the test: Prior to the field trail, the test may be
Learning Process
re-examined by the practicing teachers. The main purpose is to detect
content flows, language clarity, and check for congruence of items with
the domain description. This should be done preferably by those very
people who do external review for steps (iii) and (iv) as mentioned under
step (v).
x. Field trial of the test: At this stage, the test may be tried out on a limited
number of students, say 5 to 10. It is better that the subject teachers other
than those involved in the development of the test, administer these tests.
However, one team member of the developers may accompany them in
order to meet the queries, if any, relating to the content of procedure that
might arise during try out of the test. This is possible only if the member
who is conversant with the development of the test is associated in the
field try-out.
xi. Internal review: After step field trial, internal review would provide a last
look. Internal review would depend on the changes, if any, that have been
made as a result of the review or the field try-out. The purpose of this
review is to certify the final format of the test and pass it for print or
use.
xii. Final form of the test: Now the final form of the test is ready for use
and may be administered after having it published, depending upon the size
of the group to which the test is to be given. A sign-off sheet may be
used to accompany the various steps as they move from step (i) to (xii).
Each test may be kept in a folder to which the signed sheet may be attached.
This enables the developer to keep track of the given test. To monitor
the progress of the test as it goes through various stages of development,
a master progress sheet can be used.
xiii. Using the test in a classroom: Test copies can now be used in the
classroom. The test can be administered to test the domains which are
covered by the test. The domains being tested can be arranged according
to the needs of the teacher and administered accordingly. Students’
responses may be recorded and tabulated in accordance with the scheme
of analysis which has to be mostly in terms of specified domain objectives.
xiv. Finding validity and reliability of the test: Since the data are now
available on the test, we may find out the reliability and validity of the
test using various techniques.

Activity 5
Select a chapter/unit of any subject of school text that you teach
and prepare a small criterion-referenced test. Finalize the test by
obtaining the content validity and trying it out on ten students. Write
the detail process of preparing it.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

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 Approaches to Evaluation
3.8 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we discussed various approaches to evaluation such as placement,
formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation; criterion and norm referenced
evaluation; and internal and external evaluation. On the basis of functions of
evaluation, we discussed placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluation. On the basis of school practices, we discussed internal and external
evaluation. On the basis of nature of references, we discussed norm-referenced
and criterion-referenced evaluation. We have also discussed the distinction
between various types of evaluation such as formative and summative; and norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation.
In nut shell, you are acquainted with assessing existing knowledge of the students
by placement assessment; get an idea about the progress of the learners and
solving their difficulties by conducting formative and diagnostic evaluation; and
grading or certifying students by conducting summative evaluation. Further, you
are acquainted with the importance of conducting both internal and external
evaluation for certifying the students. Finally, the usefulness of criterion and norm
referenced tests have also been discussed which the teachers, usually use in
their teaching.
By reading this unit you might be acquainted with the techniques and tools used
for different types of evaluation and also you might have realized that evaluation
is not a task of the teacher to evaluate achievement of the students, rather it
is equally important for the learners to acquaint them with self assessment
techniques and enhancing learning of their own. After all, the soul purpose of
any assessment strategy is to empower the teacher as well as the learner to
get feedbacks and modify their teaching-learning behavior.

3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

CBSE (2010). Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation Manual for Teachers
(pp.26-29). New Delhi: CBSE.
Check, J. and Schutt, R. K. (2012). Research Methods in Education (pp.
75). California: SAGE Publication.
Ebel, Robert, L. (1996). Measuring Educational Achievement. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India.
Ebel, Robert, L. and Fristic, David, A. (1991). Essentials of Educational
Achievement. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
IGNOU (2000). Educational Evaluation (ES-333, B.Ed.), Block-1, Unit-2
‘Approaches to Evaluation’, pp. 20-33, New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2013). Teaching-Learning and Assessment (BES-002, D.El.Ed.),
Block-3, Unit-10 ‘Assessment: Basics’, New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2014). Facilitating Teaching-Learning and Assessment (BES-052,
CPPDPT), Block-2, Unit-5 ‘Formative and Summative Evaluation’, pp. 22-41,
New Delhi: IGNOU.

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Evaluation in Teaching- Nash, R. (2010). The Active Learning – Practical Strategies for Maximising
Learning Process
Teacher Effectiveness (pp.65-69). California: Corwin A SAGE Company.
Nayak, B.K. and Rath, R.K. (2010). Measurement, Evaluation and Guidance
Services in New Delhi: Education. Axis Publications.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005. NCERT, New
Delhi: India.
NCERT (2012). Training Package for Primary Teachers of North-Eastern
Region. p.33, New Delhi: Department of Teacher Education and Extension.
Scriven, Michael (1967). The methodology of evaluation. In Stake, R.
E. Curriculum evaluation. Chicago: Rand McNally. American Educational Research
Association (monograph series on evaluation, no. 1. (Retrieved from http://
en.wikipedia.org /wiki/ Formative_ assessment on 01.01.2017).
Thorndike R. M. and Christ T. (2011). Measurement and Evaluation in
Psychology and Education (p.68). Eighth Ed., New Delhi: PHI Learning Private
Limited.
Watkins, C., Carnell, E. and Lodge, C. (2007). Effective Learning in
Classrooms. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. To know mastery of the students on the learning task and also to identify
the learning difficulties of the students and accordingly to provide them
remedial instructions.
2. To know the terminal behavior of the students and also to certify and grade
the students.
3. When the tests are prepared and evaluated by persons other than the ones
who teach the students is called external evaluation.
4. Internal evaluation is popularly used because to make assessment is an
integral part of teaching-learning process; to help the learners to enhance
their learning through assessment techniques; and to make assessment
continuous and comprehensive.
5. To know one’s relative position/rank in a well defined known group.
6. To know one’s performance/achievement in a well defined learning task.
7. In norm-referenced evaluation, individual performance is compared with the
performance of group or other students in that group whereas individual
performance in a learning task is analyzed in criterion-referenced test. Norm-
referenced test follow all the steps of test standardization for its development
whereas teacher-made test are used in criterion-referenced test.

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