Political Science-I

Basics and Terminology:

✅ Step 1 – Define clearly (1–2 lines, with a thinker if possible).
✅ Step 2 – Types/Dimensions (classification).
✅ Step 3 – Thinkers’ Views (at least 2–3 scholars).
✅ Step 4 – Criticism (weaknesses).
✅ Step 5 – Contemporary Relevance (Pakistan/world).
✅ Step 6 – Quote or example (optional but boosts marks).

State → Sovereignty → Law/Liberty/Equality → Rights & Duties → Justice →

Democracy → Nationalism → Ideologies → Power/Authority → Political Obligation.

STATE
1. Definitions
 Aristotle: “The state is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect
and self-sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honourable life.”
 Garner: “The state is a community of persons, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing an organized
government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
 MacIver: “The state is an association which, acting through law as promulgated by a
government endowed to this end, maintains within a community territorially
demarcated the universal external conditions of social order.”

2. Essential Elements of the State

1. Population
o Not fixed in size (Monaco has ~40,000; China 1.4 billion).

o Quality matters more than quantity (educated, skilled, politically conscious).

o Aristotle: “Too large a population is ungovernable.”

 2. Territory
o Must be defined and recognized internationally.

o Includes land, airspace, territorial waters.

o Examples: Disputes over Kashmir, Palestine undermine statehood.

3. Government
o The machinery through which the will of the state is formulated and enforced.

o Types: democratic, authoritarian, monarchical, etc.

o Difference between de jure (legal) and de facto (actual) government is

important (e.g., Taliban 1996–2001).
4. Sovereignty (Most Important)
o Absolute power, independent internally and externally.

o Jean Bodin: “Sovereignty is that absolute and perpetual power vested in a

commonwealth.”
o Without sovereignty, an entity cannot be a state.

3. State vs. Government vs. Society vs. Nation

 State: Legal and political organization, permanent.
 Government: Agency of the state, temporary, changeable.
 Society: Broader; includes all associations (family, religion, clubs). State is only one
aspect.
 Nation: Psychological bond (common race, culture, language). A nation may exist
without a state (Kurds, Palestinians).

4.Theories of the Origin of the State (In-Depth for CSS)

1. Divine Origin Theory

Core Idea: The state and rulers are creations of God; rulers derive their authority
directly from divine will.
 Supporters: Ancient Hindus (law of Manu), Hebrews (King Saul, David),
Christians in medieval Europe, Islamic monarchies.
  Thinkers:
o St. Augustine (City of God): State necessary because of man’s sinful
nature; rulers govern by divine command.
o Sir Robert Filmer (Patriarcha): Political authority descends from Adam;
kings are like fathers of the nation.
o Jacques Bossuet: French bishop; defended “Divine Right of Kings” →
“Royal authority is sacred; God establishes kings as His ministers.”
 Strengths:
o Provided stability in deeply religious societies.

o Strengthened monarchies (e.g., Tudor England, Mughal Empire).

 Criticism:
o Justified tyranny; made rulers unaccountable.

o No scientific/historical evidence.

o Declined after Enlightenment (Locke, Rousseau challenged it).

Relevance Today:
 Still used in theocratic or monarchic states (e.g., Saudi Arabia claims divine
legitimacy from Islam).
 Pakistan: Ideological legitimacy is linked to Islam, but sovereignty is considered to
belong to Allah (Article 2A of Constitution).

2. Force Theory
Core Idea: The state was created by conquest, coercion, and domination of the weak by
the strong.
 Supporters: Machiavelli, Treitschke, Gumplowicz, Oppenheimer.
 Explanation:
o In primitive times, stronger individuals or tribes subdued weaker ones.

o Over time, the conquered accepted the authority of the conqueror,

forming political organization.
o “Might makes right” was the principle.

 Examples in History:
o Formation of Roman Empire.
 o Genghis Khan & Mongol conquests.

o Colonial empires in Asia & Africa.

 Criticism:
o Cannot explain why conquered populations later obey willingly.

o Ignores cooperation, consent, evolution of institutions.

o Overemphasizes violence.

Relevance Today:
 Military coups (e.g., Pakistan 1958, 1977, 1999) reflect “force” in state
creation/maintenance.
 Modern dictatorships show survival of this theory in practice.

3. Social Contract Theory

Core Idea: The state is an artificial creation, formed when individuals voluntarily
entered into a contract to escape the “state of nature” and secure order.
 Key Thinkers:
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
o State of Nature: Life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.”

o To escape chaos, individuals surrendered all rights to a sovereign

authority (Leviathan).
o Sovereign had absolute power; no right to rebel.

o Justification for absolute monarchy.

John Locke (1632–1704)

o State of Nature: People had natural rights (life, liberty, property).

o Social contract: People formed government to protect these rights.

o If government violates contract, people can revolt.

o Basis of constitutionalism, democracy, American Declaration of

Independence (1776).
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
o State of Nature: People were free and equal, but property created
inequality.
 o Contract: Created a collective “General Will” — sovereignty belongs to
the people.
o Inspired French Revolution (1789).

o Advocated direct democracy.

 Strengths:
o Justified modern democratic state.

o Promoted concepts of rights, liberty, constitutional government.

 Criticism:
o Historically false — no such contract ever signed.

o Too abstract; ignores gradual evolution.

Relevance Today:
 Modern democracies reflect Locke and Rousseau’s ideas (e.g., Pakistan’s
Constitution = contract between state and citizens).
 International law: “Social contract” now extended to global level (UN Charter
seen as a contract among nations).

4. Evolutionary Theory (Most Widely Accepted)

Core Idea: The state was not created suddenly, but evolved gradually over centuries
from simple social institutions.
 Supporters: Sir Henry Maine, MacIver, Morgan, Edward Jenks.
 Stages of Development:
1. Family → Oldest institution. Patriarchal authority = first political
authority.
2. Clan → Several families united under a patriarch.
3. Tribe → Clans united for defense and survival.
4. Political Society/State → Tribes settled in territory, created laws and
institutions.
 Factors in Evolution:
o Kinship (blood ties).

o Religion (common worship united tribes).

o Property & agriculture (land ownership required regulation).

 o War & conquest (brought organization).

o Political consciousness (awareness of collective identity).

 Strengths:
o Supported by anthropology, history, sociology.

o Explains gradual growth of states (Egypt, Indus Valley).

o Compatible with modern political science.

 Criticism:
o Overlooks sudden state formation in some cases (Israel 1948).

o Ignores role of force in shaping states.

Relevance Today:
 Nation-states continue to evolve (South Sudan 2011).
 Federalism in Pakistan shows how state institutions keep evolving.

Comparative Evaluation
 Divine Theory → Obsolete, but still relevant in theocratic monarchies.
 Force Theory → Still visible in dictatorships and colonialism.
 Social Contract Theory → Philosophical foundation of democracy &
constitutionalism.
 Evolutionary Theory → Scientifically the most accepted, explains long-term
development.

6. Functions of the State

The functions of the state have evolved over time—from “police state” (minimal role) to
“welfare state” (comprehensive role).

A. Traditional / Regal Functions

These are essential for survival of the state (also called negative functions).
1. Maintenance of Law & Order – Protecting citizens from crime, enforcing justice.
o Example: Judiciary and Police in Pakistan.
 2. Defense – Protection from external aggression.
o Example: Pakistan Armed Forces defending borders.

3. Diplomacy – Managing relations with other states, treaties.

o Example: Pakistan’s role in OIC, UN.

4. Taxation & Revenue Collection – To fund government activities.

5. Justice – Impartial legal system to resolve disputes.
👉 In medieval times, the state was primarily limited to these functions (laissez-faire).

B. Modern / Positive Functions

With industrialization, democracy, and social change, states expanded their roles.
1. Economic Regulation – Managing trade, industries, currency, inflation.
o Example: State Bank of Pakistan controlling monetary policy.

2. Social Welfare – Education, healthcare, housing, poverty alleviation.

o Example: Benazir Income Support Programme.

3. Infrastructure Development – Roads, railways, energy, technology.

4. Social Justice & Equality – Removing discrimination, empowering women and
minorities.
o Example: 18th Amendment in Pakistan strengthening provincial rights.

5. Environmental Protection – Climate change policies, renewable energy.

C. Islamic Perspective on State Functions

 Uphold Shariah and Islamic values.
 Ensure justice (‘adl) and equality.
 Protection of life, property, religion, and dignity.
 Zakat collection and distribution.
 Support weaker segments of society (orphans, poor, widows).
👉 This was reflected in Riyasat-e-Madina model, often referenced in Pakistan.

7. Criticism & Contemporary Challenges of the State

The state today faces unprecedented internal and external pressures:

A. Globalization & Sovereignty Erosion

 Economy: IMF, World Bank, WTO influence national policies (Pakistan’s IMF
conditions affect budget and subsidies).
 Politics: UN, NATO, EU often limit independent decision-making.
 Culture: Global media dilutes national cultures, creating identity crises.

B. Rise of Non-State Actors

 Terrorist organizations (Al-Qaeda, ISIS, TTP) challenge state monopoly on
force.
 Multinational corporations (MNCs) often more powerful than small states.
 NGOs & civil society influence policies independently.

C. Failed or Weak States

 Failure to perform basic functions leads to instability.
 Somalia, Afghanistan, Yemen cited as “failed states.”
 Pakistan often called a “fragile state” due to governance challenges, corruption,
and terrorism.

D. Ethnic & Nationalist Conflicts

 Multinational states face separatist tendencies.
 Example: Baloch nationalism in Pakistan, Kurds in Middle East.
 Such movements weaken central authority.

E. Technological Challenges
 Cyber warfare undermines traditional state defense.
 Social media bypasses state control, fueling unrest.
 States struggle to control global tech giants (Facebook, Google, TikTok).
F. Climate Change & Environment
 Natural disasters and global warming demand collective responses.
 Pakistan (2022 floods) showed state’s incapacity to handle large-scale crises.

8. State in the 21st Century

Key Question: Is the nation-state declining in importance, or still the dominant actor in
world politics?

Arguments: State is Declining

1. Globalization – Boundaries meaningless in finance, trade, communication.
2. Regionalism – EU overrides national sovereignty.
3. Non-State Actors – Terrorists, MNCs, NGOs, even individuals (e.g., Elon Musk,
Bill Gates) wield global influence.
4. Human Rights Regimes – UN, ICC, Amnesty International hold states
accountable.
5. Technology – Internet bypasses state censorship, empowers individuals.

Arguments: State Remains Central

1. Sovereign Entity in International Law – UN is based on states, not corporations.
2. Military Power – Only states maintain armies and nuclear weapons.
o Example: Pakistan’s nuclear program ensures survival.

3. Nationalism is Rising – Trump’s “America First,” Brexit, Modi’s Hindu

nationalism.
4. Welfare Functions – Citizens still depend on the state for education, health,
subsidies.
5. COVID-19 Pandemic – Showed centrality of states in crisis management
(lockdowns, vaccines, relief).

Pakistan Context in 21st Century

 Sovereignty Erosion: IMF dictates, US drone strikes.
 Security Threats: TTP terrorism, Indian aggression.
 Ethnic Issues: Baloch separatism, provincial grievances.
 Economic Dependency: CPEC shows reliance on China.
 Strength: Still central in providing identity, defense, and global recognition.