SX1280
The SX1280 is a 2.4 GHz transceiver that can be used for aviation applications because of its long-range
communication and ability to withstand interference:
Long-range communication: The SX1280 can provide long-range communication in the 2.4 GHz band.
Interference resistance: The SX1280 has linearity that can withstand heavy interference.
Ranging: The SX1280 has a ranging mode that can measure distance by recording the time of flight of a
packet exchange between two SX1280s.
Doppler effect: The SX1280 can capture frequency anomalies due to the Doppler effect, which can be
used to estimate the distance between two aircraft.
Other features of the SX1280
include:High sensitivity, down to -
132 dBmLow energy
consumption ,Programmable bit
rate Excellent blocking
immunity,BLE PHY layer
compatibility,Low system cost .
SX1272
The SX1272 transceiver from Semtech has a low RX current of 10 mA:
SX1272 transceiver
RX current
10 mA
Pros
●Long Range
Capable of achieving long-range communication, up to 15 km or more in line-of-sight conditions, making
it ideal for rural or remote applications.
●Low Power Consumption
It offers low power consumption, especially in low-power modes, making it suitable for battery-powered
IoT devices.
Cons
●Limited Data Rate
Although it is excellent for long-range communication, the SX1272 is not suitable for high-speed data
transfer. Data rates are limited (typically 0.3 kbps to 37.5 kbps), which may not be suitable for
applications requiring high bandwidth.
●Size
The module is relatively larger than some other wireless transceivers like Bluetooth or Zigbee modules,
which could be a limitation in space-constrained designs.
SX1262.
SX1261, SX1262 and SX1268 sub-GHz radio transceivers are ideal for long range wireless applications.
Both devices are designed for long battery life with just 4.2 mA of active receive current consumption.
The SX1261 can transmit up to +15dBm and the SX1262 and SX1268 can transmit up to +22dBm with
highly efficient integrated power amplifiers.
These devices support LoRa® and Long Range FHSS modulations for LPWAN use cases and (G)FSK
modulation for legacy use cases. The devices are highly configurable to meet different application
requirements utilizing the global LoRaWAN® standard or proprietary protocols
The SX1262 transceiver, designed for LoRa (Long Range) communication, is increasingly being
considered for aviation applications, especially for telemetry, tracking, and other low-power
communication needs. Here's a breakdown of the pros and cons of using this transceiver in aviation:
Pros:
●Long Range Communication: The SX1262 can offer ranges up to 15-20 km in open environments
(depending on terrain and frequency band), making it suitable for long-distance communication in
aviation applications, such as remote control, telemetry, and tracking.
●Low Power Consumption: This chip is optimized for low-power operation, making it ideal for battery-
operated systems in aviation. It helps extend the operational time for UAVs (drones) or other low-power
aircraft without needing frequent recharges.
Cons:
●Limited Bandwidth: The SX1262 is primarily designed for narrowband communication, meaning it
might not be suitable for high-bandwidth applications like real-time video streaming or large data
transfers that might be required in aviation.
●Regulatory Constraints: Depending on the region, the SX1262 operates in the ISM (Industrial, Scientific,
and Medical) bands, which might face regulatory restrictions in aviation, especially in controlled
airspaces or commercial aviation.
Estimated Cost:
The cost of the SX1262 module can range from $10 to $25 USD per unit, depending on the supplier and
the quantity purchased.
Estimated Range:
Up to 20 km (in open space, line-of-sight) for general use in communication systems.
Much lower range in urban or
obstructed environments.
Value:
For aviation, the SX1262's
value lies in its low-power,
long-range capabilities, ideal
for UAV telemetry and
tracking systems. However,
its application in full-scale
aviation is more niche and
limited to specific use cases,
such as remote monitoring or
non-critical communications..
SX1281
The SX1281 transceiver is a low-power, long-range radio transceiver used in various applications,
including aviation for communication and telemetry systems. It's based on LoRa (Long Range)
technology, allowing it to transmit data over long distances, making it suitable for UAVs (Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles), drones, and other aviation systems.
Specifications:
Voltage: 1.8V to 3.7V
Current: Typically 12 mA in receiving mode, 100-200 mA in transmitting mode (depending on output
power)
Estimated Cost: $6 to $15 USD, depending on the vendor and quantity.
Low range: Effective at distances of up to 2-5 km in line-of-sight conditions.
High range: Can reach up to 15 km or more with high output power and optimal conditions.
Pros:
●Long Range: With LoRa technology, it can provide excellent long-range communication, crucial for
remote aviation applications.
●Low Power Consumption: The transceiver operates efficiently, making it ideal for battery-powered
devices like drones and UAVs.
Cons:
Low Data Rate: The SX1281 supports relatively low data rates compared to other communication
technologies, limiting its use for high-bandwidth applications.
Susceptibility to Interference: The device may experience interference in heavily populated radio
frequency environments, affecting reliability in congested airspace.
Inventex
Inventek Systems Evaluation and ISMART Boards are designed to aid in demonstrating and prototyping
applications using Wi-Fi® and BLUETOOTH® Modules. The Evaluation Boards feature a Wi-Fi / Bluetooth
Module, UART, JTAG, expansion headers, status LEDs, user buttons, and more. In addition, the ISMART
(Inventek Systems Module Arduino Test) Boards are compatible with the Arduino UNO R3 3.3V
connector layout, allowing developers to attach a variety of microcontroller shields.
Features
Wi-Fi / Bluetooth Module
Dual port FTDI
USB-JTAG interface or a J-Link JTAG interface for debugging
USB-serial UART interface
Expansion headers
Arduino Uno compatible connectors (ISMART only)
Reset switches
Powered by USB or SD interface, or from an external +5V power supply
The Inventek iSmart 24G is a compact, efficient IoT module designed for 24 GHz Wi-Fi communication.
Pros:
●High Speed: Offers fast data transfer rates, ideal for applications requiring low latency.
●Compact Design: Small size for easy integration into various devices, especially for space-wconstrained
projects.
Cons:
●Limited Range: The 24 GHz band may experience more interference and shorter range compared to
lower frequencies like 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz.
●Power Consumption: Higher power draw compared to other low-power modules, which may be a
concern for battery-powered devices.
Estimated Cost: Around $5–$15 depending on the supplier.
Range: Typically 30–100 meters, varying by environment and obstacles.
Voltage: 3.3V
Current: Typically 200–300mA during active transmission.
GPS sensors
Advantages of GPS Sensors:
●Accurate Location Tracking
GPS sensors provide highly accurate location data, typically within a few meters. This precision is crucial
for navigation, logistics, and emergency services. Whether you're driving, hiking, or using location-based
apps, GPS sensors help ensure that you reach your destination with minimal deviation.
●Global Coverage
GPS works worldwide, thanks to a network of satellites orbiting Earth. This global reach means GPS
sensors can provide location information almost anywhere, from city streets to remote areas, making
them indispensable for both personal and commercial applications like mapping, geocaching, and global
shipping.
●Real-Time Data
GPS sensors offer real-time location updates, enabling users to track movements continuously. This is
particularly beneficial for fleet management, public transportation, or even fitness tracking, where up-
to-date data is essential for efficiency, safety, and decision-making.
Disadvantages of GPS Sensors:
●Signal Interference
GPS sensors rely on signals from satellites, which can be disrupted by obstacles such as tall buildings,
dense forests, or harsh weather conditions. In urban canyons or areas with poor satellite visibility, GPS
accuracy and reliability can drop significantly, leading to potential navigational errors.
●Battery Drain
GPS sensors can be power-hungry, especially in devices that require continuous tracking. This leads to
faster battery depletion, which is inconvenient for devices like smartphones, fitness trackers, or
wearables that need to function for extended periods without charging.
●Privacy Concerns
Continuous tracking by GPS sensors can raise privacy issues, especially when location data is shared
without consent. Invasive tracking or unauthorized data collection could potentially expose personal
habits, locations, or routines, leading to misuse or security breaches
GPS sensor.
Distance
Measuring
equipment
Distance
Measuring
Equipment
(DME) is a
navigation
system that helps pilots determine the distance between their aircraft and a ground station. Here are
some pros and cons of DME:
Pros
●Familiarization: DME helps pilots become familiar with traffic-reception technology and approach
control procedures.
Airport identification: VFR pilots can use DME to quickly identify airports along their route.
●Thunderstorm resistance: DME is rarely affected by thunderstorms.
Relatively easy to use: DME is relatively easy to use.
Cons
●Line-of-sight: DME only works when the aircraft is in line of sight of the ground station.
●No failure warning: DME doesn't have a failure warning system, but a failure is obvious because the
DME will stop displaying the distance.
●Not as accurate as GPS: DME is not always as accurate or precise as GPS.
Barometric sensors, also known as barometers or atmospheric pressure sensors, are used in aviation to
measure altitude and help with navigation:
Altitude measurement
Barometric sensors are a key part of altimeters, which measure the pressure drop as altitude increases
to determine the aircraft's altitude above sea level.
Navigation
Barometers can help with navigation by indicating changes in altitude and when a storm might be
approaching. Storms form in areas of low pressure, and strong winds blow from high pressure to low
pressure.
Calibration
Barometric altimeters need to be calibrated with local sea level data to maintain accuracy. This is
because the barometric pressure at a given altitude can vary depending on the weather.
Barometric pressure sensors work by converting the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere into an
electrical signal. The signal is then processed and interpreted by a microcontroller or other electronic
systems.
Pros
●Weather Prediction: Barometers
help pilots anticipate weather
changes. A falling barometric
pressure often indicates bad
weather (storms, low pressure systems), while rising pressure suggests improving weather or fair
conditions.
●Cost-Effective: Barometers are relatively inexpensive compared to other navigational equipment. They
provide reliable data without significant operational costs.
●Simple Technology: Barometers are simple devices that have been used for centuries, making them
easy to understand and maintain.
Cons:
●Sensitivity to Weather Changes: Barometers can be affected by local weather systems, such as storms
or rapid changes in atmospheric pressure, leading to inaccurate altitude readings if not calibrated
frequently.
●Need for Calibration: A barometer must be properly calibrated to the local atmospheric pressure (the
altimeter setting) to ensure accurate altitude measurements. Incorrect calibration can lead to altitude
discrepancies, which can be dangerous in certain conditions..
2.Lidar sensors
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors are used in aviation to detect and measure various
properties of distant targets, such as: Microburst, Volcanic ash, Wake vortex turbulence, and Clear air
turbulence.
LiDAR is a remote sensing technology that uses a laser to emit light pulses that bounce off targets and
return to the sensor. The time it takes for the light to travel to the target and back is used to calculate
the distance, which is then converted to elevation.
●Immune to electromagnetic interference: LiDAR is not susceptible to electromagnetic interference,
unlike radar.
●Detects microbursts, volcanic ash, and wake vortex turbulence: LiDAR equipment can detect these
hazards in aviation.
Disadvantages
●Cost: LiDAR equipment and maintenance can be expensive.
Interference from external light sources: LiDAR can be affected by external light sources
.
Lidar sensor.
●.Pressure and temperature sensors are used in aviation to monitor the pressure and temperature of
hydraulic fluids and other systems. These sensors are important for ensuring the safety, reliability, and
performance of aircraft.
Piezoresistive
●These sensors are robust, have stable performance and calibration, and can measure smaller pressure
changes than other sensors. However, they consume more power than some other types of pressure
sensors.
Capacitive
●These sensors reduce errors caused by electromagnetic interference. However, they can be sensitive
to environmental effects like temperature, humidity, vibration, and electrical interference.
Piezoelectric
●These sensors can only be used for dynamic pressure measurement. They are also sensitive to
vibration or acceleration, which can be minimized by using a compensation sensor.
Utility power systems in aviation include a variety of systems that provide power and control for an
aircraft, including:
Electrical systems: Provide power for lights, navigation aids, electric flight instruments, and radios.
Electrical systems can be DC-powered, or use a combination of AC and DC buses.
Utility system actuators: Electromechanical actuators that position auxiliary system equipment based on
inputs from the pilot or flight control system.
Utility systems management includes: Automatic or remote control by the pilot, Monitoring, Fault
tolerance management, and Data exchange and presentation to the pilot and maintenance crew.
order to operate the integrated utilities management system the pilot sends commands to start up the
Electrical Power System by hardwire interface in order to energize one of power buses from aircraft
battery or external power sources. This allows energizing all LCUs and to continue system control via
data bus.
Pros:
Efficiency in Communication: A utility system can streamline communication across various platforms
(aircraft, airports, air traffic control), ensuring a faster and more reliable exchange of information, which
is crucial for flight safety and operational efficiency.
Improved Safety: By providing real-time data and status updates, a utility system enhances situational
awareness for pilots, controllers, and ground staff, allowing for more informed decision-making and
reducing the chances of miscommunication or human error.
Cons:
High Cost and Maintenance: Implementing and maintaining a utility system can be expensive, requiring
investment in technology, infrastructure, and training. This could be a burden for smaller airlines or
airports with limited budgets.
System Vulnerabilities: Relying heavily on a utility system can create a single point of failure. If the
system experiences technical issues or cyberattacks, it can disrupt communication across the aviation
network, potentially compromising flight safety and coordination.
Generators and alternators
These engine-driven components convert mechanical energy from the aircraft's engines into electrical
energy. The output voltage is usually 115-120V/400HZ AC, 28V DC, or 14V DC.
Distribution
The electrical energy is distributed through a network of wires and buses to various systems and
components.
Voltage regulator
This component ensures that the power remains at a consistent voltage to prevent damage to electrical
components.
DC power
DC power can be used to charge the onboard battery, which can be used as a backup power source if
the main power supply fails.
Aircraft electrical system.
Generators and alternators produce electrical energy by moving wires (conductors) through strong
electrical fields or vice versa. In the generator, the conductors are copper wires that are wound around
an armature that is bolted to the drive pulley. (As the armature rotates, the copper wires move through
a magnetic field that is produced by permanent magnets.) Electrical power is induced in the wires and
terminates in a part of the armature called the commutator. This power is then transferred from the
spinning commutator to stationary carbon brushes that are held against the commutator segments by
spring pressure.
Generators don't produce rated output until engine rpm is up in the midrange of operation — typically
above 1,400 rpm. This liability can be a real pain in the pilot seat.
Pro: Generators provide a reliable and continuous power source, ensuring communication systems
remain operational during long flights.
Con: They add weight and complexity to the aircraft, potentially affecting fuel efficiency and
maintenance costs.
Solar systems and batteries
Solar systems and batteries are used in aviation communication systems to provide off-grid power,
especially at remote airports, navigation aids, and communication towers. Solar panels harness sunlight
to generate electricity, while batteries store excess energy for use during cloudy periods or nighttime,
ensuring uninterrupted operation. This combination reduces reliance on traditional power sources,
lowers operational costs, and enhances system reliability in isolated areas.
Solar systems in aviation communication offer the advantage of renewable energy, reducing reliance on
fuel and extending operational duration. However, they face challenges like energy storage limitations
and dependence on weather conditions. Batteries, on the other hand, provide reliable power but may
add weight and require frequent maintenance or replacement. Together, they can improve
sustainability but need to overcome efficiency and integration hurdles in aviation environments.
MICROCONTROLLERS
-Essentially they are small dedicated computers used for very specific purposes. Don't necessarily need
much CPU and RAM or power because they are applied to very narrow scoped applications.
Arduino microcontroller
Arduino consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller)
and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer,
used to write and upload computer code to the physical board.
Pros
Easy to use Arduino is simple to use
and accessible to everyone. It's a
good choice for beginners who want
to get started with programming
and robotics.
Cost-effective Arduino is affordable compared to other microcontroller boards.
Open source Arduino is open source and available for everyone to use.
Compatible components Arduino has a wide range of compatible components and shields.
Good for specific projects Arduino is great for carrying out a specific project, especially if a similar
project has already been done.
Cons
Limited memory and processing power Arduino boards have limited memory and processing power
compared to other microcontrollers or computers. This can limit the complexity and size of projects.
Performance Arduino's performance is not as good as other microcontrollers, especially when
comparing the price-to-performance ratio.
No debugger Arduino does not include a debugger for checking scripts.
No experience with C Arduino does not provide experience with C or professional development tools.
No Wi-Fi module Some models do not have a built-in Wi-Fi module, which is important for IoT projects.
EPs32
ESP32 is a series of low-cost, low-power system-on-chip microcontrollers with integrated Wi-Fi and dual-
mode Bluetooth. The ESP32 series employs either a Tensilica Xtensa LX6 microprocessor in both dual-
core and single-core variations, an Xtensa LX7 dual-core microprocessor, or a single-core RISC-V
microprocessor and includes built-in antenna switches, RF balun, power amplifier, low-noise receive
amplifier, filters, and power-management modules. Commonly found either on device specific PCBs or
on a range of development boards with GPIO pins and various connectors depending on the model and
manufacturer of the board.
ESP32
The ESP32
microcontroller has many
advantages, including:
Low power: The ESP32 is
a low-power programming circuit that supports low-power mode states.
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity: The ESP32 can connect to a Wi-Fi network or create a wireless
network for other devices to connect to. Some models also support Bluetooth connectivity.
Memory: The ESP32 chip comes with 4Mb FLASH and 500 Kb of RAM. If you need more memory, you
can use the same code with a few configurations instead of designing a new PCB.
Versatile: The ESP32 is a versatile and widely-used microcontroller.
Higher processing power than Arduino: Arduino boards typically have lower processing power than the
ESP32.
However, the ESP32 does have one disadvantage: it only supports Wi-Fi networks with a frequency
range of 2.4 GHz, so it won't connect to modern 5 GHz networks.
The ESP32 is a chip produced by Espressif Systems. The manufacturer also refers to the modules and
development boards that contain the ESP32 chip as “ESP32”.
Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi (/paɪ/) is a series of small single-board computers (SBCs) developed in the United Kingdom.
The original Raspberry Pi computer was developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation in association with
Broadcom. Since 2012, all Raspberry Pi products have been developed by Raspberry Pi Ltd, which began
as a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Foundation.
Pros
Peripheral support The Raspberry Pi has 26 GPIO pins, which are useful for connecting hardware and
embedded projects. It also supports many peripherals that Arduino supports.
Community There is a large community and support network for the Raspberry Pi.
Accessories There are many accessories available for the Raspberry Pi, including cases, fans, and heat
sinks.
Processing power The Raspberry Pi has good processing power, with speeds of up to 1.6 GHz depending
on the board.
Cons
Security vulnerabilities Raspberry Pi devices can be spoofed, allowing attackers to access authenticated
devices. This can lead to data breaches, malware installation, and other attacks.
Not for industrial use Raspberry Pis are designed for consumer-grade applications and don't comply with
industrial standards.
Not for running Windows or MacOS The Raspberry Pi uses an ARM processor, so it can't run software
designed for X86 processors, such as Windows or MacOS.
Not a good main computer The Raspberry Pi is better suited for lightweight servers or tasks with a
narrow range of requirements.
STM32
STM32 is a family of 32-bit microcontroller integrated circuits (MCUs) made by STMicroelectronics. The
STM32 chips are based on the Arm Cortex-M processor core and are available in several series, including
Cortex-M0, Cortex-M0+, Cortex-M3, Cortex-M4, Cortex-M7, and Cortex-M33.
The STM32 high-performance products and their ecosystem are accelerating innovation for MCU
developers. By bringing more performance, more memory and more peripheral resources, ST gives
developers more design freedom to take on the challenges of more complex applications.
STM32 disadvantages
Family compatibility issues. ...
Lack of good firmware libraries. ...
Complexity of minimal usage.
REFERENCES
Akay, A., Kuris, U., & Senan,
S. (2021). Unmanned air vehicles and autopilots. Journal of Aviation Research,
3(2), 128-149. https://doi.org/10.51785/jar.894721
Altinors, A., & Kuzu, F. (2021). Dynamic analysis of a quadcopter using PID, adaptive and LQR control
methods. International Journal of Innovative Engineering Applications, 5(2), 65-74.
https://doi.org/10.46460/ijiea.929552
Aziz, D. A., Algburi, S. S., Alani, S., & Mahmood, S. N. (2020, June 28-30). Design and implementation of
GPS-based quadcopter control system. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Multi-Disciplinary
Conference
Theme: Sustainable Development and Smart Planning (IMDC-SDSP 2020), (pp. 1-14), Cyperspace.
