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CAD and Computer Graphics

Product design and life cycle - Role of CAD in Engineering design - Product Design and Lifecycle in
CAD tools - Input and Output devices - CAD system architecture -
Mechanical applications and benefits of CAD. Graphics Displays: Mechanical Engineering
Refresh display, DVST, Raster display, pixel value and lookup table,
estimation of graphical memory, LCD, LED fundamentals - Co-
ordinate systems - 2D and 3D transformations - Transformation of
Geometric Models - Translation, scaling, reflection, rotation,
Windowing, view port clipping, view port transformation.

Phase 1: Concept Generation and Feasibility

Product Design Lifecycle and CAD's Central Role
The product lifecycle begins with identifying a
Design & Modeling a market need or an opportunity for innovation.
Concept & Ideation Detailed 2D and 3D geometric modeling, innovation. This phase involves extensive
assembly design, and material selection using
brainstorming, market research, and defining initial
Initial brainstorming, sketching, and feasibility
using CAD tools.
defining initial product specifications. Engineers
studies. CAD facilitates rapid prototyping and Engineers then assess the technical and economic
visualization.
Analysis & Simulation economic feasibility of various concepts,
considering material availability, manufacturing
Performance evaluation, stress analysis, and manufacturing processes, and potential regulatory
and optimization using CAD-integrated regulatory hurdles.
simulation tools (CAE).
Service & End-of-Life
Manufacturing & Production
Early-stage analysis helps filter out unviable ideas,
Maintenance, repair, and eventual recycling or
ensuring resources are allocated efficiently. This
disposal, often documented and managed
Generating manufacturing instructions (CAM), foundational step is crucial for setting the right
through CAD data.
(CAM), tool path generation, and quality control. direction for the entire project.
control.

The product design lifecycle encompasses a series of stages from conceptualization to end-of-life. CAD acts as an indispensable thread woven throughout this entire
throughout this entire process, enabling efficiency, accuracy, and innovation at each step.

Phase 2: Detailed Design and Phase 3: Manufacturing and Assembly 1

Prototyping
Key Considerations
CAD Modeling • Process Selection: Choosing the most cost-
effective and efficient manufacturing
Translating conceptual designs into precise 3D models techniques.
models using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software. This
software. This enables virtual testing and visualization. • Supply Chain Management: Ensuring timely
visualization.
FEA S im ulatio n timely procurement of raw materials and
components.
Applying Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to predict how
designs will react to real-world forces, heat, and • Quality Assurance: Implementing rigorous
vibration, optimizing performance. testing and inspection protocols.
Prototype Creation
• Automation: Leveraging robotics and
Building physical prototypes, often using additive automated systems for increased precision and
manufacturing (3D printing) or CNC machining, for precision and speed.
hands-on evaluation and iterative refinement. This phase transforms the refined design into a tangible
Design Reviews product. It involves selecting appropriate manufacturing
methods, such as machining, casting, or injection
Regular reviews with multidisciplinary teams to molding, and establishing efficient assembly lines.
to ensure design meets all requirements and to Quality control is paramount to ensure each component
to identify potential issues early. meets specified tolerances and performance standards.
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Phase 4: Testing and Validation

Phase 5: Product Launch and Market Introduction
Before market release, products undergo extensive testing to Marketing Strategy Distribution Channels
testing to validate their performance, durability, and safety Developing compelling campaigns to Establishing effective channels for product
safety under various conditions. This includes functional introduce the product to the target audience delivery, including logistics, warehousing, and
functional testing, environmental testing (temperature, and highlight its unique selling propositions. retail partnerships.
(temperature, humidity), stress testing, and compliance
compliance testing against industry standards. Any Sales Support Market Monitoring
discovered defects or areas for improvement lead to further Training sales teams and developing resources Continuously tracking sales performance,
further design iterations. resources to effectively present the product performance, market reception, and
product and address customer inquiries. competitor activities to inform future
strategies.
The launch phase is critical for capturing market share and building brand recognition. It involves strategic
involves strategic marketing, establishing robust distribution networks, and providing comprehensive
comprehensive customer support.

Phase 6: In-Service Life and Maintenance Phase 7: End-of-Life and Disposal

Once launched, products enter their operational Decommissioning
operational life, requiring ongoing maintenance, Safely disassembling products at the end of their useful
maintenance, service, and potential upgrades.
upgrades. Mechanical engineers play a vital role in their useful life, ensuring all components are handled
role in providing technical support, addressing field handled responsibly.
addressing field issues, and designing spare parts. Recycling and Reuse
parts. Predictive maintenance strategies, Maximizing the recovery of valuable materials through
leveraging IoT sensors, are increasingly employed recycling programs and exploring opportunities for
employed to anticipate failures and minimize
minimize downtime. component reuse.
Customer feedback during this phase is invaluable Waste Management
for identifying areas for improvement in future Disposing of non-recyclable materials in an
product generations.
environmentally sound manner, adhering to all
regulations.
The final phase addresses the responsible disposal or recycling of the
product. Design for Disassembly (DfD) principles, implemented during
the early design stages, facilitate easier material recovery and
minimize environmental impact. This closes the loop, promoting a
more circular economy.

Understanding the Foundations of CAD 2

At its core, CAD involves using computer systems

to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, and
optimization of a design. It moves beyond
traditional drafting boards by enabling engineers
Role of CAD in Engineering Design to visualize and manipulate designs in a digital
environment. This fundamental shift allows for
greater precision and flexibility in the initial stages
of product development.

Key components include geometric modeling (2D

modeling (2D and 3D), design analysis, and
documentation. These elements empower
designers to translate abstract concepts into
tangible digital prototypes, facilitating a more
more iterative and efficient design process.
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The Evolution of CAD Technology Core Features and Capabilities of Modern CAD
1 Early Innovations (1960s-1970s)
Pioneering systems like Sketchpad laid the groundwork, Parametric Modeling
groundwork, focusing on 2D drafting and basic geometric
geometric manipulation. These early systems were Enables design changes by modifying parameters, ensuring design
primarily used in aerospace and automotive industries for design intent is maintained across complex assemblies. This allows for
industries for efficiency gains in drawing production. allows for rapid iteration and adaptation.
2 production.
Rise of 3D Modeling (1980s-1990s) Assembly Design
The introduction of solid modeling and surface modeling Facilitates the creation and management of complex product
capabilities transformed CAD from a drafting tool to a structures with multiple components, ensuring proper fit and function.
comprehensive design platform. This period saw increased
adoption in manufacturing and consumer product design.
Drafting & Documentation
3 Integration & Specialization (2000s-Present) Automates the generation of technical drawings, ensuring compliance
Modern CAD integrates with CAM, CAE, and PLM, offering compliance with industry standards and reducing manual errors.
offering advanced features like parametric modeling, errors.
modeling, generative design, and cloud-based Simulation & Analysis
collaboration. Specialization caters to diverse industries,
industries, from architecture to biomedical engineering. Integrates with CAE tools for stress analysis, fluid dynamics, and
engineering. and motion simulation, predicting performance before physical
physical prototyping.

Impact of CAD on Design Efficiency Enhancing Innovation through CAD

CAD empowers engineers to explore a wider range of design
design possibilities than ever before. With advanced features
CAD significantly boosts efficiency by streamlining the design features like generative design, CAD software can
workflow. It enables engineers to create designs faster, make automatically generate optimized designs based on specified
modifications with ease, and detect errors early in the specified parameters, often leading to novel and
process. The ability to reuse design components and unconventional solutions that might not be conceived
collaborate seamlessly on projects reduces development conceived manually.
time and costs.
Its visualization capabilities allow for better understanding
and communication of complex ideas, fostering a more
Furthermore, CAD's precision minimizes the need for creative and collaborative design environment. This iterative
physical prototypes, leading to substantial savings in material exploration fuels innovation, pushing the boundaries of
material and labor. This agile approach accelerates time-to- what's possible in product design and engineering.
time-to-market for new products, providing a competitive
competitive edge in rapidly evolving industries.

CAD's Role in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC)

3
Building Information Modeling (BIM)
CAD forms the foundation of BIM, creating
intelligent 3D models that contain rich data about
about building components, enabling better
collaboration and lifecycle management.
Structural Design and Analysis
Engineers use CAD to design and analyze structural
CAD in Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing structural elements like beams, columns, and
foundations, ensuring safety and compliance with
with building codes.
Product Design and Tooling and Fixture Design CAM Integration
Development Designing specialized tools, Seamless integration with Facility Layout and Planning
From consumer electronics molds, and fixtures for Computer-Aided CAD assists in optimizing space utilization and
electronics to heavy manufacturing processes is Manufacturing (CAM) and workflow for factories, offices, and other
machinery, CAD is integral greatly optimized, reducing enables direct generation of facilities, leading to more efficient operations.
operations.
integral for designing production errors and machine code from CAD
components, assemblies, increasing efficiency. models, automating
assemblies, and entire production and reducing
products, ensuring manual programming.
dimensional accuracy and
and manufacturability.
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Emerging Trends and Future of CAD

Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning CAD tools - Input and Output
AI will enhance generative design, optimize
workflows, and automate routine tasks, making devices
making CAD systems even more intelligent and
and intuitive. This presentation provides an in-depth exploration of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) tools,
Cloud-Based CAD (CAD) tools, focusing on the essential input and output devices that facilitate their powerful
powerful functionalities. We will delve into how these technologies transform into tangible
Increased adoption of cloud platforms will facilitate tangible designs, forming the backbone of modern engineering and manufacturing.
facilitate collaborative design, remote access, and manufacturing.
access, and scalable computing power,
democratizing advanced CAD capabilities.
Virtual & Augmented Reality
Immersive visualization experiences will allow
engineers to interact with designs in new ways,
improving design review and stakeholder
communication.

Navigating the CAD Landscape

Our journey through CAD tools begins with an
overview of their significance in various industries.
We will then systematically examine the diverse
array of input devices that enable users to create
and manipulate designs. Following this, we will
explore the critical output devices that bring
digital models to life. The Power of CAD: Transforming Design
• Introduction to CAD Tools Computer-Aided Design (CAD) revolutionized how products are conceived, designed, and manufactured.
By providing digital platforms for drawing, modeling, and analyzing designs, CAD tools enhance precision,
• Understanding Input Devices reduce errors, and accelerate the product development lifecycle. They are indispensable in fields ranging
• Exploring Output Devices from automotive and aerospace to architecture and consumer goods.
• The Synergy of Input and Output
• Future Trends in CAD Technology Enhanced Precision Accelerated Workflow Cost Efficiency
CAD allows for intricate Digital tools streamline design Reducing the need for physical
• Conclusion and Q&A designs with unparalleled iterations and modifications, prototypes and rework leads
accuracy, minimizing significantly cutting down to substantial cost savings.
manufacturing discrepancies. development time.

Essential Input Devices: The Designer's Hand Advanced Input: Immersive Design
4
Input devices are the primary interface through which designers interact with
CAD software, translating their ideas into digital form. These tools range from Beyond traditional devices, advanced input technologies are pushing the boundaries of CAD, offering more
standard peripherals to specialized hardware designed for intricate 3D immersive and intuitive ways to interact with digital models. These innovations promise to redefine the
modeling. design process.

Mouse and Keyboard

Standard input for navigating interfaces, entering commands, and precise 2D positioning.
Gesture Control Systems: Allow designers to
manipulate models using hand movements,
providing a more natural and expressive interface.
interface. Utilizing cameras and sensors, these
Digitizing Tablets these systems translate physical gestures into digital
Offer natural drawing and sketching capabilities, ideal for freehand design and artistic rendering. digital commands, enabling hands-free navigation
navigation and interaction with 3D environments.
environments.
3D Mouse/SpaceMouse
Provides intuitive control over 3D models, allowing for simultaneous panning, zooming, and rotation.
Eye-Tracking Devices: Enhance efficiency by
allowing designers to select and manipulate
elements simply by looking at them. This technology
3D Scanners reduces reliance on mouse clicks, speeding up
workflows and reducing strain.
Capture physical objects' geometries, converting them into digital models for reverse engineering or replication.
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Advanced Output: Manufacturing the

Crucial Output Devices: Bringing Designs to Life Future
Output devices are essential for visualizing and manifesting CAD designs. From high-resolution displays to The evolution of CAD output extends to sophisticated
manufacturing processes, directly transforming digital
advanced manufacturing equipment, these devices bridge the gap between the digital blueprint and the designs into finished products. These advanced output
physical product. devices are at the forefront of Industry 4.0.

CNC Machines
Computer Numerical Control machines precisely
cut, shape, and machine materials according to CAD
designs.
Laser Engravers/Cutters
Utilize laser technology for high-precision cutting,
engraving, and marking of various materials.
High-Resolution Monitors Plotters and Printers 3D Printers
Provide crisp, detailed Produce accurate hard copies of Fabricate physical prototypes Robotic Manufacturing
visualization of complex 2D and designs, schematics, and directly from digital models, Automated robotic arms perform complex assembly
3D models, crucial for precision technical drawings for review and enabling rapid prototyping and and fabrication tasks guided by CAD instructions,
work. documentation. design validation. increasing efficiency and consistency.

The Core Components of CAD Systems

At its heart, a CAD system comprises several key
components that work in concert to facilitate design
processes. These include the graphical user interface
CAD System Architecture (GUI), the modeling kernel, databases for storing design
data, and various application programming interfaces
(APIs) for extensibility.

This presentation provides an in-depth look into the

fundamental components and organizational structures that Understanding these foundational elements is crucial
define modern Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems. We crucial for appreciating the system's capabilities and
will explore the various layers, modules, and interfaces that and limitations in practical applications.
enable engineers and designers to create, analyze, and
optimize digital models.

The Modeling Kernel: Geometric Foundations 5

User Interface and Interaction Layers
The modeling kernel is the mathematical core of a
Intuitive GUI core of a CAD system, responsible for creating and
creating and manipulating geometric entities. It
The Graphical User Interface provides the visual means for users to entities. It underpins all design operations, from
interact with the CAD software, including menus, toolbars, and from drawing basic primitives to constructing
viewports. Its design emphasizes ease of use and efficient workflow. constructing complex solid models.

Common kernel types include B-Rep (Boundary

Input Methods (Boundary Representation) for solids and NURBS
Beyond traditional mouse and keyboard, advanced CAD systems NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) for
support specialized input devices like 3D mice, digitizers, and even for surfaces, each with distinct advantages for
haptic feedback devices for more immersive interaction. for specific design tasks.

Visualization Engine
Responsible for rendering 2D and 3D models on screen, this engine
employs various techniques like wireframe, shaded, and real-time
rendering to provide clear visual feedback to the designer.
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Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)

(APIs) and Customization
Database Management and Data Structures APIs play a crucial role in the extensibility and interoperability of CAD
systems, allowing developers to create custom applications, plugins, and
Effective data management is vital for CAD systems to store, retrieve, and manage vast amounts of design automation scripts. This capability is essential for tailoring the software to
amounts of design information. This includes not only geometric data but also material properties, specific industry needs or integrating it with other enterprise systems.
properties, assembly constraints, and metadata.
Custom Features
Geometric Database Stores the mathematical definitions of points, lines, curves, surfaces, and solids.
APIs enable the development of unique tools and functionalities
Non-Geometric Database Manages attributes like material type, color, layer information, and manufacturing tolerances. not native to the core CAD system.

Assembly Structure Defines relationships between components in an assembly, including part instances Design Automation
instances and mating conditions.
Repetitive tasks can be automated through scripting, significantly
Version Control Tracks changes to designs, allowing for reversion to previous states and collaborative speeding up design processes and reducing errors.
development.
System Integration
CAD data can be seamlessly exchanged with other software, such
as CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) or PDM (Product Data
Management) systems.

Interoperability and Data Exchange Formats

CAD systems must be able to exchange design data with other software applications and between different CAD platforms. This necessitates the use of standardized data exchange formats,
data exchange formats, which ensure that geometric and non-geometric information is accurately transferred.

Networking and Cloud Integration The ability to import and export various file types is a critical aspect of CAD system architecture, facilitating a seamless workflow across diverse engineering disciplines and software environments.

Modern CAD architecture increasingly incorporates networking capabilities and cloud integration to
support collaborative design workflows and remote access. This shift facilitates real-time data sharing
and distributed teams, revolutionizing how design projects are managed.

Cloud-based CAD solutions offer advantages such as reduced hardware costs, automatic software
software updates, and enhanced data security, though they also introduce considerations regarding
regarding internet dependency and data privacy.

Mechanical applications and

benefits of CAD
Core Mechanical Applications of CAD
Product Design and Fixture and Tooling Design Reverse Engineering
Development It plays a crucial role in
CAD is fundamental for CAD facilitates the recreation of
creating specialized tools, jigs, digital models from existing
designing new products, from jigs, and fixtures essential for
intricate engine components to physical parts, often used for
for manufacturing processes, replicating or improving legacy
consumer electronics, allowing processes, ensuring precision
for detailed specification and components.
precision and efficiency.
visualization.
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Enhanced Precision and Accuracy

One of the most significant benefits of CAD in
mechanical applications is the unparalleled
precision and accuracy it provides. CAD software
allows engineers to define dimensions and
tolerances with extreme exactitude, often down to
micrometers. Accelerated Design Iteration
This digital precision translates directly into fewer
fewer errors, reduced material waste, and higher
higher quality finished products. The ability to
to zoom, rotate, and section models ensures that Concept Generation Modification and Refinement
that every detail is meticulously accounted for, Rapid sketching and 3D modeling of initial ideas. Quick adjustments and updates to design elements.
for, preventing costly design flaws before
manufacturing begins.

Validation and Analysis Manufacturing Preparation

Integrated simulation tools for performance testing. Direct generation of production-ready files.

Cost Reduction and Efficiency Gains

Facilitating Collaboration and Communication
In complex mechanical projects, seamless collaboration
among team members, stakeholders, and even external
partners is critical. CAD systems enhance this by
providing a common digital platform where design files
can be shared, reviewed, and updated in real-time.

Features like version control, markup tools, and

integrated commenting allow for clear communication
communication and synchronized progress, regardless
regardless of geographical location. This fosters a more
a more efficient and error-free design ecosystem.
ecosystem.
Prototyping Material Waste Time-to-Market Design Errors

CAD significantly reduces operational costs by minimizing the need for expensive physical prototypes and
diminishing material waste through optimized designs. The integrated analysis tools catch potential errors
early, preventing costly rework during production. This efficiency translates to faster development cycles and
quicker time-to-market.

Integration with Manufacturing Processes (CAD/CAM) 7

CAM Programming Future Outlook and Advancements

Generating toolpaths and machine instructions.
in CAD
The landscape of CAD is continuously evolving, promising
CAD Design
promising even more revolutionary applications. Future
Creating and refining the digital model. Future advancements include greater integration with
with artificial intelligence for generative design, where AI
Automated Manufacturing where AI algorithms create optimal designs based on
Execution of design using CNC machines or 3D on specified parameters.
printers.
Additionally, the rise of virtual and augmented reality
(VR/AR) is set to transform how engineers interact with CAD
models, offering immersive design reviews and remote
The synergy between CAD and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is a pivotal benefit. CAD models collaboration capabilities. These innovations will further
can be directly imported into CAM software, which then generates precise instructions for automated
manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines and 3D printers. This direct link minimizes manual enhance efficiency, creativity, and precision in mechanical
transcription errors and streamlines the entire design-to-production workflow. engineering.
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Refresh Display Systems

Refresh display systems, exemplified by early Cathode
Graphics Displays: Refresh display, DVST, Ray Tube (CRT) monitors, operate by continuously
redrawing images on the screen. An electron beam
scans across the screen, illuminating phosphors that
Raster display, pixel value and lookup glow temporarily. To maintain a stable image and
prevent flicker, the entire display must be "refreshed"
multiple times per second.
table, estimation of graphical memory,
The refresh rate, measured in Hertz (Hz), indicates how
indicates how many times the image is redrawn per
LCD, LED fundamentals per second. Higher refresh rates result in smoother
smoother motion and reduced eye strain. These
systems rely on persistence of vision, where the human
human eye retains an image for a brief period after its
after its display, creating the illusion of continuous
continuous motion.

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) Raster Display Principles

Raster displays represent images as a grid of discrete
Vector Graphics discrete picture elements, or pixels. This approach
DVSTs are characterized by their ability to store vector information directly on approach contrasts with vector displays by defining an
directly on the screen, eliminating the need for constant refreshing. This defining an image through intensity and color values at
This allows for high-resolution line drawings without flicker.
values at each point in the grid.

Image Persistence The electron beam in a CRT raster display scans the
the screen line by line, from left to right and top to
Unlike refresh displays, the image drawn on a DVST persists until explicitly to bottom, similar to how a television operates. Each
explicitly erased. This "storage" capability made them suitable for complex
complex technical drawings and CAD applications. Each pixel's color and intensity are determined by
by signals sent to the electron gun, enabling the display
display of complex, photorealistic images. This method
method became dominant due to its versatility.

Selective Erasing Limitations

A key limitation of DVST was the inability to selectively erase parts of the
image; the entire screen had to be cleared to remove any element, which
hindered dynamic interaction.

8
Pixel Values and Lookup Tables
Pixel Value Representation
Estimation of Graphical Memory
In a raster display, each pixel on the screen is assigned a numerical
value that corresponds to its color and intensity. The depth of this The memory required for a graphics display is primarily determined by its resolution and color depth.
value (e.g., 8-bit, 24-bit) determines the number of distinct colors that color depth. Resolution refers to the number of pixels (width x height), while color depth specifies the
can be displayed simultaneously. specifies the number of bits used to represent the color of each pixel.
Color Lookup Tables (CLUTs)
A Color Lookup Table (CLUT), or palette, maps pixel values to specific
Red, Green, Blue (RGB) color intensities. This allows systems to display
a wide range of colors while using less memory per pixel by simply
referencing an index in the table. For instance, a display with a resolution of 1920x1080 pixels and a 24-bit color depth (true color)
(true color) would require approximately 49.7 MB of memory for a single frame. This calculation is
Dynamic Color Shifting calculation is crucial for designing efficient graphics hardware.
CLUTs also enable dynamic color changes without modifying the
underlying pixel data. By simply altering the entries in the lookup
table, the entire image's color scheme can be adjusted in real-time.
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Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Fundamentals

Fundamentals Light Emitting Diode (LED) Fundamentals

Light Source
LCDs rely on a backlight (historically fluorescent, now often LED) to Semiconductor Structure
produce light, as the liquid crystals themselves do not emit light. LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit light when an electric
Polarizers electric current passes through them. This direct conversion of
of electrical energy into light makes them highly efficient.
Two polarizing filters are used, one at the front and one at the
back, to control the direction of light waves passing through the Color Emission
display.
The specific semiconductor material determines the color of light
Liquid Crystal Layer light emitted. By combining red, green, and blue LEDs, a full spectrum
The liquid crystals twist or untwist in response to an electric spectrum of colors can be produced to form pixels in a display.
current, altering the polarization of light as it passes through. display.
High Brightness & Contrast
Color Filters
LEDs offer excellent brightness, high contrast ratios, and wide viewing
Red, Green, and Blue sub-pixels with color filters combine to wide viewing angles, making them ideal for a range of display
to create a full-color image for each pixel as light passes through display applications from small screens to large digital billboards.
through them. billboards.

LCD vs. LED Displays: A Comparison

Feature LCD LED (Backlight)

Backlight Source Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps (CCFL) or LED array Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) for illumination

Black Levels Can be less uniform; "IPS glow" Improved with local dimming; deeper blacks

Power Consumption Generally higher due to CCFLs Lower due to LED efficiency

Lifespan CCFL backlights degrade over time Longer lifespan of LED backlights