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Martin Butler, Paul Mecheril, Lea Brenningmeyer (eds.)
Resistance

migration – power – education

Martin Butler, Paul Mecheril, Lea Brenningmeyer (eds.)

Resistance
Subjects, Representations, Contexts
Gefördert durch das Niedersächsische Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur

An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support

of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative ini-
tiative designed to make high quality books Open Access for the public
good. The Open Access ISBN for this book is 978-3-8394-3149-8

This work is licensed under the

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 (BY-NC-ND).
which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided
credit is given to the author. For details go to
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Natio-
nalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at
http://dnb.d-nb.de

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or uti-
lized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any infor-
mation storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

© 2017 transcript Verlag, Bielefeld

Cover: Kordula Röckenhaus, Bielefeld

Typesetting by Mark-Sebastian Schneider, Bielefeld
Printed by Majuskel Medienproduktion GmbH, Wetzlar
Print-ISBN 978-3-8376-3149-4
PDF-ISBN 978-3-8394-3149-8
Contents

Introduction
Coming to Terms—On the Aim and Scope of this Volume
Martin Butler, Paul Mecheril & Lea Brenningmeyer | 7

Resistance
Carl von Ossietzky, Alber t Leo Schlageter, and Mahatma Gandhi
Micha Brumlik | 17

More than Resistance

Striving for Universalization
Alex Demirović | 31

Popular Culture, ‘Resistance,’

‘Cultural Radicalism,’ and ‘Self-Formation’
Comments on the Development of a Theory
Kaspar Maase | 45

Resistance as a Way out of One-Dimensionality

The Contribution of Herber t Marcuse to a Critical Analysis
of the Present
Rainer Winter | 71

Border Crossing as Act of Resistance

The Autonomy of Migration as Theoretical Inter vention
into Border Studies
Sabine Hess | 87
Reclaiming the City, Reclaiming the Rights
The Commons and the Omnipresence of Resistance
Kemal İnal & Ulaş Başar Gezgin | 101

“All Those Who Know the Term ‘Gentrification’

are Part of the Problem”
Self-Reflexivity in Urban Activism and Cultural Production
Jens Martin Gurr | 117

Images of Protest
On the “Woman in the Blue Bra” and Relational Testimony
Kathrin Peters | 135

Connecting Origin and Innocence

Myths of Resistance in European Memory Cultures after 1945
Stephanie Wodianka | 153

Into the Darkness:

Revolutionary Critical Pedagogy for a Socialist Society
A Manifesto
Peter McLaren | 173

List of Contributors | 191

Introduction
Coming to Terms—On the Aim and Scope of this Volume

Martin Butler, Paul Mecheril & Lea Brenningmeyer

In the field of physics, resistance is commonly defined as “a force

preventing a process from starting, or once started from intensifying
beyond a certain threshold” (Harré 5). Though it might be odd to begin this
introduction with an excursus to the sciences, it could be worth picking
up on that definition, as it helps carve out the understanding of resistance
that this volume takes as a starting point for its reflections. To be precise,
if we conceptualize resistance in the social sphere less in analogy to a
physical phenomenon, i.e., less as an obstacle, hindrance, obstruction,
or barrier, whose function is to channel the ‘flow’ of the social and to
obstruct totalization, but rather as an intervention in the struggle for the
universal or a very particular social order, then, one may well argue, we
are dealing with resistance as a political phenomenon. A phenomenon
which, it seems, has resurfaced as a viable option of political articulation
and positioning in range of different contexts and, more often than not,
is informed by a distinctly normative rationale: Whenever and wherever
inequality is experienced and articulated as injustice, there is resistance.
This normative stance, which is proliferated, e.g., through the rhetoric
and actions of social, emancipatory movements and through discourses
about the universality of human rights, and which, in a very fundamental
way, rests on the assumption that constellations and relations of power
are contingent and changeable, can indeed be said to both characterize
and, at the same time, fuel acts of resistance against the experienced
and articulated injustice of unequal social relations—no matter if these
relations constitute one’s own situation or the situations of others and no
matter if they are experienced as injustice from one’s own or from others’
perspectives.
8 Mar tin Butler, Paul Mecheril & Lea Brenningmeyer

If we, for the time being, allow ourselves to accept this notion of
resistance as a mode of intervention based on a specifically normative
rationale, through which the demand to overcome situations of
disadvantaged and disregard is both legitimized and articulated, we are
indeed able to spot a number of contexts in different parts of the world,
in which both discourses and practices of resistance have resurged. In
these different contexts, forms of resistance have taken different shapes,
but are all more or less driven by either an intuitive or an explicit notion
of injustice and justice: Whereas in western societies, it is indeed the
(discourse on the) crisis of global capitalism, along with a general loss
of trust in institutionalized politics, which is regularly held responsible
for the recent emergence of new movements of protests and resistance,
in regions such as Northern Africa, political uprisings have commonly
been regarded as a reaction long overdue to totalitarian regimes and their
infrastructures of oppression and control. The uprisings in Ukraine in
2014, Occupy Gezi in 2013, and the protests in Northern Africa known as
the so-called Arab Spring starting in 2010, for instance, were considered
to be (and fashioned themselves as) acts of resistance against structures
of governmental dominance and control to an extent which seriously
threatened and harmed the individual citizen’s rights. With the disclosure
of practices of surveillance through national secret services such as the
NSA, by the way, or the most recent debates on the hacking of the US
American election procedures by Russian activists, similar mechanisms of
power have been made visible in western societies, which, in turn, are said
to have enhanced tendencies towards civil disobedience and resistance.
Finally, the election of Donald Trump into the office of the American
Presidency has so far not only fueled the debate on the rationale of
democratic rule both in the US and in other parts of the world, but has also
contributed to a more or less explicit turn towards nationalist and racist
ideologies and politics across Europe—political debates and elections, e.g.,
in Austria, France, or the Netherlands give ample proof of this tendency.
Moreover, it has also triggered movements of predominantly anti-capitalist
opposition promoting social equality and/or environmental justice both in
institutionalized politics and in less formal or informal ways and forms
on the spot. In other words, resistance, it seems, has again become a
viable option to confront a government, the formation and constitution of
which has not seldom been referred to as an articulation of resistance in
itself—i.e., against political corruption, against institutionalized politics
 Introduction 9

which had been accused of forgetting the needs and demands of the white
working class men whom Trump has so ineloquently but efficiently sided
with during his campaign. Both Trump’s fashioning of himself as the
leader of a movement that was born out of resistance against the political
establishment, and the emergence of anti-Trump movements which set
out to resist this resistance at the very same time, may be indicative of
a more general concern, i.e., the mistrust in the workings of capitalist
democracies. This mistrust, then, which can be traced both in so-called
right-wing and in left-wing rhetoric, has perhaps been the breeding
ground for Trump’s landslide victory, and has equally contributed to
the emergence of new forms of resistance in the recent past, such as the
Occupy movement, the student protests revolving around the issue of
‘safe space’ at US American universities, or, more recently, and in direct
opposition to Trump’s agenda, the ‘March of Science’ or the ‘Women’s
March on Washington.’
It is this resurgence of resistance, then, which has perhaps been
the central motivation for this collection of essays, which takes these
developments as a starting point to explore phenomena of resistance in
different historical and contemporary contexts from an interdisciplinary
and transcultural perspective. To be sure, in the recent past, there has
been a lot of scholarly concern with resistance in a number of volumes (cf.,
e.g., Byrne; Critchley; Douzinas; Dutta; Skyes; Welzer), the publication of
which, just like in our case, has most probably been motivated by forms and
events of political opposition in different parts of the world. The essays in
this collection set out to add to this ongoing discussions and reflections, as
they not only shed light on different subjects, representations, aesthetics,
and contexts of resistance, but also, and perhaps more importantly, add
to a theoretical discussion of terms and concepts of resistance by—albeit,
at times, more implicitly—addressing the following questions: 1. What
is ‘resistance’? 2. On which normative grounds do forms of resistance
work, how are they legitimized? 3. How is resistance represented and/or
mediated, and in how far can representations be considered to be resistant?
4. Who uses the term/concept of ‘resistance’? When, where, and for what
purposes? In order to approach these questions, the essays collected in
this volume take different routes in their exploration of resistance. They
approach resistance on a theoretical level, investigate into different
conceptualizations of resistance in different historical settings, and/or
work on a range of different case studies taken from a variety of contexts
10 Mar tin Butler, Paul Mecheril & Lea Brenningmeyer

and—through close contextualizing analyses—contribute to establishing

a distinctly comparative view on the various notions of resistance in
different disciplinary as well as social and/or cultural contexts.
Though not all of the contributions directly address terms and concepts
of resistance on a theoretical level, we sense that they are nevertheless
broadly informed by at least two different, if not opposing ideas of
resistance: While one notion of resistance is based on the assumption
of active agency, i.e., on the capabilities of individuals to interpret their
environment and ‘act upon’ it deliberately through what is commonly
referred to as appropriation (cf., e.g., Hall), the other one conceives of
resistance as embedded in specific structures and relationships of power—
in the latter sense, then, as Lawrence Grossberg puts it, “[t]he question of
agency is [...] how access and investment or participation (as a structure
of belonging) are distributed within particular structured terrains“
(“Identity” 100; cf. also Grossberg, “Cultural Studies”). To be sure, it
does not seem to be too fruitful to rule out either one of these notions
of resistance when examining the question of how changes of power
relations in society are set into motion—and none of the contributions
actually seems to be heading into just one direction. It is perhaps far
more appropriate to argue that forms of resistance that stimulate change
in hegemonic regimes instead of just validating and perpetuating these
regimes are neither an act of individual heroism nor are they the outcome
and expression of a self-referential structural logic only. For us, then, it
seems to be more productive to explore the relationships between these
two notions of resistance as well as their relationship to other concepts
and approaches, and to also reflect on the normative presuppositions
inscribed into each of these perspectives, though, at times, it seems that
these very presuppositions are secretly at work even if we try hard to spot
and suspend them.
The present volume sets out to enhance this very endeavor, as
it is supposed to be a site on which different conceptualizations of
resistance are drawn upon to elucidate different historical and cultural
constellations. By putting a number of different disciplinary voices into
a dialogue, its goal is to disclose the specific contextual preconditions,
aesthetic forms, and political/ideological implications of both past and
present forms of resistance. Through their context-specific approaches
to historical and current phenomena and concepts of resistance, then,
the essays in this collection also—and again, more or less explicitly—
 Introduction 11

contribute to uncovering the highly ethical dimension inscribed into

public and scholarly debates on resistance on the one hand and into acts of
resistance (or what is designated as acts of resistance, respectively) on the
other. In this way, the volume might also help draw our attention to the
normative references that lie at the heart of both practices and discourses
of resistance, but which are only rarely made explicit. To different degrees
and in different ways, the contributions to this volume reveal that
scholarly debates are not only reflecting the normative-ethical dimension
of the topic of resistance, but are also affected by normative stances and
motivated by political demands. In other words, scholarly discourse on
resistance cannot fully escape the political and ethical aura of resistance.
As a starting point, Micha Brumlik’s contribution investigates the
overall question of “what can be understood as ‘resistance’” and, more
specifically, as ‘political resistance.’ By drawing on the examples of Carl
von Ossietzky, Albert Leo Schlageter, and Mahatma Gandhi, he argues that
the evaluation of resistance is dependent on what it is directed against. In
so doing, Brumlik unfolds the normativity of the concept of ‘resistance,’
which is closely connected to moral, ethical, and political questions, and
also investigates into its relevance for processes of subjectivization. Though
resistance is commonly valued positively, the value of resistance, Brumlik
explicates, depends upon which kind of ‘evil’ it is directed against.
Alex Demirović adds another perspective on the concept of resistance
and its dependency on the ‘target’ it is directed against. In his contribution
on “More than Resistance,” he asks what resistance can turn into. Drawing
on Foucault, his contribution argues that resistance is intrinsically tied to
power and, thus, does itself not develop enough momentum to change
what it is directed against—at least not to an extent that further resistance
becomes unnecessary. By shifting the focus from forms of resistance that
happened in the past to the requirements of a theory of subversion and
resistance, he calls for something ‘beyond resistance,’ which, in a double
movement, disarticulates the rejected practices of power and “strives for a
new universality and universalization.”
Kaspar Maase’s contribution traces past and present discourses on the
resistant potential of popular culture, shedding light on the theoretical and
ideological presuppositions of the different concepts of resistance at work
in these discourses. His journey through different conceptualizations of
the status and value of popular culture takes a historical and systematic
perspective, which not only illustrates that and how ideas on the relationship
12 Mar tin Butler, Paul Mecheril & Lea Brenningmeyer

between popular culture and resistance are shaped by the specific socio-
cultural contexts in which they emerge; it also provides the ground for
identifying a number of desiderata for investigating into phenomena of
resistance in the field of “empirical popular culture research.”
Based on and referring to Herbert Marcuse’s critical theory, Rainer
Winter focuses on the idea of ‘one-dimensionality.’ Arguing for the still
prevalent importance of this approach—especially when dealing with
questions of the meaning and the role of resistance—he discusses “the
relationship between liberation and one-dimensionality” in Marcuse’s
work and points out one-dimensionality’s influence on social life. Referring
to Habermas, Winter suggests to maintain a dialectical perspective
in order to criticize one-dimensionality and strive for social change.
Referring to examples of, e.g., the Occupy movement, he discusses “how
one-dimensionality can be challenged and overcome by different forms of
resistance” and suggests to return to Marcuse’s critical theory.
Sabine Hess also discusses the relationship between resistance and
power by examining forms of borderland resistance. Starting from the
observation that the ‘border paradigm’ is still prevalent, she illustrates how
the ‘autonomy of migration’-approach allows for change of perspective on
borders and, consequently, provides the option of conceiving of migration
as resistance. Showing that “the border regime can be understood as
a site of constant encounter, tension, conflict, and contestation,” she
manages to “re-conceptualize borderlands as well as migration itself as
ways of resistance,” thereby turning migration from an object of scholarly
discussion to a resistant practice which questions established orders of
knowledge.
Kemal İnal and Ulaş Başar Gezgin focus on the agents and subjects
as well as on different forms of urban resistance and set out to explore the
specific contextual parameters that have contributed to their emergence.
Asking who ‘reclaims the cities,’ in what ways, and for what particular
purposes, they focus primarily on “massive popular resistances in Arab
regions and in some other Western countries.” Based on the argument
that this form of resistance is primarily directed against capitalism, they
are calling for ‘the people’ to organize in commons, rebuild a democratic
and socially produced and productive city, and find new ways of resistance
in urban environments.
Jens Martin Gurr examines urban practices of resistance, urban
activism, and ‘right to the city’ movements in another cultural and
 Introduction 13

political context and from a different perspective: Focusing on the self-

reflexivity and theory-consciousness of movements against gentrification,
he also problematizes the role and responsibility of scholarly research on
resistance. In so doing, he distinguishes between different aims, demands,
targets, constellations, and networks of, and commitments to resistance.
With this critical examination of the principles of ‘critical urban studies,’
Gurr contextualizes his analysis of the rhetoric of the “Mission Yuppie
Eradication Project” and Christoph Schäfer’s activist pictorial essay Die
Stadt ist unsere Fabrik/ The City is our Factory.
Kathrin Peters’ contribution analyzes images of protest and asks “how
to conceive visual testimony … in view of the contemporary flood of digital
images,” particularly focusing on the “Woman in the Blue Bra”-video and
its various forms of distribution, adaptation, modification, appropriation,
and reception. Starting from a differentiation between center and
periphery on two levels—both on the level of the camera’s perspective
(being informed by specific media reporting conventions and a specific
postcolonial constellation) and on the level of the clip’s dissemination
via predominantly peripheral channels—Peters follows the journey of
the footage, sheds light on the forms and functions of its repetitive use
in different contexts, and, in so doing, adds to the critical discussion on
the role of (social, digital, and analog) media in contexts of protest and
resistance.
Stephanie Wodianka focuses on mythologization and memories
of resistance in different case studies, in which she identifies “the
characteristics that constitute European memory cultures of Resistance
during the Second World War.” Her contribution distinguishes between
mythical and historical modes of remembering resistance, elucidates
the development of resistance as French and Italian narratives of origin,
examines “the stability and durability of the myth of Resistance,” and
analyzes narratives of collective resistance and collective innocence. For
these analyses, Wodianka selects literary and filmographic fiction about
resistance published after 1945, which represent memory cultures in
France and Italy.
As a manifesto, the final contribution of this volume picks up several
of the topics mentioned in the previous contributions, e.g., gentrification,
capitalism, and political resistance, and calls for critical pedagogy as a
revolutionary praxis and an approach to transform the world. Using the
current political situation in the US as a starting point, Peter McLaren
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