Module 1: Introduction to Muslim India

1. Historical Overview: Early Muslim conquests, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire,

and British colonialism.

The history of Muslim India begins with the early Arab incursions into the Indian
subcontinent in the 7th and 8th centuries1. The first significant contact occurred during
the reign of the Umayyad Caliphate, when Muhammad bin Qasim led an expedition to
Sindh in 712 CE2. This marked the foundation of a Muslim political presence in India,
primarily in the north-western regions3. Subsequent centuries witnessed the arrival of
various Muslim dynasties, including the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and later the Delhi
Sultanate, who consolidated and extended Muslim rule over large parts of India4. These
conquests were not only military campaigns but also conduits for cultural exchange,
influencing Indian art, architecture, administration, and literature5. Persian language
and Islamic institutions became prominent, blending with local traditions to form a rich
Indo-Islamic culture6.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was established after the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan
by Muhammad Ghori7. The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate was the Mamluk Dynasty
(1206-1290), also known as the Slave Dynasty88. It was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a
former slave and general of Muhammad Ghori9999. Later dynasties included the Khilji
Sultanate (1290-1320) and the Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1413/14)10101010. The Lodi Dynasty
(1451-1526) was the last of the Delhi Sultanate and the first to be of Afghan lineage11.
The defeat of its last ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 by Babur
marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India12.

The

Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, who was a descendant of Timur and Genghis
Khan13. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat and declared
himself "Emperor of Hindustan"14. The empire reached its territorial peak under

Aurangzeb, but his reign also sowed the seeds of its decline15151515. After Aurangzeb's
death in 1707, the Mughal Empire weakened, leading to regional fragmentation16161616.
The British gradually took control, and events like the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the
suppression of the 1857 Revolt symbolized the end of Muslim sovereignty in India17171717.

2. Geographical Context: Regions and cities significant to Muslim India.

Several regions and cities were significant to Muslim India18.

Delhi was the political and administrative capital under multiple dynasties of the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire19.

Agra was a prominent Mughal capital, home to major monuments like the Taj Mahal and
Agra Fort20.
Fatehpur Sikri was built by Akbar as a planned capital, known for its palaces, Buland
Darwaza, and Jami Masjid21.

Lahore was an important administrative and cultural center, especially under the
Mughals22.

Multan was noted for its strategic location and Sufi shrines23. Other significant regions
included the

Deccan, which had major Muslim kingdoms like Bijapur and Golconda, and Bengal, a
prosperous region known for trade and its distinct architecture24.

3. Cultural Significance: Muslim contributions to Indian art, literature, architecture,

and philosophy.

Muslims made lasting contributions to Indian culture25. Persian became the official
language of courts and administration262626. The interaction of Turkic, Persian, Arabic,
and Indian languages gave rise to

Urdu, which developed a rich literary tradition with poets like Mirza Ghalib and Amir
Khusrau27. Sufi literature also emerged in regional languages, with themes of love,
devotion, and inner purification28. In art,

Islamic calligraphy was a key visual form, used in manuscripts and architecture29.

Mughal miniature painting flourished, blending Persian, Central Asian, and Indian
painting traditions3030. This fusion of traditions extended to music, where the
introduction of Persian and Arabic traditions blended with Indian classical music to
form

Hindustani Music3131.
Module 2: Social Structure and Institutions

1. Social Hierarchies: Nobility, clergy, artisans, and peasants in Muslim society.

The social structure during the Delhi Sultanate was based largely on ethnicity and
military power32. The ruling elite consisted of Turks, Afghans (Pashtuns), and later the
Mughals (Turco-Mongols)33333333. The nobility was made up of foreign-origin Muslims
(Ashraf) who controlled wealth, land, and state appointments34343434. The clergy, or
ulema, who were often of Ashraf lineage, controlled religious and educational
institutions35.

Below the elite were the

Ajlaf, who were middle-status Muslims, often converts from artisan and occupational
groups36. The lowest social category was the

Arzal, mostly converts from former untouchable castes who performed menial jobs and
faced social exclusion even within the Muslim community37.

2. Family and Kinship: Marriage practices, family structures, and kinship ties
among Muslims.

During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, large and extended families were the
norm, especially among the wealthy383838. Families lived together, shared resources, and
preserved traditions, providing security in times of war39. The family system was

patriarchal, with the male head controlling family decisions40.

Kinship was a key element in political life, as rulers often depended on relatives and
tribal allies for military and administrative posts41. The Mughal emperors used marriage
as a political tool; for example, Akbar married Rajput princesses to form alliances that
strengthened his political control and integrated regional powers42. Marriage practices
were often arranged to enhance social status, and polygamy was common among
rulers and elites for building political alliances43.

3. Caste and Social Mobility: Interaction between Muslim and Hindu social
systems.

Despite the egalitarian ideals of Islam, a caste-like hierarchy persisted within Muslim
society44. The

Ashraf-Ajlaf-Arzal divisions were strictly observed, and endogamy (marrying within

one's group) was common45. Occupational segregation also reinforced status
boundaries46. The

Pasmanda identity, meaning "those left behind," refers to the Ajlaf and Arzal groups
who have historically faced discrimination within the Muslim community47.
For Hindus, the caste system continued to be the main social framework under Muslim
rule48. Conversion to Islam was one avenue for social mobility, allowing some from
lower-caste Hindu backgrounds to improve their status49. Other avenues for mobility
included education in madrasas, patronage from rulers, and military service50.

4. Role of Women: Status, roles, and contributions of Muslim women in Indian

society.

Women in medieval India were the backbone of the family and contributed significantly
to economic development, such as in artisan families51. However, their liberty was often
restricted by the

Purdah system, which was strictly observed52.

Despite these societal restrictions, royal and elite Muslim women held significant power
and influence. The

zenana (women's quarters) in Mughal palaces functioned as a "mini-kingdom"53.

Women like

Nur Jahan (Jahangir's wife) were politically powerful, issuing orders and influencing
appointments54545454.

Razia Sultana was the only woman monarch of the Delhi Sultanate, and she governed
effectively, leading armies and making state reforms55. Women also contributed to arts,
literature, and education56565656.
Module 3: Cultural Contributions

1. Architecture: Mosques, tombs, palaces, and gardens built during Muslim rule.

The Delhi Sultanate period saw the birth of Indo-Islamic architecture, blending Persian
and Central Asian forms like pointed arches, domes, and minarets with indigenous
Indian traditions57. Notable works include the

Qutb Minar, begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, and the Alai Darwaza, built by Alauddin
Khalji, which is noted for its perfect arch and dome58585858. The Sayyid and Lodi dynasties
contributed to the architectural landscape through the construction of tombs and
mosques, such as the octagonal

Tomb of Mubarak Shah59595959.

The

Mughal Empire marked the pinnacle of this architectural style60.

Babur introduced the Persian-style charbagh pleasure garden61.

Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, the first grand Mughal charbagh tomb, set the pattern for
later mausolea62626262.

Akbar reconstructed Agra Fort in red sandstone and established Fatehpur Sikri as a new
capital, fusing Indian motifs with Islamic forms63636363.

Shah Jahan's reign is considered the golden age of Mughal architecture, known for the
use of white marble and intricate pietra dura inlay64. His masterpiece, the

Taj Mahal, is a symmetrical mausoleum considered the "jewel of Muslim art in

India"65656565. Aurangzeb's architecture, such as the

Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, was more austere and less ornamental66666666.

2. Literature: Persian and Urdu poetry, Sufi literature, and historical writings.

Persian was the official language of administration and culture under both the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal Empire676767. It was used to write historical chronicles like

Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari by Abu'l Fazl and the autobiographical Tuzuk-i-

Jahangiri68686868686868686868686868686868.

The interaction of Persian, Arabic, and local Indian languages led to the emergence of

Urdu696969.

Wali Muhammad Wali is considered the "Father of Urdu Poetry" for popularizing the
language in the literary sphere with his work Diwan-e-Wali70707070.
Mirza Ghalib later redefined the ghazal form, transforming it into a medium of
intellectual and existential inquiry with his Diwan-e-Ghalib71.

Sufi literature also flourished, particularly with the rise of the Chishti order. The sayings
and conversations of

Nizamuddin Auliya were compiled in Fawa'id al-Fu'ād, an influential Indo-Persian Sufi

prose work72.

Baba Farid composed spiritual verses in early Punjabi, which were so revered that they
were included in the Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib73.

3. Art and Music: Miniature painting, calligraphy, and musical traditions in Muslim
India.

Mughal miniature painting flourished, especially under the patronage of Akbar74747474.

The style was a synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian painting traditions, with
artists depicting themes like court life, battles, and nature75. Calligraphy was another
key visual art form, used in manuscripts and on monuments due to Islam's emphasis on
sacred words76.

In music, the arrival of Turks introduced Persian and Arabic traditions, which blended
with Indian classical music to form

Hindustani Music7777.

Amir Khusrau, known as the "Parrot of India," is credited with popularizing the
devotional music form of Qawwali and introducing new ragas78787878. The Mughal court,
particularly under Akbar, was a major patron of music, with musicians like

Tansen elevated to elite status and creating new ragas and compositions79797979.

4. Sufism and Mysticism: Sufi orders, shrines, and spiritual practices in India.

Sufism entered India in the 7th century through Arab merchants and gained prominence
during the Delhi Sultanate80808080. Sufi core teachings emphasized the love of God, the
love of humanity, and the focus on inner purity over external rituals81. Sufi orders
adopted native Indian elements such as yogic postures, music, and dance, and their
influence was significant in shaping Hindu-Muslim unity82828282.

Major Sufi orders in India included:

• Chishti Silsila: Founded by Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, this order was

characterized by its saints avoiding politics and using sama (music) for spiritual
closeness83838383.
 • Suhrawardi Silsila: This order, which was introduced to India by Bahauddin
Zakariya, accepted state patronage and believed a Sufi should have property,
knowledge, and hal (mystical enlightenment)84.

• Naqshbandi Silsila: This order, which was characterized by strict observance of

Shariah, rejected bidda' (innovations) and opposed Akbar's liberal policies85.

• Qadri Silsila: This order was popular in Punjab during the Mughal period and its
followers, including Dara Shikoh and Jahanara Begum, were known for
dismissing orthodox rigidity86.

The spiritual practices and teachings of Sufis influenced the

Bhakti movement and promoted peace, harmony, and moral responsibility, with
dargahs (Sufi shrines) becoming common pilgrimage centers87.
Module 4: Interactions and Exchanges

1. Hindu-Muslim Interactions: Cultural exchange, syncretism, and conflict.

Hindu-Muslim interactions were marked by a complex mix of coexistence and conflict88.

While early encounters were often violent, tensions eased over time, and a
sophisticated Indo-Islamic culture emerged89. Muslims and Hindus lived largely
separate social lives but interacted in political and economic spheres90.

Cultural syncretism was evident in architecture, with the blending of Islamic forms and
Hindu features, and in language, with the emergence of Urdu, a new language blending
Persian, Arabic, and local vernaculars91. There was also a significant religious and
philosophical exchange between

Sufi and Bhakti traditions, with a mutual emphasis on devotion and the equality of all
believers92.

Conflicts did occur, often politically motivated, such as temple destructions during
invasions or certain campaigns, which created communal bitterness and mistrust93.

2. Influence of Islam on Indian Culture: Impact on language, art, architecture, and

cuisine.

Muslim influence profoundly impacted Indian culture across various domains.

• Language and Literature: Persian became the court language, but its interaction
with local languages led to the creation of Urdu949494949494949494.

• Architecture: The Indo-Islamic style, a distinct fusion of Islamic elements like

domes and arches with Indian features like chhatris, was a major contribution.
Notable examples include the

Qutb Minar, the Taj Mahal, and the Red Fort959595959595959595.

• Cuisine: Muslim rulers, particularly the Mughals, introduced Persian, Central

Asian, and Middle Eastern culinary traditions that became staples of Indian
cuisine. Dishes like

biryani, kebabs, and korma and cooking techniques using the tandoor became
popularized96969696.

• Art: Mughal miniature painting schools combined Persian techniques with Indian
naturalism and themes, and Islamic decorative arts, with their geometric and
floral motifs, became widely adopted97979797.

3. Impact on Indian Society: Social, economic, and political changes due to Muslim
rule.

Muslim rule brought about major social, economic, and political changes.
 • Social Impact: A new social structure emerged with the Muslim elite, and the
adoption of Persian-influenced clothing, jewelry, and luxury goods became
widespread98. The growth of planned cities also led to significant urban
development99.

• Economic Impact: Trade expanded as Muslim rulers encouraged long-distance

trade, linking India to Central Asia and the Middle East100. New crops and
improved irrigation systems were introduced, and land revenue administration
was reformed101.

• Political Impact: The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire established a strong,
centralized bureaucracy with Persian as the court language102. The

Mansabdari system was introduced to increase administrative and military

efficiency103. The adoption of Central Asian cavalry tactics and advanced weaponry also
transformed military organization104.
Module 5: Muslim India in the Modern Era

1. Colonialism and Its Impact: Effects of British colonialism on Muslim society and
culture.

British colonialism led to a significant decline in the political and economic power of
the Muslim community in India. The replacement of Persian with English as the official
language of administration caused many Muslims to lose their traditional jobs and
educational opportunities105. This created an educational gap, as Muslims were slower
to adopt English education due to religious conservatism106.

The British land revenue systems also disrupted traditional Muslim landholdings, and
many landowners lost their estates107. Traditional crafts and courtly culture suffered
from a lack of patronage and the influx of British manufactured goods108108108108. The
1857 Revolt, which many Muslims participated in, was followed by harsher repression,
symbolizing the end of Muslim sovereignty109.

2. Reform and Revival: 19th and 20th-century reform movements and their impact
on Muslim society.

In response to the decline, Muslims initiated reform and revival movements.

• Aligarh Movement: Led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, this movement advocated for
modern education and cooperation with the British110. He founded the
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) to
promote rationalism and scientific temper among Muslims111.

• Deoband Movement: Founded in 1866, this movement focused on preserving

traditional Islamic education and theology to counter colonial and Christian
missionary influences112. It was staunchly anti-British and critical of the Aligarh
approach113.

• Barelvi Movement: Led by Ahmed Raza Khan, this movement opposed both
Deoband and Wahhabi puritanism and emphasized traditional Sufi practices114.

• Khilafat Movement: This pan-Islamic movement aimed to protect the Ottoman

Caliphate and reflected a mix of Islamic unity and Indian nationalism115.

• Tablighi Jamaat: Founded in 1926 by Maulana Ilyas, this grassroots movement

focused on personal piety and preaching, largely avoiding politics116.

3. Contemporary Issues: Challenges faced by Muslims in modern India.

Muslims in modern India face a number of challenges, which the provided notes only
briefly touch on. These include:

• Educational and Economic Disadvantage: Many Muslims have lower literacy

rates and limited access to higher education compared to the national
 average117. This contributes to their overrepresentation in low-paying jobs and
informal sectors118.

• Political Underrepresentation: Muslims have fewer leaders in state and

national politics relative to their population share and are underrepresented in
government services119.

• Social Discrimination and Communal Tensions: They face prejudice in

housing and jobs and are often disproportionately affected by communal
tensions and violence in certain areas120.

• Decline of Traditional Culture and Occupations: Old professions like weaving

and handicrafts are losing demand, leaving younger generations struggling to
find modern alternatives121.