BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
COLLAGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Industrial chemistry
Production technology (II) Group
Assignment
Group two
Name ID
1. Lake Mequanent........................................................................................................................1506788
2. H/Mariam Debass....................................................................................................................1506383
3. Addisie Tigabu...........................................................................................................................1504899
4. Alehagn Baymot...................................................................................... ...................................1504997
5. Getahun Tsegaw................................................ ................... .......... .......... ...........................1506249
6. Bilal Muhammed.............................................. ..................... .......... ........... ........................150
7. Dawit Alemay.................................................... .................... ......... ........... ..........................150
8. Melese Tibebu..................................................................................................... .........................150
9. Emukulsum Muhammed............................ .............. ..... ....... ..................... ...............................150
10. Frehiwet Mogninet............................................. ... ................ ...... .... .... ....... ..... .......... .......150
Summitted to:
Summition date:
Content :
ELIMINATION (Refining) OF UNDESIRABLE COMPOUNDS FROM EDIBLES OILS
Introduction abuat soap and detergent
Comparasion of soap detergent
Raw material of soap production
ELIMINATION (Refining) OF UNDESIRABLE COMPOUNDS FROM EDIBLES OILS
Edibles Oils Refining
Crude vegetable oils are produced during the process of oilseeds trituration. The purpose of
refining is therefore to maintain or improve the organoleptic characteristics (neutral taste and
odor, limpidity, light yellow color), nutritional characteristics and the stability of oils. For this
purpose, refining uses several steps to eliminate unwanted compounds (gums, waxes, free fatty
acids, pigments, metal traces, volatile odor compounds) and contaminants potentially present in
the raw materials, while controlling the formation of new undesirable compounds.
Refining has become increasingly critical for the removal of volatile and non-volatile compounds
and contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, aflatoxins, or pesticides
residues.
Types of Edible Oils Refining
There are two oils refining types like chemical refining and physical refining (also called
neutralizing distillation.
Physical Refining Chemical Refining
✔️FFAs and Other impurities like pigments, ✔️removes free fatty acids by a neutralization
phospholipids, and off-flavors are removed step with sodium hydroxide.
by using steam distillation under high
✔️The reaction of FFAs with alkali forms soap,
vacuum.
which is then separated by centrifugation or
✔️No chemical reactions are involved in the washing.
deacidification process, making it a
✔️Bleaching, using activated clay to remove
physically driven process. color and other impurities, and deodorization,
using steam distillation to remove off-flavors,
✔️Benefits: Reduced oil loss, minimized
are also involved.
pollution, and potential recovery of high-
quality FFAs. ✔️Suitable for: All types of crude oils,
including those with high phospholipid
✔️Suitable for: Crude oils with high FFA
content.
content and low phospholipid content.
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☑️Physical refining of edible oil is during the process of distillation to remove the free fatty acids,
which is one stage of deodorization. Using edible oil physical refining method, it is necessary that
the crude edible oil should be thoroughly degummed to come up with effective results.
☑️physical refining of edible oil is preferred in that it is a more economical process requiring less
chemicals, producing less waste and giving higher oil yields.
☑️Chemical refining of edible oil removes the phosphatides (gums) in two steps--degumming and
deacidification, or in one single process—neutralization. The chemical method is more suitable
for oils with high phospholipid levels, like cottonseed oil which contains gossypol that can only be
conveniently removed by alkali treatment.
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1. Chemical Refining
Degumming
The first step of chemical refining is degumming. Its main purpose is to remove seed particles
and impurities, together with partial removal of phosphatides, carbohydrates, proteins and traces
of metals.
The crude oil is treated with food grade processing aids (acids) and/or water, which leads to
hydration of the main part of the phosphatides, proteins, carbohydrates and traces of metals. The
concentration of the processing aids depends on the quality of the crude vegetable oil. The
hydrated gums are removed by centrifugal force from the oil.
Neutralisation
Alkali neutralisation reduces the following components among other: free fatty acids, oxidation
products of free fatty acids, residual proteins, phosphatides, carbohydrates, traces of metals and
some of the pigments.
The treatment consists in the reaction with an alkali-solution. By this treatment, a second phase is
formed (soap stock), in which the undesired substances are dissolved. This phase is separated and
removed by centrifugal force, followed by washing or filtration treatment to eliminate residual
phosphatides, soap and precursor molecules as well. This process is mainly used for seed oils and
is not common for tropical oils.
Bleaching
The purpose of bleaching is to reduce the levels of pigments such as carotenoids and chlorophyll,
but also residues of phosphatides, soaps, traces of metals and oxidation products. These trace
components can have a negative effect on the course of further processing and on the quality of
the final product. These substances are removed by adsorption with activated clay and silica
under vacuum and at temperatures of around 100°C. Fresh bleaching earth and filter aids are
processing aids used during the refining process of vegetable oils/fats. If polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons ((PAH) are present up to a certain level, activated carbon is used for their removal.
The bleaching clay containing all these substances is separated by filtration. If activated carbon
was used, it is disposed of in a suitable way outside the food and feed sector.
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Deodorization
The purpose of deodorization is to reduce the level of free fatty acids and to remove odours, off-
flavours and other volatile components such as pesticides or light polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons by use of a stripping media. Careful execution of this process will also improve the
stability and the colour of the oil, whilst preserving the nutritional value and retaining, or only
minimally changing, the original triglyceride composition.
The deodorization process is carried out under vacuum (<5 mbar), at temperatures preferably
between 180° - 230°C and using a stripping media. It is recommended to use a deeper vacuum to
facilitate evaporation of volatile compounds.
Specific conditions (temperature, duration, combination of both) should be adapted within these
ranges as appropriate depending on the type of vegetable oil/fat and the type of facilities so as to
ensure the removal of the specific substances.
To remove volatile contaminants, a minimum of 225-230°C is proposed. On the other hand to
reduce the formation of heat induced contaminants such as glycidyl esters or trans fatty acids, not
more than 235-240 °C should be applied. For example, it is suggested to conduct deodorization at
190-230°C for vegetable oils to decrease formation of GE.
2. Physical Refining
There is a distinction between chemical and physical refining in the way that fatty acids are
removed: in physical refining, fatty acids are removed by distillation whereas in chemical
refining, chemicals are used which bind to the free fatty acids to facilitate their separation and
removal from the oil.
Degumming
In physical refining degumming aims at removing phosphatides, solid impurities and traces of
heavy metals. The degumming has an increased importance in case of physical refining as
phosphatides should be removed to the required level prior to bleaching.
Seed oils are typically degummed in two stages using centrifugal separation. For fruit oils, which
typically contain no more than 20 mg/kg phosphatides, dry degumming or no degumming is
applied. Dry degumming
includes mixing acid into the oil and combining this with a bleaching step without washing.
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Bleaching
The same process as described under chemical refining applies. The same recommendations are
valid:
When selecting bleaching earth, care should be taken to avoid bleaching clays that contain
significant amounts of chlorine-containing compounds/activated by hydrochloric acid.
Deodorization
The purpose of deodorization is to reduce the level of free fatty acids and to remove odours, off-
flavours and other volatile components such as pesticides and light polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons by use of a stripping media. Careful execution of this process will also improve the
stability and the colour of the oil, whilst preserving the nutritional value.
Deodorization in case of physical refining consists in two steps: stripping and deodorization.
Stripping allows to remove free fatty acids and volatile contaminants at higher temperature (240-
260°C, below 2 mbar) for shorter time. The deodorization step is carried out under vacuum, at
temperatures between 180° - 260°C and using a stripping medium. It is recommended to use a
deeper vacuum to facilitate evaporation of volatile compounds.
Additional step which can be included in the chemical and physical refining: Dewaxing
Some oils like sunflower oil contain waxes, which crystallise at low temperatures and give to the
oil a turbid appearance. Wax treatment is implemented for optical reasons, as waxes do not
impact taste or other quality elements.
To remove waxes, different procedures are applied. They all have in common the low
temperatures at which the waxes crystallise(the process is called “winterisation”). The waxes can
be eliminated either by wet or dry dewaxing processes. In dry dewaxing filter aids are usually
applied. Filter aids can be sub-divided into three categories: perlite (naturally occurring volcanic
glass based on sodium potassium aluminium silicate), diatomite (originated from diatomaceous
earth) and cellulose and other organic media (produced by the sulphite or sulphate processing of
hard woods).
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Introduction abuat soap and detergent
Soap and detergent, are substances that, when dissolved in water, possess the ability to remove
dirt from surfaces such as the human skin, textiles, and other solids. In order to act as surface-
active agents, soaps and detergents must have certain chemical structures: their molecules must
contain a hydrophobic (water-insoluble) part, such as a fatty acid or a rather long chain carbon
group, like fatty alcohols or alkylbenzene. The molecule must also contain a hydrophilic (water
soluble ) groups , such as -COONa or a sulfo group such as -OSO3Na or -SO3Na ( such as in fatty
alcohol sulfate or alkylbenzene sulfonate), or a long ethylene oxide chain in nonionic synthetic
detergents. This hydrophilic part makes the molecule soluble in water. In general, the
hydrophobic part of the molecule attaches itself to the solid or fibre and onto the soil, and the
hydrophilic part attaches itself to the water.
Soaps;
Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids, made from fats and oils, or their
fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali. They are surfactants (compounds
that reduce the surface tension between a liquid and another substance) and therefore help in the
emulsification of oils in water. Soaps are generally prepared via the saponification of fats and oils.
The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is hydrophilic whereas the hydrocarbon tail is
hydrophobic. The fats or oils that are commonly used in soap making are those that are the
glycerol esters of palmitic, stearic and oleic acid. They occur in most fats and oils of vegetable or
animal origin. The alkalis commonly used are sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, NaOH) and
potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, KOH).
detergent
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties in dilute
solutions. Detergents are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acids
( Linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid (LABSA) ).
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Comparasion of soap detergent
➥Soaps are the salt of long chain mono- ➥ Detergents are chemical formations that
carboxylic acid that means Na and K salts consists of a surface active agents and
higher fatty acids. subsidiary, constituents such as fillers,
boosters, builders etc...
➥ Soap making involves the use of oil and fat
which have potential food values. ➥ The surfactant requires for detergents are
made foam the petroleum products.
➥ The cleaning action of soap is reduce in the
hard water. ➥ The cleaning activity of the detergent is not
affected by hardness of water.
➥ It can not be used in acidic solution , due to
the formation of sticky ppt. getting adhered ➥ It is excellent foaming agent.
textile fibers .
➥ it can be used in acid solution and also
➥ It is less active and requires more washing a delicate fibers like wool and silks.
concentration .
➥ It is more active and requires low
➥ It has no germicidal and bactericidal concentration .
properties.
➥It has germicidal and bactericidal properties.
➥ Its recovery is possible , when used in large
➥ Its recovery is very difficult as compared to
amount .
soap when used in large amounts.
➥ It is biodegradable and hence not cause
➥ It is not easily biodegradable and hence
water pollution .
causes water pollution .
Page.....8....
Raw material of soap production
➥ Triglycerides are the basic raw materials for the manufacture of saop production process.
1. Oils / fats : is the most principal raw material in soap production. The main source of slow
lathering hard oils are tallow, palm, whale, fish oils and grease etc.Where as quick lathering
hard oils include coconut oil , unedible olive oil etc.
2. Caustic soda(NaOH): Available in the form of flackes, blocks and sticks as well as 90.32%,
92.9%, and 94.98% respectively. Special type soft soaps and shaving a creams are use caustic
potash( KOH) from 18.5% to 20 %.
3. Additives
A. Common salts : common salts like sodium chloride are used to "salt out" the soap, which
means they reduce the solubility of the soap and cause it to separate from the water, forming
a solid bar or powder.
B. Binders : which improve improves the texture , correct the alkalinity of a solution and
prevent the formation of precipitates in the hatd watet.
Example : Sodium - silicate, soda ash, borax , Na3PO4 and soon.
C. Fillers: primarily to enhance the soap's hardness, durability, and lather, while also
potentially adding benefits like exfoliation and skin hydration. They can be used to modify
the soap's consistency and texture, and in some cases, can contribute to the soap's overall
quality and cost-effectiveness. Example dolomite and calcium carbonate
D. Colouring matter: organic and inorganic pigments are generally used bar and flack soap
products.
Some Example of coloring material color
Methyl violent violent
Bismarck brown brown
Methyl blue blue
Rhodamine or safframine red E.
Perfume : serves to enhance customer appeal by creating a pleasant sensory experience,
differentiating products in the market, and sometimes complementing skin care benefits.
Page...9....
Manufacturing processes of saop production
Soap production involves a process called saponification where fats or oils react with a
strong base, typically sodium hydroxide, to form soap and glycerol. This process can be
done through batch or continuous methods. Following saponification, liquid soap is
produced and undergoes drying, blending with additives, and either extrusion or
pressing into bar soap. Common steps include saponification, glycerin removal, soap
purification, and finishing the bar soap.
1. Raw Material Selection: Bar soap production begins with the selection of raw
materials, including oils, fats, and a base (like sodium hydroxide).
2. Saponification:
Batch Process: In this method, oils or fats are heated to a specific temperature and then
mixed with the alkali solution.
Continuous Process: This method uses a continuous flow of reactants to achieve
saponification.
● The saponification process involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides (fats and oils) under
basic conditions, resulting in the formation of glycerol and the salt of a fatty acid (soap).
3. Glycerin Removal: After saponification, the liquid soap is separated from the glycerol.
4. Soap Purification: The soap is purified to remove impurities and unwanted substances.
5. Finishing Bar Soap:
Blending: The purified soap is blended with various additives, such as fragrances, colors,
and other ingredients to enhance its properties.
Extrusion or Pressing: The blended soap is then extruded or pressed into bars.
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Process flow diagram
Detergents;
A detergent is a surfactant or mixture of surfactants that has cleaning properties in dilute solution
with water. A detergent is similar to soap, but with a general structure R-SO4-, Na+, where R is a
long-chain alkyl group. Like soaps, detergents are amphiphilic, meaning they have both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. Most detergents are akylbenzenefulfonates. Detergents
tend to be more soluble in hard water than soap because the sulfonate of detergent doesn't bind
calcium and other ions in hard water as easily as the carboxylate in soap does. The word
"detergent" comes from the Latin word "detergere," which means "to wipe away".
Types of detergents
Detergents are classified according to their electrical charge:
1. Anionic detergents: these detergents have a net negative electrical charge.
Commercially, they are usually alkylbenezesulfonates; the alkylbenzene is lipophilic and
hydrophobic, so it can interact with fats and oils while the sulfonate is hydrophilic, so it
can wash away soiling in water. Both linear and branched alkyl groups may be used, but
detergents made with linear alkyl groups are more likely to be biodegradable. This
detergent anion includes the traditional soap of fatty acid salts .
Page.....11....
2. Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents have a net positive electrical charge. The
chemical structures of cationic detergents are similar to those of anionic detergents, but
the sulfonate group is replaced by quaternary ammonium. That is, the detergent cation
group includes a variety of long chain quaternary amines and amide salts like
sapamines. Surfactants of this sort are used more in connection with wetting, water
proofing, and emulsion formation or as dispersants for inks.
3. Non-ionic detergents: Non-ionic detergents contain an uncharged hydrophilic group
(they are non-electrolytes; though possess the general polar/non polar character typical
of surfactants). Usually, these compounds are based on a glycoside (sugar alcohol) or
polyoxyethylene. Detergents of this type compare favorably with soap and synthetic
anionic detergents and so find considerable use in household products (window and car
washing preparations). Another attribute is that it exhibits incomplete rinsing which
allows for smooth draining without leaving a powdery residue on drying. It is generally
used for insecticides and automatic washers. The major problem with this grade of
detergent (house hold detergents) is the mountain of foams which grows while in use.
These forms pollute the environment chemically.
4. Ampholytic, or amphoteric, detergents, which are capable of acting either as anionic
or cationic detergents in solution depending on the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of the
solution. The general formulae for two common detergents are:
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Preparation of detergents
1. During the preparation of detergents, a long- chain hydrocarbon obtained from
petroleum fractions is converted into an organic acid through a series of steps.
2. The organic acid is then neutralised with sodium hydroxide solution to produce a
neutral salt which is a detergent.
Preparation of sodium alkyl sulphate:
Step 1: Formation of an organic acid
A long-chain alcohol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid to form alkyl sulphonic
acid.
Preparation of sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate:
Step 1: Formation of an organic acid A long-chain alkene reacts with benzene to form
alkylbenzene.
Page ....13....
The alkylbenzene formed is then reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid to form
alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.
Step 2: Neutralisation
The alkylbenzene sulphonic acid is then converted to a sodium salt by a reaction with
sodium hydroxide.
The additives in detergents
Detergents generally contain a number of additives which are added to enhance its
cleaning efficiency and to meet the needs of consumers. The following few of the these
important additives.
Additive Example Function
Biological Amylases, proteases, To remove protein stains such as blood
enzyme cellulases and lipases
Whitening Sodium perborate To convert stains into colourless substances
agent
Optical Fluorescent dyes To add brightness and whiteness to white
whitener fabrics
Builder Sodium To enhance the cleaning efficiency of a
tripolyphosphate detergent by softening the water
Suspension Carboxymethylcellulose To prevent the dirt particles removed from
agent redepositing onto cleaned fabrics
Filler Sodium sulphate, To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable
sodium silicate it to be poured easily
Foam Silicones To control foaming in a detergent
control
agent
Fragrance ........ To add fragrance to both the detergent and the
fabrics
Mode of action of detergents
In water, a detergent dissolves to form detergent anions and sodium cations. For
example, the following chemical equations show the ionisation of sodium alkyl sulphate
and sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate.
Similarly, the anion part of a detergent also consists of a hydrophobic part and a
hydrophilic part.
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Manufacturing process of detergent
Detergent manufacturing primarily involves preparing a slurry, spray
drying for powder detergents, and granule handling.
Powder detergents are created using spray drying or agglomeration,
while liquid detergents are typically formulated and packaged after
raw material mixing. Key ingredients include surfactants, builders,
and additives like enzymes and optical brighteners.
Detergent Manufacturing Process:
1. Raw Material Selection:
● Detergent production starts with selecting raw materials based on
factors like cost, safety, compatibility, and performance.
2. Slurry Preparation:
● Liquid surfactants are combined with powdered and liquid
ingredients (builders, additives) in a mixer.
● Premixing of minor ingredients may occur before adding them to
the main mixer.
3. Spray Drying (for Powder Detergents):
● The slurry is heated and sprayed into a drying tower, creating
hollow granules.
● The air current in the tower dries the slurry, leaving behind
powder.
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4. Agglomeration (for Powder Detergents):
● Ingredients are blended using machines where they collide and
stick together, forming larger particles.
5. Dry Mixing (for Powder Detergents):
● Simply involves blending dry ingredients together.
6. Liquid Detergent Formulation:
● Ingredients are mixed in a crutcher or similar mixing tank.
● Formulation may include acids, alkalis, and solvents to enhance
cleaning performance.
7. Granule Handling:
● After drying or agglomeration, the granules are cooled, screened,
and packaged.
Key Ingredients:
Surfactants: Wetting agents that help remove dirt and grease.
Builders: Water softeners that enhance surfactant performance.
Additives: Enzymes, optical brighteners, fabric softeners, and other
substances that improve cleaning and product features.
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process flow diagram for production of liquid detergent at first stage
then to powder at second stage.
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