Linguistics for Language Learning and Teaching

A description of the learners

It has been five months since I started teaching a group of seventeen students, all between the ages of sixteen

and eighteen. Their present proficiency in English is B1 on Multilevel, or roughly 4.0–5.0 on IELTS.

According to Thornbury (2006), "training and development involves not just acquisition of new skills and

techniques but also a specialized language to talk about them." So, they have four to five months before they

take an exam. Therefore, we must ensure that we experience the entire process during this time. The

majority of them attend a private language school for an English lesson in the afternoon after spending the

first part of the day studying at school. They have decided to learn English in order to achieve a B2 level

certificate from Multilevel or IELTS, which would allow them to receive the highest possible score for a

foreign language and be excluded from the university entrance exam. The pupils' average level when they

first started attending the lessons was somewhere between A2 and A2+, indicating that they had received

training for a while before I did. They tend to correct their error during the speaking activities, showing that

they have significantly improved since then. It means that "speakers are monitoring their own output"

(Warren, 2013) and this can be seen as a positive sign. In every lesson, we pay special attention to learning

various grammar structures, because Thornbury (2006) explains that grammar is important because it helps

learners not only use new language structures but also understand and talk about language. This is useful for

improving overall communication skills.

 Element 1: Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology
Topic 1: Word stress
Phonology is about how sounds are organized in a language to create meaning (McMahon, 2020). One
important part of phonology is word stress and this can change the meaning of words. The way to put stress
on different syllabus can help us know if a word is a noun or a verb, especially in two-syllable words.
For example:
'PREsent (noun) – a gift
pre'SENT (verb) – to show or introduce
Other words also follow this pattern:
'GRAduate (noun) – someone who finished their studies
grad'UATE (verb) – to complete studies
'ADDress (noun) – a location
ad'DRESS (verb) – to speak to someone
The meaning of a word depends on the context because "lexical ambiguity can be resolved via situational
and syntactic content" (Payne, 2011), that’s why being aware of the rules of using stress on words can help
to improve comprehension and communication skills. To help students understand this, I made an AI-
generated table and listening track, so that students can listen and identify which syllable is stressed. This
helps them to understand how stress changes word meaning.

Topic 2: Compound Nouns

For language exams like IELTS, students need to use a wide range of words, including compound nouns, to
get a high score (British Council, 2020). Compounding means putting two words together to create a new
word. According to Payne (2011), "Compounding is a derivational process that involves combining stems to
form new stems."
Examples of compound nouns:
Pickpocket (pick + pocket)
Scarecrow (scare + crow)
Homework (home + work)
Even though these words have two parts, they work as a single word. Learning how to make compound
nouns helps students to expand their vocabulary and paraphrase better. In my lesson, I try to use a fun
activity where students pick words from a board and try to form compound nouns. The class then checks
their answers using a dictionary. Below, I created another fun activity using Canva, in which students should
find the words in the picture and by putting them together, they create a new compound noun.
Topic 3: Adding the suffix -th to adjectives to form nouns
Morphology is the study of how words are formed. One common way to make new words is by adding the
- th suffix to adjectives to create nouns. This also changes how the words sound, helping students improve
their pronunciation and vocabulary (Zeh, 2017).
Examples:
Strong → Strength
Wide → Width
Deep → Depth
Students can learn new words by breaking them down into smaller bits by comprehending these patterns
(Apel & Henbest, 2016). During my class, I provide students with a list of adjectives and ask them to add
the suffix "-th" to make them nouns while observing how the sounds change. Their vocabulary grows and
their pronunciation also gets better . I made this table to demonstrate how adjectives change when the suffix
-th is added.
 Element 1: Reflection

During this assessment, I have learnt a lot of things about sounds and words are formed, particularly to help
people learn English. Before, I thought these topics were very difficult and only for linguists and are not
applicable for students. But now, I understand they are important to teach pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar. Knowing about these topics helps teachers to explain why words sound a particular way and they
change in different situations. I also learned that teaching students pronunciation and word building is not
easy. It requires different methods and activities. Some students learn better when they see pictures, but
others need to listen words many times. Moreover, I had never used an AI-generated listening track before,
but it was very helpful. The students could hear how the stress in words can change, which makes it more
straightforward for them to pronounce them correctly. I also learned to teach new words in a fun way in a
compound noun exercise. This showed me that learning can be more effective when students are encouraged
to participate Another important thing I learned is that teaching word endings, like -th, helps students to see
connections between words. This makes it helpful for them understanding new words and remember them
(Zeh, 2017). When students learn how words are connected to each other, they can guess the meaning of
new words, even if they have never seen them before. This can be very useful for improving their
vocabulary and reading skills. When I changed my lesson materials, I tried to include more real-life
examples and interactive exercises. I felt that my students paid more attention and learned faster when they
attended in activities instead of listening to the explanations. The listening task and the compound noun
game were more effective than just to talk about the topic. I got inspired about these ideas from readings like
McMahon (2020) and Payne (2011), which explain how sounds and meanings are connected. Things I did
for this assessment have taught me better ways to teach pronunciation and word formation is through
interesting and interactive lessons. If students can see, hear, and use new words in different ways, they will
remember them better and more easily. I hope to use everything I have learned to help my students to
improve their vocabulary, comprehension, and pronunciation. Teaching is not just about giving information,
learning should be fun and meaningful for students.

References
Apel, K., & Henbest, V. S. (2016). Morphological awareness intervention with kindergarteners and first and
second grade students from low SES homes: A small efficacy study. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
49(4), 424-436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414556944
British Council. (2020). IELTS assessment criteria. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org
McMahon, A. (2020). An introduction to English phonology. Oxford University Press.
Payne, T. E. (2011). Understanding English grammar: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge University
Press.
Zeh, J. M. (2017). Phonological awareness and literacy development: The role of phonemic sensitivity in
learning to read. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(5), 1293-1305.
https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0212

Element 2: Grammar and Syntax

Category 1: Nouns and Articles

Determiners of Quantity

For nouns and articles category, I come up with determiners of quantity and I created a comparison chart
with the help of Canva.com, which helps the students understand the differences between countable and
uncountable determiners in an easy-to-understand format. My students can easily realize the differences by
comparing these determiners on the table. As they are preparing for B2-level exams, they are expected to
use accurately, especially in writing. Additionally, I will provide the students a couple of activities where
they have to classify words into countable and uncountable categories and do gap-fill exercises based on the
chart. I got ideas and inspiration from the book by Kennedy (2014). He discusses how determiners like
"few," "a few," "little," and "a little" function in modifying countable and uncountable nouns.

Link:

https://www.canva.com/design/DAGfPaMRKKc/Yeyekqh1zX71U36J61jlow/edit?
utm_content=DAGfPaMRKKc&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton

Category 2: Verbs

Causatives

The reason why I choose this topic is that most of my students have a hard time understanding this topic but
it provide an edge for them if they use it in their speaking exams or their task 1 letters on Multilevel to show
a wide range of grammar structures. I designed a visual (on Canva.com) that shows the step-by-step process
of making causative sentences. To further practice this grammar rule, I organize a role-play based on
services that we ask others to do some work for us. After that, I give them an exercise where they change
sentences into causative ones. To learn more about them, the book by Payne (2011) is useful and he explains
how causative verbs such as "have" and "get" are used to indicate that an action is done by someone else on
behalf of the subject.
Link:
https://www.canva.com/design/DAGfPh7WIlI/FZD5slmwZ9QZldaqu4psaQ/edit?
utm_content=DAGfPh7WIlI&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton

Category 3: Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

For this topic, I created a table using Canva.com, because it has tools to allow me to organize indefinite
pronouns into clear categories and this makes it easier for my learners to differentiate their functions in the
sentences. My B1 learners often confuse indefinite pronouns when they are making negative sentences. So,
here I provided a structured table that can be helpful to use them correctly. To consolidate what they have
learnt, I give them an activity which involves matching indefinite pronouns to the appropriate sentences,
after that, I ask to rewrite the sentences in positive, negative and interrogative forms. Especially, in
speaking, these pronouns come in handy to talk about the things that they are not sure about. Biber, D.,
Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (2021) further provides a corpus-based analysis of how
indefinite pronouns are used in different contexts in both spoken and written English.
Link:
https://www.canva.com/design/DAGfPS7od44/TIMAA9Yib36bRp6wBRPiGg/edit?
utm_content=DAGfPS7od44&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton

Category 4

Inversion in Conditionals

Although this topic is one of the most challenging structures in English grammar, I decided to pick it up as it
helps them to be aware of B2+ or C1 level of grammar. I do not expect them to use these structures in their
speech, because inversion is considered formal and they appear mostly in written form of formal contexts.
Using Canva.com, I made a flow chart where I put the types of inverted conditionals followed by samples
for each one, providing, first, standard forms of conditionals and then their inverted counterparts. After that,
I highlighted in bold the parts which were changed because of the rules of inversion. To make sure that they
have learnt the structures, I write more examples of simple conditional sentences on the board and I ask
them to convert into inverted ones orally. Then, they do correct-the-mistake activity in which they try to find
error in sentences. To do this activity, I divide them into groups, boosting the interaction among the
students. I got inspired by the book by Fontaine (2012), who covers the grammatical inversion of conditional
sentences and its role in formal writing and academic contexts.
Link: https://www.canva.com/design/DAGfQD6zVno/OlQ7FOnNZI4tFJZGVPQDLw/edit?
utm_content=DAGfQD6zVno&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton

Element 2: Reflection
During this course, my understanding of teaching grammar and syntax has changed a lot. At first, I thought
grammar teaching was mostly about learning rules and practicing them through exercises that only appear in
textbooks. However, now I feel that grammar is more than just rules. What matters most is to use language
in real situations. My students, who are preparing for B2-level exams like Multilevel or IELTS, need to learn
grammar in a way that helps them speak and write correctly. Moreover, I have realized that it is important to
choose grammar topics based on my students’ goals to learn them. For example, many of them have hard
time understanding and using causative verbs, but showing them in writing can improve their exam scores.
So, to make it easier, I created a step-by-step visual to make this topic more straightforward. Payne (2011)
says that causative verbs like “have” and “get” show that someone else does an action for the subject. This
helped me to decide to teach this topic in a clear and structured way. Furthermore, I learned that some
difficult grammar topics can be useful to stand out from the crowd. So I included inversion in conditionals
as a grammar topic, although it is hard. Fontaine (2012) says that inversion is mostly used in formal writing.
My students may not use them in speaking, yet knowing them will help them to speak and write using a
variety of grammar structures. That is why I created a flowchart to show how inversion works step-by-step. I
also changed the way I create materials for my students. At first, I focused more on explaining rules, by just
writing the example sentences on the board. But now I use visual charts and tables to compare grammar
topics. Kennedy (2014) says that comparing grammar structures helps students to understand them more
effectively. Therefore, I made comparison tables for determiners of quantity and indefinite pronouns. My
students also have difficulty with negative sentences, so I created activities where they rewrite sentences in
different forms. Biber et al. (2021) explain that practicing different sentence structures can help learners use
grammar more confidently. Finally, the way I teach grammar has changed significantly. I try to balance
grammar explanations with real-life practice. I make sure to use visual materials, role plays, and sentence
transformation exercises to make grammar easier and more engaging for my students. This course has
helped me to realize that grammar is not just about learning rules but about using language in real
communication.

References

Warren, P. (2013). Introducing psycholinguistics. Cambridge University Press.

Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language

Teaching. Macmillan Education.

Kennedy, G. (2014). Structure and Meaning in English: A Guide for Teachers. Routledge.

Payne, T. E. (2011). Understanding English Grammar: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University

Press.

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (2021). Grammar of Spoken and Written

English. John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Fontaine, L. (2012). Analysing English Grammar: A Systemic Functional Introduction. Cambridge

University Press.
 Element 3: Corpus Linguistics

The Examples of Inverted Conditionals taken from COCA

Types of Example Sentences Sources
Conditionals
Type 3 WEB:
Past Unreal I wonder how the results would change http://www.mikeonads.com/200
had I not looked at end-gadget recently. 8/07/13/using-your-browser-url-
history-estimate-gender/
Type 3 WEB:
Past Unreal He might have uttered those ridiculous words http://viewsfromthecouch.com/2
had he not read this post. 012/02/12/you-didnt-thank-me-
for-punching-you-in-the-fac/
Type 3 This wouldn't be a story about a car accident WEB:
Past Unreal had I actually stopped without a collision. http://othersideofthecamel.blogs
pot.com/
Type 3 BLOG:
Past Unreal Had I not known it was based on Greek myth, http://www.patheos.com/blogs/
I would not have guessed. pantheon/2012/08/dar-williams-
in-the-time-of-gods/
Type 1 BLOG:
Present Real Romney must deliver his plans should http://
he be elected caffertyfile.blogs.cnn.com/
2012/10/02/what-can-mitt-
romney-do-to-win-the-first-
debate/
Type 1 BLOG:
Present Real Be willing to pay the consequence of http://chrislombardi.me/
imprisonment 2008/10/22/the-illusion-that-they-
should you be convicted. have-rights/
Type 1 BLOG:
Present Real He is prepared to face arrest should he be found http://chrislombardi.me/2008/10/
guilty. 22/the-illusion-that-they-have-
rights/
Type 2 Billions (IMDB)
Present I'd believe the same thing were I you. (Years: 2016–: 38 episodes)
Unreal Country: USA
Genre: Drama
Type 2 Black Sails (IMDB)
Present Were I you, I might encourage Governor Rogers (Years: 2014–2017: 38 episodes)
Unreal not just to send the gold. Country: USA
Genre: Adventure, Drama
Type 2 All the same, were I you I would be concerned. FIC: English Patient, The
Present
Unreal

Corpus Source: The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), https://www.english-

corpora.org/coca/
Grammar should not only be about rules but also about how people really use English. According to
Fontaine (2012), students should learn grammar in a way that helps them communicate better. Inverted
conditionals are useful because they sound more formal and professional and they appear in academic
writing, exams (like IELTS), in which they help students express ideas in different ways. By learning
inversion, students improve their writing and speaking skills and they understand more complex English
texts. I used examples from COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) because it has real English
from books, news, academic papers, and conversations and etc. To find examples, I logged in the website
and I inserted phrases mostly used in inverted conditionals. Learning grammar from these real examples
helps students see how people actually use language. Instead of learning only from textbooks, students can
study sentences from real newspapers, speeches, and books. For example, I took a sentence from COCA:
"Had she known about the delay, she would have taken an earlier flight." This example shows how
inversion can be used in real life. By analysing the examples like this, students can look at the real sentences
that contain grammar rules that they have learnt. As a result, they can incorporate this into their academic
writings and speeches.
In order to teach this structure to my students, firstly, I ask students how they usually talk about imaginary
situations. For example, I write If I won the lottery, I would… on the board and ask them to make their own
sentences. Then, I show regular conditionals and inverted conditionals in visuals that I made in the previous
formative assessment and ask students what changes happening. After having a brief discussion, I give
students COCA examples and tell them to find the inversion. To further consolidate, I provide exercises that
require changing regular conditionals into inverted ones or make up sentences using inversion. For speaking
part, students should create short conversations using inverted conditionals. These exercises help students
learn how to use inversion correctly and with the help of real-life examples from COCA, students learn how
native speakers actually use this structure. This makes their English sound more natural and academic.

Element 3: Reflection

While I was doing this work, I have learned more about how corpus-based tools can be beneficial for
students to understand grammar better. At first, I used textbook examples to teach grammar. However, I
thought that real-world examples from a corpus can make a big difference in learning grammar or
vocabulary. Corpus-based tools like the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) help students
to know how grammar is used in real life. After a lot of thoughts, I decided to provide examples for
inversion in conditional sentences. This structure appears in formal writing and exams like IELTS and
Multilevel. Fontaine (2012) says that students should not only learn grammar rules but also see how people
use grammar in real situations. I used COCA to find real examples. One example from COCA is: "Had she
known about the delay, she would have taken an earlier flight." When students see sentences like this, they
understand how inversion works in real writing. Moreover, teachers can use corpus tools in two ways. They
can show examples from the corpus, or they can let students search the corpus themselves. My students are
at B1 level, so I decided to use the corpus myself and then give them examples. As COCA is not easy to use,
many students might find it confusing. For this reason, I picked sentences from the corpus and made
examples with them. In the future, when my students reach a higher level, I might teach them how to use a
corpus by themselves. At first, I used textbook examples and grammar charts. After I started using corpus
data, I felt that students might learn better with real examples. Now when students see grammar in real
sentences, they understand it better. Warren (2013) also says that students improve when they check their
own mistakes. Because after I used corpus examples and pointed out their mistakes in forming sentences,
my students started using inversion in their writing and speaking. These kinds of corpus-based tools are of
great help for students to learn grammar naturally. Nowadays, I find examples from the corpus and give
them to my students. In the future, I might show them how to search for examples on their own. Real
sentences from a corpus make learning grammar easier and more useful for exams and real communication.

References

Warren, P. (2013). Introducing psycholinguistics. Cambridge University Press.

Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language

Teaching. Macmillan Education.

Fontaine, L. (2012). Analysing English Grammar: A Systemic Functional Introduction. Cambridge

University Press.