Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Edited by:

Akansha Singh and

Mohammad Waseemul Islam

www.delvepublishing.com
Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants
Akansha Singh and Mohammad Waseemul Islam

Delve Publishing
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 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Dr. Akansha Singh, is presently working as Associate Professor & Head,

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Parul
University, India. She graduated from the Banaras Hindu University, with
doctorate in Genetics and Plant breeding in the year 2012. She has also worked
as Research Scientist in Bioved Research Society, Allahabad, India. She was
working as Postdoctoral fellow in University of Mumbai before joining her
current position. She has authored a number of national and international
publications.
Dr. Waseem’s professional expertise lies in teaching and pre-clinical research on
indigenous medicinal plants. He is the Former Director of Complementary Medicine
Unit, Chairman of Ethical Committee and Head of the Research Group, at Ajman
University, UAE. Dr. Waseem has worked for phytochemical, pharmacological and
nutritional values of medicinal plants, is actively engaged in the preparation of the
tentative plan of nutrition courses for Ajman University, and presented the importance
of plant nutrition for sustainable development for global health. Dr. Waseem has over
100 research publications and presentations on phytoconstituents, pharmacology &
toxicology of medicinal plants & herbal products. His professional record demonstrates
enriched association with renowned educational institutions, namely, College of
Medicine, University of Erbil, Iraq; College of Pharmacy, King Saud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Health Authority, Abu Dhabi, UAE; Dubai Medical College for
Girls, Dubai, UAE and Ajman University, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences,
Ajman and UAE. Dr. Waseem has been actively involved in executing several scientific
projects, co-authored the Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants of UAE, published by
Zayed Complex for Herbal Research and Traditional Medicine, printed in Al-Omera
Printing and Publishing Co., Abu Dhabi, UAE. He was a reviewer for the International
Journals and served as Chairman and Co-chairman at the conferences of phytomedicines
and food derived from plants, selected by World Health Organization (WHO) as an
advisor for Eastern Mediterranean Region in 2003. He has previously served as Head
of the Department, supervising research projects & managing research team in Zayed
Complex for Herbal Research and Traditional Medicine, Abu Dhabi, UAE. He has
carried out research on medicinal, aromatic and poisonous plants in the College of
Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He also taught and carried
out several research projects in Dubai Medical College, affiliated with the Central
Biomedical Research Laboratories as Executive Consultant & Research Manager. He
was awarded a plaque of appreciation for his significant contribution to the success of
WHO Consultation on Quality Control of Herbal Medicine, Abu Dhabi, UAE and a
shield from General Authority for Health Services for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, UAE.
He has been honored in recognition of his devotion, sincerity and his contributions
in the fields of research and other academic activities from the College of Pharmacy,
King Saud University, Riyadh. A commemorative ceremony to celebrate the scientific
achievements of Dr. Waseem was held in the academic year 2013-14 on his excellence in
research contribution, at College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Ajman University,
UAE organized by the College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ................................................................................................xi

Preface.........................................................................................................xv

Chapter 1 Health And Illness as a State Of Being Human .......................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Determinants Of Health ...................................................................... 9
1.3 Potential Issues Related To Health ...................................................... 15
1.4 Mental Health.................................................................................... 16
1.5 Achieving And Maintaining Health .................................................... 22
1.6 Occupational Safety And Health ........................................................ 30

Chapter 2 Preferred Habitats For Medicinal Plants .................................................. 33

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 34
2.2 Procurement And Use of Medicinal Plants ......................................... 38
2.3 Preferred Plant Habitats .................................................................... 51
2.4 Medicinal Plants And Soil Types ........................................................ 63

Chapter 3 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species ........................................... 65

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 66
3.2 Therapeutic Characteristics of Aloe Vera............................................. 66
3.3 Therapeutic Characteristics of Chamomile ........................................ 68
3.4 Therapeutic Characteristics of Ginkgo ................................................ 72
3.5 Therapeutic Characteristics of Echinacea............................................ 75
3.6 Therapeutic Characteristics of Primrose Oil ........................................ 78
3.7 Therapeutic Characteristics of Garlic .................................................. 80
3.8 Therapeutic Characteristics of Ginger ................................................. 83
3.9 Therapeutic Characteristics of Lavender.............................................. 85
3.10 Therapeutic Characteristics of Bulb Onions ...................................... 87
3.11 Therapeutic Characteristics of Neem Plant ....................................... 89
Chapter 4 Medicinal Plants Used In The Treatment Of Cancer ............................... 93
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 94
4.2 Modes of Treating Cancer And Its Relation To Medicinal Plants .......... 96
4.3 Plants And Synthetic Medicine........................................................... 99
4.4 Types of Cancer ............................................................................... 101
4.5 Skin Cancer Treatment ..................................................................... 104
4.6 Lung Cancer Treatment .................................................................... 106
4.7 Leukemia ......................................................................................... 109
4.8 Prostate Cancer................................................................................ 111
4.9 Pancreatic Cancer ............................................................................ 112
4.10 Bone Cancer .................................................................................. 113
4.11 Stomach Cancer ............................................................................ 113
4.12 Breast Cancer Treatment ................................................................ 114
4.13 Colorectal Cancer Treatment .......................................................... 114
4.14 Esophageal Cancer Treatment ........................................................ 115
4.15 Advantages of Using Herbs In Cancer Treatment ............................ 116
4.16 Challenges Facing The Use of Plants In Cancer Treatment .............. 117

Chapter 5 Antidiabetic Plants ................................................................................ 119

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 120
5.2 Chamaecostus Cuspidatus ............................................................... 122
5.3 Indian Medicinal Plant Anti-Diabetic Potential ................................ 123
5.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects of Turmeric ...................................................... 133
5.5 Ginger And Diabetes ....................................................................... 135
5.6 The Anti-Diabetic Activity of Okra ................................................... 137
5.7 Other Anti-Diabetic Plants ............................................................... 139
5.8 Cinnamon........................................................................................ 145
5.9 Gymnema Sylvestre ......................................................................... 146
5.10 Milk Thistle .................................................................................... 147

Chapter 6 Potential Medicinal Plants Used In Hypertension ................................. 149

6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 150
6.2 Herbs Having Antihypertensive Potential ......................................... 153

Chapter 7 Women’s Knowledge Of Herbs Used In Reproduction ......................... 169

7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 170

viii
 7.2 Factors Contributing To Womens
Knowledge on Herbs on Reproduction......................................... 172
7.3 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used In
Reproduction In Developing Countries ........................................ 172
7.4 Traditional Uses of Herbs In Reproduction ....................................... 173
7.5 Case Study: Knowledge of Herbs Used In Reproduction
by Women In Ghana .................................................................... 174
7.6 Reduced Knowledge on Herbs Used In Reproduction
Among Women In Developing Countries ..................................... 177
7.7 Developing Countries Embracing The Use of Herbs
In Reproduction ........................................................................... 180
7.8 Women’s Knowledge on Herbs Used In Reproduction
In The Developed Countires ......................................................... 182
7.9 Women’s Knoweldege on Herbs Used In Reproduction
In The Current Day ....................................................................... 185

Chapter 8 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants .......................................... 191

8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 192
8.2 A Brief Recap On Medicinal Plants .................................................. 193
8.3 Medicinal Plants Used In Desert Habitats ........................................ 197
8.4 List of Medicinal Desert Plants ......................................................... 198

Chapter 9 Challenges And Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants .......................... 219

9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 220
9.2 Medicinal Plants Future In The Pharmaceutical Industry .................. 221
9.3 Medicinal Plants Future In The Food Industry .................................. 230
9.4 Challenges For Medicinal Plant Usage ............................................ 242

Chapter 10 Conservation Strategies For Ethnomedicinal Plants ............................... 249

10.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 250
10.2 Traditional Medicine And Its Use .................................................. 251
10.3 Threats To Ethnomedicinal Plants ................................................... 255
10.4 Conservation of Medicinal And Aromatic Plants ........................... 261
10.5 Strategies For Conservation. ........................................................... 267

References ............................................................................................ 277

Index ..................................................................................................... 279

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. An illustration of WHO’s concept of health

Figure 1.2. The ecological concept of health.
Figure 1.3. The eight dimensions of wellness.
Figure 1.4. Categories of diseases.
Figure 1.5. Determinants of health
Figure 1.6. Risk factors for the development of non-communicable diseases.
Figure 1.7. Social determinants of health.
Figure 1.8. Mental health.
Figure 1.9. Factors that contribute to the development of mental health problems.
Figure 1.10. The PERMA model of flourishing.
Figure 1.11. Five ways of well-being
Figure 1.12. Dual continuum model of mental health.
Figure 1.13. Single continuum model of mental health.
Figure 1.14. The different aspects that affect our overall health.
Figure 2.1. It is plant commonly found in lawns and it is commonly used in the treatment
of pulmonary illnesses.
Figure 2.2. Rauvolfia serpentine is a medicinal plant from the Aponycynacea family.
Figure 2.3. Tabernanthe iboga a medicinal rainforest plant found in Gabon, the
democratic republic of
Figure 2.4. Acacia nilotica is found in arid regions in Africa.
Figure 2.5. The Prunus africana
Figure 2.6. Centella asiatica from India.
Figure 2.7. Acmella oleracea and is sometimes referred to as the tooth ache plant
Figure 2.8. Aloe Vera is a plant of Asian origin that grows in tropical and subtropical
climates
Figure 2.9. Jiagolun is a plant commonly distributed in South and East of Asia
Figure 2.10. The Lavendula species of the lavender.
Figure 2.11. Ocimum tenuiflorum is a plant that originates from India and is also referred
to as the holy basil
Figure 2.12. Lemon grass
Figure 2.13. The white sage
Figure 2.14. The calamus is a plant commonly found in wet lands
Figure 2.15. Aloysia citrodora is used as a medicinal herb
Figure 2.16. Achiote seed pods
Figure 2.17. Preparation of the ayahuasca plant
Figure 2.18. Ginkgo biloba is used by many herbalists in China
Figure 2.19. The balsam fir
Figure 2.20. It is native to countries of the northern hemisphere
Figure 2.21. It is commonly found in wetlands
Figure 2.22. The cow parsnip
Figure 2.23. The berry like cone of the juniper species
Figure 3.1. Aloe Vera plant and the health benefits
Figure 3.2. Chamomile plant. The history as well as the health benefits.
Figure 3.3. A representation of ginkgo plant, the health benefits and therapeutic
characteristics
Figure 3.4. A representation of Echinacea plants and its therapeutic characteristics
Figure 3.5. The evening primrose oil, the dosage and the benefits
Figure 3.6. A representation of garlic plants as well as the health benefits
Figure 3.7. A representation of the ginger plant and some of its benefits
Figure 3.8. A representation of lavender and he health benefits
Figure 3.9. A representation of the bulb onion
Figure 3.10. Neem plant and which diseases it treats
Figure 5.1. A representation of the Ficus religiosa plant
Figure 5.2. A representation of Eugenia jambolana
Figure 5.3. A representation of the bitter melon and its anti-diabetic property
Figure 5.4. How to make the anti-diabetic tea from the holy basil
Figure 5.5. The therapeutic properties of the Kino tree in India and different parts of
the world.
Figure 5.6. A representation of the fenugreek and its role in the treatment and control
of diabetes
Figure 5.7. Role of garlic in the treatment and management of diabetes
Figure 5.8. A representation of turmeric and the function it plays when it comes to
diabetes.

xii
Figure 5.9. A representation of ginger and its anti-diabetic activities
Figure 5.10. The Okra plant and its ability to manage diabetes
Figure 5.11. A representation of the American ginseng in the managing and controlling
of diabetes
Figure 5.12. The benefit of bay leaves when it comes to diabetes
Figure 5.13. A representation of the anti-diabetic effect of berberine plant in people who
are old
Figure 5.14. A representation of the cayenne pepper and its role in diabetes
Figure 5.15. The effect of red yeast rice on diabetes and how it can be used to treat as
well as manage diabetes
Figure 8.1: Gumweed (Grindelia fastigiata)
Figure 8.2: Mesquite Tree
Figure 8.3: Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth) Johnston [Boraginaceae]
Figure 8.4: Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Engl. [Saxifragaceae]
Figure 8.5: Ephedra gerardiana Wall ex Stapf
Figure 8.6: Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth [Scrophulariaceae]
Figure 8.7: Rheum austral D. Don [Polygonaceae]
Figure 8.8: Rhododendron campanulatum Linn. [Ericaceae]
Figure 8.9: Tagetes minuta Linn. [Asteraceae]
Figure 8.10: Taraxacum officinale Wigg. [Asteraceae]
Figure 8.11: Thymus linearis Benth. [Lamiaceae]
Figure 9.1: Plants are increasingly being cultivated for medicinal reasons
Figure 9.2: The future looks promising for plants as new uses are constantly being found
Figure 9.3: Medicinal plants can be grown at home for nutrition supplementation
Figure 9.4: Medicinal plants are not properly regulated like prescription drugs, they can
also be risky to consume
Figure 10.1. A table showing different threatened plant species in India.
Figure 10.2. Major plant drugs with no synthetic substitutes.
Figure 10.3. Biodiversity conservation strategies
Figure 10.4. Management of invasive species

xiii
PREFACE

The world is said to be interdependent. Every feature or organism that tends to

survive on planet earth has to depend upon the other. Living organisms are a
crucial part of the ecosystem. They include plants and animals. Plants directly
depend on animals while animals depend on plants. For as long as the world ever
existed, diseases have been there, continuously destroying man’s life and their
entire ecosystem. Diseases have made man seek solutions from all points of
view. As a result of this, man has sought the help of soil organisms, chemically
made forms of drugs and even his/her colleague animals. In all of his endeavors,
plants have turned out to be the ultimate solution in treating human diseases.
Centuries ago, there existed ethnic communities that inhabited planet earth.
They had their own diseases and efficiently came up with ways of dealing with
these diseases. They ended up using various types of plants to treat different
forms of diseases. In their own beliefs, other plants could even be used during
traditional practices such as witchcraft and traditional forms of natural healing.
Since there was no invent of technology, it appeared to be the only means of
inhibiting the spread of diseases. Some plant species even existed during those
times and came to become extinct in the modern world.
Medical institutions have established that some important plant species that
existed before had immense medicinal value. However, they tend to become
extinct with time. Their effect would have perhaps saved many lives by this
age. The invent of technology has marked tremendous changes on the influence
of plants on medicinal value. Doctors and scientists work day and night in
establishing the important component of plants and their medicinal value. Today,
the making of synthetic medicine is highly based on plant-based research.
Due to the fact that medicinal plants have high value in regards to treating
diseases, including the most serious ones such as cancer, the human kind should
work toward protecting its existence. It is a shame that humans themselves are the
reason behind the destruction of natural resources. Agricultural encroachment
and industrial pollution are a few of the examples that threaten natural resources
that humans are responsible for. Humans should understand that even though

xv
economic development goals are not in line with natural conservation goals,
there are various opportunities that are available to prevent the ecosystem from
the negative impacts. This can be done by understanding indigenous knowledge
regarding the use of the ecosystem and its conservation. Nations should work
close with scientists to rally for the protection of natural resources especially
natural forests since these are the natural habitats of most plants used as herbal
remedies.
Today, drugs are extracted directly from plants or contain plant based extracts.
This volume focuses on the importance of plants in treating mankind. It traverses
the entire globe focusing on plants used by people and communities in the past.
It travels through time and space, digging up on how plants’ medicinal value
has transformed over time.
The volume has ten chapters and each discusses a specific topic. chapter 1:
health and illness as a state of being human`; chapter 2: preferred habitats for
medicinal plants; chapter 3: therapeutic characteristics of plant species; chapter
4: medicinal plants used in the treatment of cancer; chapter 5: antidiabetic
plants; chapter 6: potential medicinal plants used in hypertension; chapter 7:
women’s knowledge of herbs used in reproduction; chapter 8: medicinal plants
used by desert habitats; chapter 9: challenges and future prospects of medicinal
plants; chapter 10: conservation strategies for ethnomedicinal plants

xvi
1
Health And Illness as a State Of Being
Human

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Determinants Of Health ...................................................................... 9
1.3 Potential Issues Related To Health ...................................................... 15
1.4 Mental Health.................................................................................... 16
1.5 Achieving And Maintaining Health .................................................... 22
1.6 Occupational Safety And Health ........................................................ 30
2 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Health or having good health is of importance to every individual. This is
because it not only influences how we feel but it also affects our functioning
and our level of participation within society. The concept of health goes
beyond an individual and most times are complex in their definitions and
measurement. It is made up of a wide array of experiences and situations
and how they are interpreted may be related to social norms and contexts.
Individuals, groups and societies will therefore have different definitions of
what makes an illness and what is meant by being healthy (Munir Ozturk &
Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
The importance of understanding how people perceive health and
illness has been acknowledged by a lot of researchers in terms of practical
and theoretical implications for both health psychology and education.
Researchers have also come to a consensus that the perception people have
about health and illnesses go on to affect their attitudes and behavior when
it comes to health.
So what is the meaning of health? Balog 1970 has suggested three major
views on what health stands for. According to him health can be viewed in
three different ways that is based on first the traditional medical concepts,
Second the concept of health by the world Health Organization and finally
the ecological concept.

1.1.1 The Traditional Concept of Health

The definition of health has evolved over the years and it began with the
biomedical perspective. Traditionally, being healthy or being in a state of
good health was defined as being free of a disease. This definition was
widely accepted in the better part of the 20th century by many Physicians and
medical personnel. Another definition based on the biomedical perspective
was where it was viewed as a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic
integrity; ability to carry out social roles and community roles and similarly
deal with different types of stress. This type of thinking was based on
the assumption that health and disease were objective and a phenomenon
that could be observed. Development in subject areas such as anatomy,
bacteriology and physiology led to this perception of health (Munir Ozturk
& Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
This type of definition was only represented by the lack of disease and
failed to include other attributes. This definition only recognized health in
terms of whether or not an individual had a disease and it failed to account for
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 3

the well-being of an individual in a holistic manner. This definition of health

makes the assumption that there is a dichotomy between health and illness
and most scientists argued that this was not soin order to be considered as
healthy, it is not necessary for a person to be completely free of disease but
they will mostly have this disease to a lesser extent. This means that the
absence of a disease is not strong enough evidence to prove the term one is
in a healthy state.

1.1.2 The Concept of Health by the World Health Organization

In the late 1940s, the World Health Organization developed a concept on
health that was considered to be more holistic. They defined health as a state
of complete physical, mental and social well-being and this means it was
not just about not having the disease. They did not restrict being healthy as
merely having the absence or presence of a disease but rather they brought
the concept of an individual having absolute or positive qualities (Munir
Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).

Figure 1.1. An illustration of WHO’s concept of health.

Source: https://www.dreamstime.com/three-important-things-necessary-good-
health-mental-social-physical-state-complete-well-being-not-merely-absence-
image133392734
This view is an extension of the traditional view of health by
conceptualizing health as a positive state of well-being of which physical
health is only part of it. Alongside physical health there exist other aspects
such as social, psychological, economic and political aspects. All these
4 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

aspects are included in their definition and are considered to be of paramount

importance for health and wellbeing.
By adding the psychological and social aspects of health, the World
Health Organization made this definition more acceptable and they also
moved the focus from just being about the medical aspects or view where
the focus was on the absence or presence of a disease. This view experience
drawback since it did not provide the qualities of well-being and wellness.
The vagueness of this definition and its lack of specificity makes it unable
to be used in situations that are practical. For a long time, the definition
itself was not used due to its impractical ideal and most discussions of
health returned to using the biomedical concept which was viewed to be
more practical. The definition itself gives a view of an individual being in a
completely perfect state which is often not realistic and cannot be reached
(Nordenfelt, 2001).

1.1.3 The Ecological Concept of Health

Which concept emerged in the 1960s and 70s. This concept was different
from the traditional and holistic definition of health which have been
mentioned previously. They differed in two ways. To begin with, this
concept had a relative view of health and second more emphasis was placed
on the interrelationships between an individual’s environment and their
quality of life.

Figure 1.2. The ecological concept of health.

Source: https://www.acha.org/HealthyCampus/Implement/Ecological_Model/
HealthyCampus/Ecological_Model.aspx
This concept put more emphasis on evaluating an individual’s level
of functioning and how they adapt to their environment. For function
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 5

oriented perspectives, the definition of health can be in terms of adequacy

in functional capacity which allows individuals to perform their duties
and responsibilities. It can also be in terms of individual quality of life.
This allows a person to live a happy life, be successful, fruitful and also be
creative. Hoyman and parsons attempted to differentiate between physical
and mental health functioning. Mental health was defined on the basis of an
individual’s ability to perform institutionalized social rules while somatic
health was evaluated based on the individual’s ability to complete valuable
tasks.
Most definitions on ecological health related to health with adaptation.
This concept refers to health in terms of the ability of an individual to adjust
adequately to the environment. The state of health and disease express the
success or failure an individual experience in their quest to respond and
adapt to changes in the environment. Dunn (1959) developed an extension
of the health concepts by introducing wellness to include the capacity of
people to function in the environment and their ability to adapt to stresses
they are faced within those environments (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Ecological views of health are sometimes complex since individuals
may be able to adapt with adequacy. It does not provide the definition or
differentiate between what makes a person healthy or unhealthy in terms
of how they adapt. Individuals can adapt to a disease state. They can also
have a disease but may still have the ability to perform social responsibilities
that are required. Normalcy in how well a person functions and adapts is a
social and cultural construct. We can therefore make the conclusion that the
functioning of an individual will differ depending on the social context and
this will vary depending on the society.

1.1.4 The Search for a Universally Valid and Acceptable

Definition of Health
According to Balog 1978, integration of the different ways of health is
impossible but at the same time, it is important. According to him, despite
differing perspectives on the concept of health since it had a relative and
subjective nature there is a possibility that people can develop and agree on
the essential criteria for defining this concept. According to him, it needed to
be defined using two criteria’s that is an individual biological and functional
objectives and two proper functioning of the body and mind. The biological
and functional objectives will be viewed the same in all individuals but the
personal and functional objectives will be unique to different individuals.
6 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

He made the conclusion that health is a state of a well-functioning body and

mind which provides human beings with the ability to work for what is func-
tional objectives and achieve goals the desirable based on their culture. This
definition was thought to have problems as it was seen as broad, vague and
subjective but at the same time it was multidimensional. His idea of health
was almost similar to that of the world Health Organization and similarly the
ecological concept of health.
Other researchers have also argued that it is difficult to attain a universal
term for the concept of health because it is a value Laden term and what it
means depends on the objectives that surround its use. They see health as a
concept that is multi-dimensional and therefore cannot be represented using
a single definition (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Smith, 1981 had a different proposal on the concept of health. According
to him, health will be organized using different models clinical, role
performance, and eudemonistic. From this, one can recognize that the above
models applied in the different concepts of health for example the medical,
ecological and that of the World Health Organization. The difference is that
the models are not defined as being mutually exclusive. On the contrary
he advocated for an inclusive progression among the different models. In
summary, the clinical model will be representative of the single concept
which defines health as the absence of disease; the eudemonistic model
expresses the most encompassing view of health. As a result, the latter
and the broader view of health not only includes the basic premises of the
three precedents but also goes beyond them by bringing up issues of self-
actualization and fulfillment as important health components (Nordenfelt,
2001).
Several efforts have been made to develop a unique and universally
acceptable definition of health. Evidence brought forward makes this
suggestion that at the moment all these views of health have different
concerns. Most theorists have failed to agree on the number of aspects that
can be included in the health concept but their areas in which they all agree
are part of the definition of health. Most of them have come to a consensus
that the concept of health is multidimensional and it cannot be unilaterally
defined.
The inability to develop a universally accepted concept of health does
not affect the research carried out in this field. This is possible because most
researchers make considerations based on how different individuals perceive
health and the influence this will have on their attitudes and behaviors
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 7

towards health. The concept of health and illness have close relations and
continue to be explored

Figure 1.3. The eight dimensions of wellness.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellness_(alternative_medicine)

1.1.5 The Meaning of Illness

Illness can be viewed as a construct that is objective when compared to
the health concept and a close look at some issues related to philosophy
which underlie the definition of illness reveal that that might not be the
case. Finding the appropriate definition for illness maybe difficult or be
as complex as defining health. Essential components of illness include
improper functioning or deviation from normalcy. There is reason to believe
that while an individual may not be functioning properly, they might not
have a disease or illness (Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
What is disease or illness? It can be defined as a physical and mental
disturbance that involves symptoms, dysfunction or damage to tissues, on
the other hand, sickness is a term or condition that is subjective and relative
as it will depend on individual experiences. Lacking symptoms that can
be observed or felt cannot properly define what having an illness means.
Individuals will perceive symptoms differently whether professionals or
non-professionals and will be judged differently. What is considered sick by
one group will be perceived differently by the latter group. Value judgments
and what is considered acceptable socially will play an important role in the
definition of the concept of health and also illness. Empirical evidence can
be used to understand the different perceptions individual groups have about
illness despite it being complex to define.
8 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Categories of diseases: There are many diseases that may affect the
human body. This can range from common colds to complex diseases like
cancer. The illnesses can be divided into two categories and they can lead to
illnesses that may either be infectious or chronic.
• Infectious diseases- are caused by pathogens and spread from one
individual to the other through different mediums for example
through air, food, water, nonliving objects, insects, directly or
indirectly when a person comes into contact with an infected
person. For example, influenza, HIV/AIDs among others.
• Chronic diseases- they are caused by different factors, including
aspects like the genetic makeup of an individual, their lifestyle
and their environment. These conditions once developed are long-
term and cannot spread directly from person to person. Examples
include diabetes, cardiovascular illnesses among others.

Figure 1.4. Categories of diseases.

Source: www.aplustopper.com/malaria-infectious-noninfectious-disease/
Diseases can have both chronic and infectious characteristics for
example long term infectious skin conditions that result from acquiring HIV.
Infectious diseases and chronic diseases can have similar mechanisms that
underlie them for example an injury can lead to an infection or a chronic
back problem. There are a variety of potential causes for the development of
a diseases of feeling ill. It may be as a result of a single cause for example
a virus or from a number of causes such as multiple lifestyle factors for
example poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle which lead to the development
of a disease (Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
Other factors influence the development of a disease such as the strength
of their immunity, whether they are vaccinated or not, how resilient an
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 9

individual is, their mental state or their current state of health. Susceptibility
to the development of certain diseases can also differ depending on the
characteristics of a population for example because of age or determined by
their genes, for some it will differ based on their biological, environmental
and socioeconomic characteristics. This means in the case of specific
diseases, their development in different people will not be similar. People
can also manage some chronic illnesses by altering or making changes when
it comes to their lifestyles, using pharmaceutical products and using various
forms of support (Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).

1.2 DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH

Figure 1.5. Determinants of health

Source: https://www.conceptdraw.com/solution-park/diagram-circle-spoke
Health determinants can have either positive or negative effects on
health. Making healthy food choices for example increasing the daily intake
of fruits and vegetables can positively affect health and so can making sure a
child receives all their vaccinations. The entities that increase the probability
of contracting an illness or developing a disease are commonly referred to as
risk factors. Those factors that are related to our lifestyle choices are referred
to as behavioral risk factors and many chronic illnesses such as stage four
cancers, heart conditions and diabetes can be prevented by altering lifestyles
to those that are positive.
The development of type 2 diabetes can be associated with a diet that
is not healthy, smoking, physical inactivity and overindulging in the intake
of alcohol. Biomedical risk factors that can lead to the development of
illnesses or diseases include high blood pressure and high levels of blood
10 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

cholesterol. Other factors include income and social status, social support
networks, education, personal health practices and coping skills, healthy
child development, health care services, gender and culture (Nordenfelt,
2001).

Figure 1.6. Risk factors for the development of non-communicable diseases.

Source: https://www.homeopathy360.com/2017/05/29/hahnemanns-concep-
tion-of-non-communicable-diseases/
Therefore, they are three key determinants of health. That is lifestyle.
• Lifestyle- this is a collection of personal decisions for example
aspects which an individual can control. These decisions can be
said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death.
• Environmental- they are all aspects that are connected to health
and are external to the human body and over most of the time
individuals do not have control over this.
• Biomedical- they include all matters to do with health, physical
and mental and they develop within the human body and is
influenced by their genetics.
The development of illnesses is influenced by various social factors in
physical and mental health, it is also affected by psychological factors such
as stress and health behaviors; cultural factors and belief symptoms and also
their social lives.
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 11

1.2.1 Social Factors in Physical and Mental Health

Social factors that influence health include early life experiences and are
viewed as key determinants of mental and physical health. Research has
shown that experiences in childhood can be linked to an increased risk
of poor health later in life. Some of these experiences include domestic
violence, abuse, deprivation and separation of their parents. They have also
recognized that it is not always the case. Factors associated with resilience
during childhood development years for example being cared for and loved,
or being in a household where childhood education is prioritized can help
delete some of the effects of extreme childhood experiences. Throughout
their life, in order for such individuals to manage situations are stress they
require social support (Nordenfelt, 2001).

Figure 1.7. Social determinants of health.

Source: https://www.nursingcenter.com/ncblog/november-2019/social-deter-
minants-of-health
Employment is also an important determinant of health. This means that
it is not only about the consequences of health that results from employment
but the impact of work itself. Having a low employment status has been
associated with increased incidences or probability of developing diseases
or death. Occurrences of illnesses have also been observed in employees
with low pay and also no skills. Insecurity in terms of employment, low
quality and low status jobs reduce the control people have over their work or
support which affects physical and mental health in a negative way.
12 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

1.2.2 Psychological Factors; Stress and Health Behaviors

Stress is a common psychological factor that has been discussed widely in
the field of health particularly in relation to jobs. In countries like England, it
is estimated that one in six workers every year are affected by psychological
problems such as anxiety depression and chronic stress. The influence of
stress on health is well understood but at the same time it can also have
effects on physical health.
The elements that lead to stress are in themselves complicated since
Space is a subject that is relative. Stress can broadly be defined as the inability
to fit by an individual in their world and this leads to the development of
physical and mental health. Related to work, one can be unable to cope with
demands at work leading to stress which can then lead to the development of
mental illness. In a work environment, being stressed does not momentarily
lead to skipping work which most of the time has been associated with
poor health and used as an indicator in the past. Other researchers have also
argued that health problems are linked to being present at work especially
those who still go to work while ill. Research has shown not skipping work
despite being ill is common among professionals who work in the health
care industry, welfare or in the education sector and it is linked with a sense
of social responsibility (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Psychological factors affect not just the experience of health and illness
but also affect health seeking behavior. Psychological factors will determine
how people cope and can lead to negative reactions such as excessive
alcohol consumption as a result of stressful situations. It can also lead to
positive reactions for example deciding to stop cigarette smoking which is
based on perceptions of people about their health and the belief that it is
in one’s own ability to make changes when it comes to healthy behavior.
Views of individuals of things that increase their probability of them making
changes in their lives such as susceptibility, costs or consequences. The
make predictions of behavior related to health and can be helpful in the
understanding of health perceptions by the general population.

1.2.3 Cultural Factors and Lay Health Beliefs

The findings of sociological research into lay health beliefs which focus on
discovering the rules and meanings the different social groups use in their
lives and makes sense of the experience of health and illness and has been
valuable to health professionals. These findings show that labor leaves are
sophisticated and complex when it comes to her and point out the need for
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 13

healthcare personnel not to see the perspective of their clients as information

as wrong and this will lead to improvement of client-professional relationship
(White, 2002).
Research that has been done on sociology especially with regards to
leading healthy lives agree that perceptions of health by the general public
differ based on the information available to them in their social environment
or context. Such situations act as a constraint to the probability of behavior
change when it comes to living a healthy lifestyle. Different interventions
in behavior change communication related to health mostly relied on the
theory that persuasion of people in the adoption of healthy lifestyles revolved
around the change of their attitudes.
Research by Davison 1991, has opposed lifestylism that is being aware
of the causes and probable ways of disease prevention and using this to
change with fatalism which means that most of the time things are usually
beyond our control. According to him only a few individuals he interviewed
who believed in fate had this view prevent them from adopting behaviors
that were seen to decrease the probability of them becoming ill. In the past
people have mainly put their efforts in encouraging lifestyle change. In such
cases individuals were treated as passive recipients of health promotion
information rather than being actively involved. Such strategies have been
linked to widening of the health gap since only those who are well off
have the probability to use such information compared to those who aren’t.
Despite knowing this information, people are more likely to change their
behavior when they have the resources to do so. Researchers and professional
have acknowledged that people have responsibility in individual health
management and this means they should be involved in decisions to do with
their health in consultation with health care professionals (White, 2002).

1.2.4 Family Relationships and Social Support

Research in sociology suggests that the quality of an individual’s social
relationships plays a huge role in determination of health outcomes. The
quality of social relationships is a reflection of the level to which a person has
reach to a group of social networks and a group of social norms which such
individuals have in common. Researchers in these field have acknowledged
such characteristics as come from societies that are unified. Research in the
field of epidemiology has made the conclusion that social and psychological
stress as one of the factors critical for the maintenance of health (Nordenfelt,
2001).
14 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

It is inevitable for people to experience stressful situations in life and

be affected by them, but the effects are magnified in the case of people who
lack a strong social support from either family or friends.
Social support focuses on the relevance of personal relationships. It
encompasses the aspect of having emotional support, resourceful help,
provision of information and individual appraisal. This concept fails to be
accompanied with clarity in its understanding. We get our support systems
from the people we interact with. Such relationships in social environments
will only be of benefit if they function to cushion individuals from situations
that are stressful. For example, for people with terminal illness their support
system is mostly made up of close family members and friends. Research
done on clinical depression for working class women concluded that having
a strong social support was an important factor in an individual’s relative
susceptibility to stressful situations in life.in this case a support system
was viewed as a significant mediator between the source of stress and the
development of the medical condition and in this case the illness was clinical
depression.
The marmot review of two thousand and ten explained that loneliness
and social isolation were associated with an increased risk of depression and
premature mortality and on the other hand strong social support systems were
associated with increased health and happiness and even better prognosis in
the event of an illness. It was also seen to act as a protective factor when
it came to the development memory loss and decline in an individual’s
cognitive ability. People living in poverty are less likely to have a strong
social support system while those in affluent communities will experience
the latter.
Maintaining and promoting health can be achieved through combining
physical, mental and social well-being and are commonly referred to as
the health triangle. The Ottawa Charter for health promotion by WHO in
1986 went on to define health as not being just a state but a resource for
our daily lives and not an object of living. Health is a positive concept that
puts emphasis on both personal and social resources as well as physical
capacities (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Research has shown that improvements in health can be made through
exercising, sleeping enough, connecting with nature, maintaining a body
weight that is healthy, not over indulging in the use of alcohol, avoid the use
of tobacco products. Health and illness can coexist. This means that even
people with terminal illness can consider themselves healthy.
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 15

The environment can also be considered as a critical determinant of

health in individuals. The environment can either be built in, the natural
environment or the social environment. Several factors have been observed
such as clean water and air, proper housing and safe communities and the
road were found to be important contributors to good health especially in
the case of infants and young children. It is even included in the conceptual
framework for malnutrition by UNICEF for children under five years.
Research has also shown that neighborhoods that have an absence in
recreational spaces are most of the time associated with a lack of satisfaction
and also high levels of overweight and obesity which can be associated
overall with the negative aspects of health. Time spent connecting with
nature is linked with improved self-reported health. The development of
natural spaces in urban areas should be considered in the creation of public
policies due to its association with positive health benefits (Nordenfelt,
2001).
Genetics also play an important role when it comes to defining the
state of health of an individual or even populations. This includes the
susceptibility to certain diseases and conditions as well as the behavioral
traits of people develop through the lifestyle of people closely related to
them. Genetics can determine the coping mechanisms of individuals relative
to stress, either mental, emotional or physical stress. For instance, obesity
has been observed to contribute to poor mental health and leads to stress for
different individuals.

1.3 POTENTIAL ISSUES RELATED TO HEALTH

There are various health issues at a global level. The development of diseases
is one of the most common issues related to health. According to global
issues non communicable diseases lead to about thirty-six million deaths
annually and globally for diseases such as cancer, lung diseases, diabetes
and cardiovascular diseases (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Another common issue in health is malnutrition especially in the case of
children under the age of five years. Malnutrition leads to about seven point
five million annually and results from different factors mentioned in the
conceptual framework of malnutrition such as immediate and underlying
factors.
Bodily injuries are also a common global issue when it comes to health.
Injuries can result from accidents such as fracture or burns which can lead to
16 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

a reduction of the quality of life of individuals. They can lead to secondary

infections which come as a result of the injury and its severity.
Lifestyle choices affect health outcomes since they can positively or
negatively affect health. Bad lifestyle choices include poor eating habits,
smoking cigarettes, over indulgence in alcohol use and a sedentary lifestyle.
Lack of sleep, neglect when it comes to oral hygiene can also affect one’s
health. Other diseases also vary from person to person and will affect people
differently. Most health issues can be prevented. Globally, one of the major
contributors to poor health due to access to health care and also having poor
health care systems. It can be considered as a common but harmful health
issue (Nordenfelt, 2001).

1.4 MENTAL HEALTH

Figure 1.8. Mental health.

Source: https://blog.nisbenefits.com/support-employees-mental-health
Mental health is defined by the world health organization as a state of
well-being in which a person realizes their own abilities and has the capacity
to cope with stress they face in their everyday life; they are capable of
working in a manner that is productive and fruitful therefore contributing
to the society or community. Mental illness is defined as a spectrum of
cognitive, emotional and behavioral conditions which cause interference
with regards to the social and emotional well-being of a person, their lives
and also their productivity.
Being ill mentally, impairs the `mental functioning of an individual.
This state of mental illness can either be temporary or permanent. Other
terms used to refer to this state include mental health problem, disorder or
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 17

dysfunction. Approximately a fifth of adults in the United States of America

are regarded as diagnosable with mental illness. It is one of the leading
causes of disability in the country and also in bordering countries like
Canada. Some of the types of mental illness include schizophrenia, bipolar,
depression, anxiety disorder, PTSD, autism among others. There are several
factors that contribute to the development of mental illnesses such as;
• Biological factors for example the genetic make-up of an
individual or the chemistry of their brain.
• Life experiences such as trauma or abuse for example trauma
experienced by military personnel has led to some of them
developing post-traumatic stress disorder, this can also be seen in
people who have experienced violence.
• Family history of mental health problems. For example, a person
with bipolar can pass on the condition to their progeny.

Figure 1.9. Factors that contribute to the development of mental health prob-
lems.

Source: https://greenriverhr.wordpress.com/2015/05/15/why-mental-health-
matters-at-work-depression-in-the-workplace/
Widening the definition of health has been essential in contributing
to understanding the mental as aspect of health and increasing public
acknowledgement of mental health issues as an important part of public
health. This means that health professionals have recognized that mental
health is as important as physical health. It has therefore been included in
the development, the delivery and provision of health and social services.
Public mental health policies are meant to improve population mental
health and well-being and similarly prevent the development of mental and
18 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

emotional stress and also lead to an increment of resilience in individuals

(Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
Defining well-being is important in discussions that are meant to
conceptualize mental health than public mental health. It is a topic that has
been subject to debate and is also controversial in recent years. Well-being
is found outside the medical model of health and its presence or absence
cannot be termed as a diagnosis. Well-being is therefore subjective and will
vary from person to person and so will the factors that contribute to it. This
means as much as it is complex it can still be defined or be measured and this
has led to progress related to the subject over the years.
The definition of mental health by FPH is similar to that of the world
Health Organization’s Definition of health which is viewed as holistic. Positive
psychology is a reflection of the core of public health principles which aim
to protect and improve health. It also focuses on preventive measures rather
than the treatment of illnesses. Seligman in 2011 introduced the PERMA
model of flourishing, which has five major elements related to psychological
well-being. That is having positive emotions, engagement in activities,
relationships, meaning and accomplishments. The well-being Institute at
the University of Cambridge also conquered this definition and approach.
Its definition of welding is the possession of positive characteristics that
are sustainable which allow people to perform well, grow and also become
successful. Professional have also argued that wellbeing is an aspect that has
developed from our social and cultural environments and have questioned
the validity of approaches that try to measure and categorize it (Munir
Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).

Figure 1.10. The PERMA model of flourishing.

Source: www.headnorthbound.com/what-is-positive-psychology/
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 19

A common and recurring theme that has come up from the various
definitions of well-being is that it is based on how a person feels and if
they are functioning well. The wide definition includes the experiences of an
individual and their experiences are then compared with their circumstances
in life two social norms and values. It can therefore be viewed as being two-
dimensional. It can be seen as either objective or subjective.
Objective well-being is mostly used as a proxy based on what is assumed
about essential human needs and rights, this includes things like access to
adequate food, physical health, education and also safety. This type of well-
being is measured via individuals making reports for example a person can
make enquiries whether they have certain conditions or the use of more
objective measurements such as mortality rate and life expectancy. It can be
measured by direct questioning on how an individual thinks and feels about
their well-being and this encompasses life aspects such as whether they are
satisfied in life, experience positive emotions and whether they view life as
having meaning (Nordenfelt, 2001).
In 2008, The New Economics Foundation identified five evidence-based
actions people can do on a daily basis to Foster the improvement of well-
being and it is referred to as the five ways to wellbeing. The five ways
include connecting, being active, taking notice, continuous learning and
being a giving person. The actions mentioned above have been promoted
in different public health settings. The five ways of well-being have been
essential in the stimulation of discussions related to well-being and public
mental health and they also enable individuals to develop ways that can lead
to improvement of their own well-being.

Figure 1.11. Five ways of well-being.

Source: https://www.signals.org.uk/expressyourself-the-five-ways-to-wellbe-
ing/
20 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

1.4.1 Relationship between Mental and Physical Health.

Mental and physical health at least and this has been proved through
research. Research shows that evidence of a relationship between these
two entities has accumulated over the years and has challenged the view
of the mind and body being dual entities. Mechanisms for the association
can either be physiological, related to behavior or social. Depending on
how it is identified by the biological and psychosocial model of health.
This relationship can be viewed as being two-way, mental health influences
physical health and physical health will affect mental health (Nordenfelt,
2001).
The stress responses of mammals such as fight or flight have been
recognized to have an effect on physiological processes that are controlled
by the autonomic nervous system and this includes the cardiovascular
system, respiratory, digestive system and the immune system. There are
also conditions that have been linked to stress such as irritable bowel
syndrome, asthma and headaches or migraines. Strong immune function has
been linked to strong social support or hardiness. The two can be involved
in the modification of stressful experiences and how it affects our mental
health. Physical can go hand in hand with mental health such as anxiety and
depression. The mental states that result may slow the recovery rate when
one has a medical condition and leads to a cycle in which well-being can be
difficult to achieve.
The risks that lead to mental health and physical health problems such
as behavior or social risks can be sometimes similar and can be hard to
determine the causal link between the risk factors and the health problem.
Research has found that people with chronic long term illnesses also
experience mental illnesses such as depression and also people with long-
term mental illness often have poor physical health. This can simply explain
the relationships between the two aspects of health. Stress is a factor that
contributes to mental health issues depending on how individuals cope with
the stress. If individuals decide to live in a way that is not healthy by for
instance substance abuse due to mental related issues, they are likely to
develop disorders of substance abuse compared to those who don’t have
mental health problems. Such individuals may also experience problems in
terms of access to health care resources and this goes on to worsen their
condition either physically or mentally (Nordenfelt, 2001).
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 21

1.4.2 The Relationship between Mental Health and Well-Being

This relationship can be viewed in two ways. Using the dual continuum
model and the single continuum model. The dual models describe mental
health as having a close relationship to but still being separate from mental
well-being. Individuals can be said to be mentally well or ill. The model
can be applied in cases where an individual diagnosed with mental illness
can be considered to still have a high level of mental well-being. For
example, an individual with bipolar can be considered to be will if they
manage their moods to a point of stability through medication and paired
with other approaches. The model shows consistencies with the definition of
health which encompasses adapting to situations. Despite it is based on the
perspective that individuals don’t fully recover from certain mental illnesses
and this view has been subject to debate since recovering can be viewed in
different ways as it depends on views and context.
A single framework makes use of similar concepts as with chronic
physical conditions, with three different types of recovery such as clinical
recovery in which case an individual’s prognosis is cured or he or she can
also be in remission; managing of illnesses where the disease symptoms
are controlled, managed and monitored by health professionals and final
individual recovery where people still experience clinical manifestations of
an illness but still perform their day to day functions within the limits of the
diseases or the illness they are suffering from (White, 2002).

Figure 1.12. Dual continuum model of mental health.

Source: https://www.hcdsb.org/Parents/safeandhealthy/Pages/MentalHealth.
aspx
22 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The single continuum model views mental wellbeing as an important

part of mental health. This models puts mental health and well-being on
the same spectrum. Based on this model, the distribution of mental health
and wellbeing is on a continuous basis among populations. An individual is
likely to move in and out of those states of illness. Professor Rose Geoffrey
came up with a proposal that where a health issue is distributed on a
continuous basis within populations, the average of this makes a prediction
on the segment of the population with a diagnosable illness. This makes the
possibility of decreasing numbers of individuals with mental illness within
a population to improve the level of well- being for the general population
(White, 2002).

Figure 1.13. Single continuum model of mental health.

Source: https://www.educare.co.uk/news/what-is-mental-health

1.5 ACHIEVING AND MAINTAINING HEALTH

Figure 1.14. The different aspects that affect our overall health.

Source: https://nicolemcisaac.weebly.com/dimensions-of-health.html
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 23

It is a process that happens continuously and does not require a time frame.
It is a process that is determined by the evolution of healthcare knowledge
and practices as well as personal strategies and planned interventions for
remaining healthy (White, 2002).

1.5.1 Diet/ a Healthy Diet

A critical way of improving one’s health is through their diet. A healthy diet
is composed of a variety of plant based and animal based diets which are
known to provide nutrients to the body. The different nutrients play different
roles within the body. Nutrients can provide energy and similar improve
metabolism throughout the body. They can also be responsible for building
and strengthening bones, muscles and tendons and also take part in the
regulation of processes within the body. Water is also important for growth
and development and also contributes to maintaining good health.
Macronutrients are nutrients that we consume in large proportions and
they include proteins, carbohydrates and fats whereas micronutrients are
nutrients needed by the body in small amounts but still remain important
in the mediation of processes within the human body. Healthy food choices
can be guided by the use of the food pyramid which divides the different
food groups into sections and the quantities of food groups one should
consume reduces with sections going up. Each section shows the intake
that is recommended for groups such as vegetables, cereals, meat and meat
products, milk and milk products, fat and oils and sugars. Food choices will
be determined by different factors such as taste, preference, culture, age,
body image and can also be influenced by things like media. Despite this
it is imperative that we make food choices that are health which is not just
played by the type of food but also the cooking method. A food can be
healthy for example potatoes but once a method of cooking such as deep
frying is employed they become unhealthy. Consuming health foods can
lower the risk factors of diseases such as cancer, the development of heart
diseases and will help an individual in the maintenance of a weight that is
healthy and is commonly determined by calculating body mass index or
making calculations to determine the ideal body weight which can be done
by professionals such as nutritionists and dieticians (Munir Ozturk & Khalid
Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
A weight that is unhealthy is used to determine the nutritional status
of an individual. Overeating and under eating can lead to malnutrition.
Consumption of unhealthy foods can lead to overweight and obesity which
24 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

is on the upper spectrum of malnutrition. Under nutrition which is a result of

inadequate caloric intake and poor food quality can result to both acute and
chronic malnutrition which is on the lower spectrum of malnutrition and can
lead to death and affect body systems when it is not well managed especially
for children under the age of five years. Malnutrition can also be as a result
of a disease and therefore diet and disease are interlinked and either one can
lead to malnutrition.
Under nutrition can also be as a result of eating disorders which is
behavioral and sometimes viewed as neurological since it begins with
body image and obsessiveness on weight and results in to unhealthy eating
behaviors which lead to conditions like anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Such
patients require attention from various health disciplines. In order to maintain
good health it is therefore necessary for one to achieve optimal nutrition.
This means one should not over indulge in the consumption of foods that
are unhealthy meaning they are too sugary or contains large amounts of fats
or food in large quantities. They should also not under eat to the point of
starvation or limit themselves to consuming foods from certain food groups
and this brings in the phenomenon of consuming a balanced but diverse diet
(Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).

1.5.2 Exercise and Health

Physical exercise is useful in enhancing and maintaining physical fitness and
similarly health and wellness. It works to strengthen muscle and improve
functioning of the cardiovascular system. The national institute of health
has classified exercise into four types that is endurance, strength, flexibility
and balance. Other than the maintenance of a healthy weight, regulating the
digestive system, building and maintaining a healthy bone density, muscle
strength and joint mobility. Exercise also promotes physiological wellbeing,
reduction of surgical risks and strengthening the immune system.
Studies have also shown that exercise can lead to an increase in life
expectancy and generally improve the quality of life. A lower mortality rate
has been observed in people who perform moderate exercises compared to
those who don’t or rather do not partake I any physical activity. There is
a correlation between moderate levels of exercise and the delay in aging
due to a reduction in inflammatory potential. Many of the benefits from
performing exercise are met with about 3500 metabolic equivalent minutes
per week with decreasing returns at higher levels of activity. Some examples
include climbing stairs for ten minutes, running for a ten-minute period,
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 25

walking for twenty-five minutes daily can lead to the achievement of about
three thousand metabolic equivalent minutes per week. Absence in physical
activity can lead to about six percent burden of disease from coronary heart
disease, seven percent of type 2 diabetes, ten percent of breast cancer and ten
percent of colon cancer globally. Generally, lack of physical activity leads
to about nine percent premature deaths globally (Munir Ozturk & Khalid
Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
Fitness: People become fit through increasing their physical activity.
Resistance training can lead to an increment in muscle size and is also
determined by whether we have healthy eating habits and also testosterone.
The general population and athletes who train differ physiologically through
varying genetic improvement as a result of training. Research has also proved
that being physically active can lead to better physical activity later in one’s
life. Early motor skills and development is connected to physical active and
performance in the years to come. When children become more proficient
in terms of their motor skills at an early stage are more likely to become
more active physically and perform well, with high fitness levels later in
life. Early life proficiency is positively correlated to childhood physical
activity and also the level of fitness. Less proficiency is also associated with
an inactive lifestyle.
• Cardiovascular system: There is research proving that exercise
is beneficial to the cardiovascular system of an individual. There
is a relationship that exists between living a sedentary lifestyle
and cardiovascular diseases. In most cases physical inactivity
is considered as a risk factor for the development of coronary
heart diseases. Participation in exercise leads to reduction of fat
mass in the body and this leads to an increment in cardiovascular
fitness. Academic stress has also been considered as a risk factor
for the development of heart diseases. Such risks can be reduced
by being physically active or performing regular exercise.
Decreased levels of mortality are also observed in sedentary
individuals who become moderately active. Research has shown
that cardiovascular diseases are one of the major leading causes of
death among women who are aging and this risk can be reduced
when the perform exercises on a regular basis. Exercise can also
increase the survival rates of people who suffer from myocardial
infarction where as people who continue to remain sedentary
increase the risk of succumbing to the disease.
26 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

• Immune system: There is little evidence that connects physical

activity to strengthening the immune system. Some evidence has
shown that moderate physical activity can benefit the immune
systems of humans. Moderate physical activity is associated
with a twenty-nine percent reduction in the occurrence of upper
respiratory tract infections and contrary to this in the case of
athletes, prolonged intense exercise was associated with an
increase in the development of infections and also other studies
done did not concur with this. There is impairment in the
functioning of immune cells after acute sessions of intense and
prolonged exercise. Strenuous activities during training periods by
marathon athletes can reduce the concentration of lymphocytes.
There are similarities in the immune systems of both athletes and
non-athletes. The natural killer cell count and cytolitic action are
slightly high in athletes compared to non-athletes but this was not
observed to be clinically significant. They are advised to increase
their intake in vitamin c rich foods or supplement and this can
reduce the occurrence or chances of developing respiratory tract
infection.
• Cancer: Physical activity and exercise are linked with reduced
occurrence of cancer breast cancer, colon cancer specific
mortality and other cases of cancer. Currently there is little
evidence that connects physical activity or exercise for cancer
survivors. Research shows that exercise can however increase the
quality of life including aspects such as anxiety, self-esteem and
emotional wellness. For cancer patients undergoing treatment,
physical activity can be essential to improving the quality of life
by reducing fatigue and the improvement of individual’s ability
to perform activities. It is visible with high and intense exercises
and therefore people experiencing cachexia are encouraged to
perform moderate exercises despite the limited evidence. Exercise
also has neurobiological benefits such as improved cognitive
ability, induces a transient feeling of euphoria, can help with
cases of depression since it has an antidepressant effect, it can
also improve the emotional state of an individual among others

1.5.3 Sleep and Health

It is an important component in the maintenance of health. In children
it plays an important role in growth and development. Continuous sleep
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 27

deprivation has been linked to the potential of developing chronic health

problems. It has also been connected to increased susceptibility to illness
and also an increase in the length of the recovery period. A study showed
that people who experience chronic insomnia and has six hours of sleep or
less were found to be four times more likely catch a cold in comparison with
individuals who had more than seven or more hours of sleep at night (Munir
Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
Sleep plays a role in the regulation of metabolism in the human body and
can therefore lead to weight gain or similarly affect intended loss of weight.
A cancer research agency for the world health organization concluded that
shift work involves circadian disruption and increases susceptibility to cancer
and is a danger of long term night time work due to sleep disruption. The
National Sleep Foundation, in the year 2015 released recommended sleep
time for different ages . according to them individuals who sleep for less
than the recommended time ranges are likely to exhibit signs or symptoms
of chronic health problems and if they do this on a continuous basis their can
impair their health and also their well-being.
Newborns of between zero to three months require fourteen to seventeen
hours of sleep, infants of between four to eleven months need twelve to fifteen
hours of sleep, toddlers of between one two years require about eleven to
fourteen hours of sleep. Preschoolers of between three to five years require
between ten to thirteen hours of sleep. School going children of between
six to thirteen years of age require nine to ten hours of sleep. Teenagers of
between fourteen to seven years of age require eight to ten hours of sleep.
Adults of between eighteen to sixty four years of age require approximately
seven to nine hours of age. Adults above the age of sixty five years require
seven to eight hours of sleep (White, 2002).

1.5.4 Role of Science in Health

Health science is a branch of science that focuses on health. There exist two
different approaches to health science. That is the and research on the human
body and issues connected to health and this is to gain insights on how the
human body works and how this knowledge can be applied for the purpose
of improving health and also the prevention and cure of illnesses and other
physical and mental impairments. The science integrates knowledge from
other disciplines such as biology, biochemistry, physics, epidemiology,
pharmacology and medical sociology.
28 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Applied health sciences tries to improve the understanding of human

health by applying knowledge from various fields such as health education,
biomedical engineering, biotechnology and public health. Planned health
interventions for improvement are based on the principles and procedures
which are developed through the health sciences by trained professionals
in the fields of medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work,
psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and others. Clinical
professionals put their focus on the health of people, while public health
professionals put the general health of communities or populations into
consideration. Companies have also developed wellness programs for the
reason of improving the health and well-being of their workers. Health care
services are also available in different institutions such as schools which can
provide health services to children (White, 2002).

1.5.5 Role of Public Health

It is defined as the art of disease prevention, prolonging life and the
promotion of health through planned efforts and well researched choices
of the society, organizations, both public and private communities and also
in the case of individuals. It deals with entities that threaten the overall
health of a community based on the analysis of the health of a population.
The population size will vary depending on the geographical area covered.
Public health can be further divided into other interdisciplinary categories
such as epidemiology, biostatistics, environmental health, community
health, behavioral health and occupational health.
Public health interventions focus on the prevention and the management
of diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of
cases and promoting health behavior or behavior change in communities
and environments.it prevents the development of health problems or
those that are recurrent through the implementation of programs that are
educative, policy development, administration of services and conducting
research. In most incidences, the treatment of diseases or pathogen control
can be of importance in preventing it from spreading to others in the event
of an outbreak. These can be referred to as preventive measures they include
vaccination programs, distributing condoms can be important in preventing
the spread of infectious diseases and are therefore examples of preventive
health measures. Other preventive measures can include educational
campaigns to promote the above mentioned measures (White, 2002).
Public health can take a variety of actions to reduce health disparities
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 29

within an area or different regions within a country or globally. One common

public health issue is the access to health care services by individuals. This
can be limited by geographical, financial constraints and sometimes social
cultural. This concerns can be improved by health care delivery systems.
Applications of public health systems include maternal and child health,
administering healthcare services, responding to emergencies, preventing
and controlling infectious and chronic illnesses.
Researchers have recognized the positive impacts of public health
interventions and programs. This is as a result of the policies developed in
this field. These policies have contributed to a reduction in infant and child
mortality rates and the continuous increase in life expectancy in different
parts of the world. For instance, it is estimated that the life expectancy has
increased for Americans by thirty years since the year nineteen hundred and
globally by six years since nineteen ninety (Nordenfelt, 2001).

1.5.6 Self-care Strategies

Personal health is dependent upon partial active, passive and assisted cues
which people gain from observation and adoption about their own health.
Some of these include personal action in the prevention or the minimization
of the effects of a disease, which can be chronic most of the time through
integrated care.
This includes personal hygiene practices that Foster the prevention of
infection or illnesses. This includes activities such as bathing and washing
hand soap; brushing and flossing of teeth; safe preparation, storage and
handling of food and many more. This information comes from personal
observations of daily living and it includes sleep patterns, exercising, food
intake and issues related to the environment. They can all be useful in
informing personal duration and action. For example, I feel tired in the
morning so I’ll try to sleep early in the evening or decisions related to
seeking medical care.
Personal health is dependent on the social structure in an individual’s
personal life. Maintaining social relationships, volunteering and other
activities have been linked with positive mental health outcomes and also
increased longevity. Research done in the United States among senior
citizens above the age of seventy years, found that active volunteering was
linked to a reduction of the risks of dying compared to those who did not
and this was irrespective of the physical health status. Similar research
done in Singapore, also found that retired individuals who volunteered had
30 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

better scores in cognitive performance, they had few symptoms related to

depression and had better mental well-being and seemed to be satisfied with
life compared to retired individuals who did not take part in volunteering
activities (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Prolonged periods of psychological stress are likely to have negative
impacts on health and has been identified as a risk factor for the development
of c cognitive impairment which is associated with aging, depression and
expression of disease. Managing stress requires applying different methods
to reduce it or increase tolerance to it. Physical methods used in stress
reduction include relaxation techniques, psychological methods include
cognitive therapy, meditating, thinking positively this methods function to
reduce stress. Improving essential skills related to solving problems and
managing time can be resourceful in the reduction of uncertainty and makes
an individual more confident. This can also help to reduce how people react
to events that are stressful where these skills can be applied (Nordenfelt,
2001).

1.6 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

In addition to safety risks, many occupations also present risk of disease
illness or other long-term health problems. Some occupational diseases
take different forms such as that of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis and
coal workers pneumoconiosis. Other illnesses may be related to respiratory
tract infections like asthma. Employees may also be susceptible to skin
diseases such as eczema, dermatitis, urticaria, sunburn and skin cancers.
Occupational diseases of concern include carpal tunnel syndrome and lead
poisoning.
The number of service sector jobs have increased over the years in
developed countries. As time goes on work has become more and more
sedentary at least present a range of different health problems that are linked
to manufacturing and the primary sector. Modern problems in the health
sector such as the growing numbers of people with overweight and obesity
issues can be linked to stress and overworking in many countries and they
go on to make the relationship between work and health complex (Munir
Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
A lot of governments view occupational health and safety as a social
challenge and have made the effort to form public organizations or committees
to ensure that the safety of health workers is guaranteed. For example, the
 Health and Illness as a State of Being Human 31

development of the British health and safety executive in Britain and the
National Institute of Occupational safety and health in the United States.
These organizations take part in research related to occupational safety
and health and also its administration. They take part in regulating and
developing policies related to employee safety and health.
2
Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants

CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 34
2.2 Procurement And Use of Medicinal Plants ......................................... 38
2.3 Preferred Plant Habitats .................................................................... 51
2.4 Medicinal Plants And Soil Types ........................................................ 63
34 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 2.1. It is plant commonly found in lawns and it is commonly used in the
treatment of pulmonary illnesses.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellaria_media
Human societies have relied on the use of plants for medicine and many
significant medicine are extracted from plants by both indigenous societies
and the contemporary world. Ethnobotanists and other scientists carry out
research in order to make discoveries on medicinal plants. There are several
plant species that are used globally by different cultures for medicinal
use and the number of species used can only be estimated and the world
Health Organization listed about 21000 medicinal species in the 1970s.
In China alone there are about 5000 species out of that, 26000 species are
used as drugs in traditional China. Global it can be estimated that more
than 15000 species are used for medicinal purposes. Some plant species
have higher proportions of medicinal plants than others. For example,
apocynaceae, araliaceae, apiaceae, asclepiadaceae, canellaceae, guttiferae
and menispermaceae. These species are distributed all over the world in a
uniform manner. This means given the proportion of some of the Species,
some will have higher proportion than others and therefore become more
prone to extinction.
Known medicinal plant species that are of importance to health care
systems and vary in terms of their chemical properties exist in various
habitats. Individuals who use medicinal plants most of the time get them
from the wild while others are cultivated. Plants occur in a variety of habitats
such as dry lands, wetlands, grasslands, forests and other ecosystem. They
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 35

are also associated with other plant forms such as weed and others growing
from their cultivation.

Favored Medicinal Plant Habitats

The areas where medicinal plants are sourced from and how they are managed
in healthcare can be important when it comes to informing individuals and
helping them to understand the relationship that exists between biodiversity,
plants used for medicinal purposes and health. Old growth tropical forests
most of the time are considered to be resourceful due to the diversity
that exists in medicinal plants for example the Aponycynacea and the
Menispermaceae. In most areas, secondary or areas with no disturbance
are preferred by medicinal plants. For example, in a country like Ghana in
Africa, medicinal plants were found mostly in peripheral fallow areas and not
mostly for rests household use. In other African countries, most traditional
healers used medicinal plants from forests which were then transplanted for
use by the locals and some cultivated in home gardens.

Figure 2.2. Rauvolfia serpentine is a medicinal plant from the Aponycynacea

family.

Source: wiki.medicinalplants-uses.com/index.php?title=Rauvolfia_serpentina
Tropical ecosystems both forests and woodlands and high mountain
areas are some of the common places from which medicinal plants are
harvested in Ayurvedic, Chinese, Tibean and diverse African and Latin
American healthcare systems. Most of the favored medicinal plants are long
36 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

lived, most of the time they are habitat specific perennial species. These
species are threatened by different factors in such as climate change, habitat
loss but their growth is supported by different climatic conditions, soil types
and are favored by areas with less invasion and disturbance. There are also
weeds in habitats that have been destroyed and contain medicinal properties.
This should also change the attention from distinct medicinal plant species
which are different in terms of their phylogeny and chemical properties
especially in tropical forests. The world’s majority of psychotropic plants
such as Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, and Tabernanthe iboga are
sourced from forests, are central to ancient cultural practices but still are still
important to the contemporary world. There are also medicinal plant species
in forest and mountain ecosystems and they occur in monotypic families
such as the Eucommiciae, Ginkogoaceae, Stangeriacea; monotypic genus
such as Peumus and Neopicrorhiza and very little genus of about 2-5 species
. It is necessary for these habitats to be focused on especially in relation
to policies and practices for the conservation of medicinal plants and the
management of resources.

Figure 2.3. Tabernanthe iboga a medicinal rainforest plant found in Gabon, the
democratic republic of Congo and other West African countries.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga
The few studies that have been done when it comes to ecology of
medicinal plants in research areas. medicinal plants like Acacia nilotica are
found mostly in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa on wooded grassland,
Woodland and open bush land from coastal areas to altitude of 2300
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 37

millimeters wild species like Balanites aegyptiaca are found in dry bush
lands, bushed grassland, wooded grassland or woodland but it can also grow
along rivers at altitudes of two hundred and fifty to two thousand metres.
Medicinal plant species like Boscia coriacea are found in bush lands and
semi desert scrub and most of the time in rocky areas at altitudes of one
hundred and fifty to one thousand five hundred metres. Acacia occurs in
different regions but the, Acacia melifera is widely distributed in many arid
and semi-arid regions. Its survival occurs in various soils and it includes
rocky areas, loam soils, volcanic and sandy soils and it grows between
altitudes of three hundred metres and one thousand eight hundred metres
altitude.

Figure 2.4. Acacia nilotica is found in arid regions in Africa.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vachellia_nilotica#Distribution
Many medicinal plants, especially aromatic herbs are cultivated in
home gardens, some in fields either as a single crop or with other crops
but really as plantation crops. Research done for companies involved in
the trade and cultivation of herbal medicines and other botanical products
who asked mention the proportion of plant materials that were acquired
through cultivation to that which was harvested from the wild. In the case
of a company in Germany only 50 to 100 species out of 1500 species were
cultivated. For a company in India that traded about 400 plant species less
than 20 plant species were under cultivation. In countries like China with
about 5000 existing species had Only 100 to 150 species of plants being
used for medicinal purposes in Europe about 150 medicinal plants are also
cultivated in Hungary about 40 plant species are cultivated for commercial
purposes. This means that the number of traditional species that are under
38 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

cultivation do not exceed more than hundreds of species. A global survey

has shown that the cultivation of a higher number of species is desirable as it
contributes to conservation of medicinal plants. It is also safe to acknowledge
that some medicinal plants are also grown on a small scale by individuals in
their homes or herbalists in their local environments.

2.2 PROCUREMENT AND USE OF MEDICINAL

PLANTS
Wild crafting is also referred to as foraging and it is the common practice
of extracting plants from their natural habitats in order to gain access for
medicinal use or as food. This applies to most plants that are not cultivated.
In some countries their ethical considerations with regards to wild crafting in
order to protect species that are threatened and have the potential to become
extinct where access to such plants is communal. It can also prevent theft in
the cases where the plants exist on private properties.
It is done in a manner that is sustainable and sometimes limited to certain
parts of a plant. The Association of foragers believes that wild crafting by
individuals plays an important role when it comes to the support, promotion
and defense in relation to plant health, fungi and animals which exist in
different habitats and environments. Plants for a future database basically has
7000 plants which are edible, medicinal of other uses. In the United States,
the goal of the united plant savers is the protection of Native medicinal
plants of the United States and Canada and similarly their habitats. This is
done to ensure that there is continuity in the abundance of medicinal plants
even for the future generations.
Four states and five National Forests in America have actively
participated in the management of wild harvesting of ginseng to ensure that
it is sustainable. In Europe, wood forest products for example medicinal
herbs essential oil can be important to the economy especially in areas where
woods are not really a product that is economically profitable. The potential
of their use commercially has therefore been explored. There’s a lack of
evidence that foraging in small amounts for personal use by people and
families has a significant effect when it comes to the population of plants.
However, in the case where medicinal plant, attract commercial interest,
their huge demand can affect sustainability in its use.
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 39

2.2.1 Harvesting Medicinal Plants from Wild Habitats

There are a variety of medicinal plants growing all over the world.
Identification of such plants is important and similarly their chemical
properties. It is not advisable to rely on the common name of plants or
verbal description when it comes to the identification of additional plants.
The common names differ from region to region and so will the descriptions
of the plants on verbal basis.
The collection of word medicinal plants is done in various forms. For
example, some of the parts collected include roots, barks, flowers, seeds
and leaves. The way medicinal plants harvested or handled has an important
effect when it comes to quality of the finished product. The quality of the
product is arrested by the time. Different plants are collected at different
times of the year. If ensuring quality is the main goal, it will be important to
learn about the plant cycle and also their behavior when it comes to growing.
No matter what species all part of a medicinal plant a person is harvesting, it
is important to extract areas of the plant that do not have chemicals such as
insecticides or herbicides and also those that have no exposure to dust and
fumes from the environment. When exposed to such contaminating agents
then the plant can be assumed to be poisonous.
The appearance of plants when they’re harvested will contribute
significantly to its quality. This means that any part of the plant, that is
discolored, has any type of damage so it is infested with pests or diseases
should not be harvested. It is also necessary to handle the harvested plant
materials in a careful manner from their point of removal from the natural
environment up to the point that a plant material is rendered as usable.
Individuals that take part in the procurement of medicinal plants will ensure
that they dry and store the plant materials in a careful manner to avoid
spoilage and can also yield more usable products. For medicinal plants that
are dried, drying should be done on racks with direct contact to the sun,
together with a steady flow of air is recommended. Once the plants are dry,
they should be stored in large quantities in dry spaces with constant airflow.

2.2.2 Cultivated Medicinal Plants

The cultivation of medicinal plants is closely linked to their conservation.
Most medicinal plants that have collected in the wild can be cultivated.
Cultivation is better since most well medicinal plants are being over-
exploited and this threatens the existence. There are several advantages of
40 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

cultivating medicinal plants such as consistency predictability in terms of

supply. It also provides the opportunity when it comes to selecting desirable
genetic trait and also it offers protection when it comes to reducing the extent
of exploitation especially for medicinal plants in the wild.
From an economic perspective cultivation can be more desirable, with
these constant supply of medicinal plants and also those taking part will have
to try and meet quality standards. It is a suitable method of ensuring regular
access to medicinal plants especially in the case of individuals who lack
land or livestock, places to harvest wild plant resources including medicine
plants and ecosystems with low arable potential. It is also an economic
opportunity to small-scale farmers and offers a solution to the continuous
decline of medicinal wild plants.
Examples of illegal cultivated medicinal plants include Cannabis sativa
which is illegal in Australia, Africa, and Asia but is legal in some states in
North America; the Catha edulis is illegal in Ethiopia Kenya and Yemen,
The Erythroxylum coca which is used in the production of cocaine is illegal
in most countries and opium is illegal in some countries. In most cases the
cultivation of medicinal plants is difficult especially when the aim is to meet
commercial demand. Small-scale farmers are commonly faced with high
risks and also lack of stable markets. Some plants are also prone to failure
such as the Prunus africana since it can be harvested from the wild.

Figure 2.5. The Prunus africana

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prunus_africana
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 41

In countries like China where the demand for medicinal plants is high and
other Asian countries, it has been necessary to cultivate medicinal plants in
order to meet population demands. Cultivation can also lead to the destruction
of habitats for example in china the growing of Ammonium villosum sharen
for commercial purposes affects the regeneration of lowland rain forest.
The cultivation of Ammonium tsao-oko has also affected montane forest
conservation regions which are prioritized when it comes to conservation.
For Economic reasons, consumers prefer medicinal plants from the wild. It
is expensive to cultivate medicinal plants, sometimes it is also not practical
and can take a longer time than expected. For Communities and individuals
who lack adequate arable land, can continue to muse well have used in as a
source of getting access to medicinal plants. Examples of medicinal plants
that can be cultivated in gardens include
• Gotu kola (Centella asiatica, Apiaceae) - they grow well in
in moist soils that drain well. To better the drainage one can
combine coarse sand and pine bark fines. The soil should be wet
on a continuous basis but not completely filled with water. It can
be placed exposing to the sun when there are warm temperatures.
In hot summers, the plants will require plant covers. Their leaves
are harvested to be used for medicinal purposes. Upon removal
of some leaves, others grow afterwards. Stems, fruits, flowers and
fruits can also be used. The plant can be used in powdered form.
They are used as diuretics, antioxidants, antibacterial agents, it
is used for wound healing purposes and can also be used as anti-
inflammatory.

Figure 2.6. Centella asiatica from India.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centella_asiatica
42 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

• Spilanthes (Acmella oleracea, Asteraceae) - the plants parts that

are used include leaves, stems and flowers. It is a medicinal plant
that is easy to cultivate. It can be planted in containers at home.
It can be planted with other medicines such as lemon grasses
and artichoke. It can be planted as a frost-tender annual unless
it is in the tropics. Seedlings can be placed in containers outside
which have rich soil. They have a succulent nature and preserves
water compared to any medicinal plants. Organic matter can also
provide additional benefits to the plan and clay soil to aid the
retention of soil. The plants are prone to attack by spider mites. It
can be used as a diuretic, it can be used to stimulate the immune
system, for anti-inflammatory purposes and as a sialagogue.

Figure 2.7. Acmella oleracea and is sometimes referred to as the tooth ache
plant.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acmella_oleracea
• Aloe Vera (A. barbadensis, Asphodelaceae) – it is a succulent
plant and is therefore hard to die. It adapts to a various climates
and can be grown anywhere in the world. It can be placed outside
in warm climates and if potted can be placed inside in winter
seasons. Despite its succulent nature, it is not tolerant to harsh
climatic conditions such as the hot sun. Too much sun can lead to
yellowing of its leaves. Upon harvesting, the plant material can be
converted to gel form, poultice and juice preparation. Aloe vera
can be used in cosmetic products to sooth the skin, can be used
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 43

in the treatment of wounds, as an anti-inflammatory medicinal

plant, as an antibacterial and also as a laxative.

Figure 2.8. Aloe Vera is a plant of Asian origin that grows in tropical and sub-
tropical climates.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe_vera
• Jiagolun (Gynostemma pentaphyllum, Cucurbitaceae) - it has lush
like and leaves that are shaped like stars. It the right conditions it
becomes a trailing plant. It can therefore have an aesthetic value.
It is described as a herb that can easily adapt to any environment.
It grows in soil that has moisture and is rich. They should also be
grown partially in less sunlight. The plant should not be grown
on a surface since it can completely take over an area and it can
be hard to control. When exposed to a lot of sun, the leaves of
the jiagolun become yellow and become less desirable. If the
temperatures are low, in case the plant is potted in can be placed
inside the house. It is a bitter herb. It is used in the treatment
of various disease conditions such as anxiety, stress, depression,
high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol conditions.
44 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 2.9. Jiagolun is a plant commonly distributed in South and East of Asia.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynostemma_pentaphyllum
• Lavender (Lavandula species, Lamiacea) - lavenders have
beautiful purple spikes and have a good aroma. The most
commonly cultivated species is the English lavender and is
grown in both botanical gardens and by individuals in their
home gardens for medicinal use. There are several lavender plant
species and about thirty nine species have been recorded. Some
are also cultivated for ornamental purposes. One can find the
cultivars that are suitable for an area. A short-lived perennial is
favored by warm conditions and exposure to sunlight. If the plant
is potted, perlite, gravel and sand can be added to the soil. Other
conditions include soils that are properly drained and constant
flow of air.

Figure 2.10. The Lavendula species of the lavender.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavandula
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 45

They do not grow well in soils that are water logged and should not be
placed openly when there is heavy rainfall. In sunny areas consider providing
shade. Winter conditions do not favor lavender. Lavender can be used in the
treatment of wounds, burns and simple infections. It is antimicrobial that
sooths the skin and can be used for pain relief. It is used in the treatment
of depression since it has a first acting effect. It can also be used in the
treatment of anxiety and insomnia. The parts of the plant used for medicinal
purposes include flowers. They can be prepared as tea, oil and other forms.
• Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum,Lamiaceae)- the plant appears puny
when first planted and when first planted one can assume that
the plant has failed. Its growth is favored by a warm climate. It
grows well in temperate climates. The plant grows in any kind
of soil but is favored by soils that are fertile and with constant
moisture. Pinching of the shoots and the flowers produced at the
beginning can allow for vegetative growth. These plants bloom
early and most times its production of flowers when it has grown
only a few inches. Removal of the first flowers can be helpful
in developing a well-rounded plant with rich foliage. One can
make several harvests in a single year. The mature plant can be
cut back to almost eight inches and will help it grow quickly.
There are several plant species and in tropical areas they can
all be successfully grown. They reach waist- high proportions
as perennials that are woody. The holy basil can be grown in
temperate climates and is easy to grow.

Figure 2.11. Ocimum tenuiflorum is a plant that originates from India and is
also referred to as the holy basil.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum_tenuiflorum
46 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The parts of the plants that are used for medicinal purposes include
leaves and flowers. The medicine can be prepared in different forms such
as infused oil, as poultice, pesto, infused vinegar and others. It can be
used in the treatment of depression, it is used in lowering blood pressure,
in immunomodulation, treatment of anxiety, as an adaptogen, lowering
cholesterol and also as an antioxidant. It can also be combined with other
plants such as calamus and rosemary to lead to an increment in concentration
and cognition. Despite its benefits it is not recommended for pregnant
women, for people who are diabetic and some studies have shown that it is
associated with a reduction in sperm count.
• Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) can also be grown with
artichoke and sage- the aromatic tropical grass can be cultivated
and grown in containers and that can be kept indoors during the
winter season. It can be put in pots so that its size is manageable
in the case where there is no botanical garden or just a garden.
It is commanding when planted with other herbal medicine. The
lemon grass is grown exposed to the sun and well aerated soils.
One can also add perlite or pine barks to the soil.

Figure 2.12. Lemon grass.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbopogon_citratus
The stem can be harvested multiple times within the growing season and
this is done for the sake of increasing plant yields and also managing how
the plant grows. The parts of lemon grass used are the stem and the leaves.
It is commonly served as tea and has several benefits upon its consumption.
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 47

It can be used to relieve pain, treatment of depression and reduce anxiety.

It also treats insomnia, coughs, colds and even flu. It is commonly used by
traditional societies in Brazil, the Caribbean, China and India. In the present
world, research on it properties has revolved around essential oils which
demonstrated antimicrobial and antifungal properties.
• White sage (Salvia apiana , Lamiacea)- the white sage is
endemic to southern California and baja Carlifornia. It has
become increasingly rear in its natural habitats as a result of being
overexploited by individuals and people have been encouraged to
grow it on their own and should prevent over harvesting it from
the wild. The growth of white sage is favored by warm climates
and similarly a dry environment. When the climatic conditions
are somewhat humid, it has the tendency to be attacked by fungal
diseases and becomes rotten. Proper growth of this plant is favored
by well-drained soil and therefore material to improve drainage
of the soil can be added such as coarse sand, perlite among others.
It is also susceptible to aphid attacks and sometimes insecticides
can be used in case the plants starts to wilt as a result. It should
be grown in areas where it receives enough but not excessive
amounts of sunlight. Such areas should also not experience or be
exposed to excessive rainfall.

Figure 2.13. The white sage.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_apiana
48 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

During winter periods it can be placed in a greenhouse or inside the

house. For white sage the plant parts utilized include the stem and leaves.
The medicine can be prepared and used in tea, as aromatic smoke, honey or
inhaled in the form of steam. It has several uses such as in the treatment of
upper respiratory tract conditions such as sinuses especially in steam form.
It can also be used as an antifungal, an antibacterial, an anti-inflammatory
treatment and many others.
• Calamus (Arocus americanus, Acoraceae) - it is a herb that is
commonly found in wetlands. It can planted in waterlogged soils
or in containers that have consistent moisture. Extra care should
be taken in relation to these plants especially during dry seasons.
In climates that are cool, its growth is favored. It tolerates
moderate sunlight. When grown in arid areas those planting
them should create shade in the afternoon when it is extremely
hot and also water the plants to prevent drying and wilting. It
is able to reproduce using rhizomes and after a period of two
years, the plants can be divided and placed in different containers
or another consideration is to continuously harvest the roots for
medicinal use. It can be used as a remedy for various conditions
such as menstrual cramps, indigestion, sinuses and it can also be
used in the creation of alertness especially for students.

Figure 2.14. The calamus is a plant commonly found in wet lands.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorus_americanus
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 49

• Lemon verbena (Aloysia citriodora, verbenaceae) - it is a tropical

plant and is a favorite to many individuals. It is a perennial bush
that has a bright scent. It does well in soils that are fertile and
with good drainage. It is a drought resistant plant and does well
if it is left to dry between periods of being watered. The tips
that grow can be pinched to allow it to become bushier. This is
important especially when the seedlings are planted. The plant is
susceptible to attacks by spider mites. The effects of these attacks
include leaves that are yellow and mottled. They can be treated
with organic pesticides. Plants in climates that are warmer should
be pruned and kept inside or in greenhouses during seasons of
winter. The soil should contain moisture and sandy soil can also
be a good addition to improve drainage. A mulch can also be
added when the plant is placed in a greenhouse. During the winter,
the plants tend to lose their leaves and it should be watered to keep
the roots alive. For medicinal purposes both the leaves and the roots
can be utilized. It can be added to tea, honey, syrup and vinegar. It
has a calming effect when used. It is safe for use by people of all ages.
It has functions almost similar to those of chamomile and mint and
has not after use effects. It can function as a sedative and is therefore
useful to people with insomnia. It can also be used to reduce nausea
when mixed with other medicinal plants such as ginger and catnip. It
is useful to those who also experience motion sickness.

Figure 2.15. Aloysia citrodora is used as a medicinal herb.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloysia_citrodora
50 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

2.2.3 Plant Parts Used from Medicinal Plants

There are different parts of medicinal plants that are harvested and the plant
parts have different timings when it comes to harvesting. The plant parts will
also differ in terms of processing and also treatment.
• Roots-plants differ depending on the harvesting times others are
annuals, perennial and biennials. In the case of annuals harvesting
should be done before the plant starts producing flowers and in the
case of perennials or biennials harvesting should be done during
fall or early spring. The roots post harvesting should be cleaned
to remove dirt, after which they should be sliced or chopped to
allow drying. They can also be short chopped depending on-the-
market or desirability.
• Bark-The collection of plant barks occurs during the dormant
season when there is reduced flow of sap or no sap at all. The
bark can be chipped into semi uniform pieces before they’re
dried. It is important to remember that harvesting should not
remove the entire bark from the tree. If this is done it can lead
to the death of the tree. In the case of trees that floats from root
stock, cutting down the tree should be done above the root crown
before barking.
• Foliage or leaves- leaves should be harvested when the leaves
and the foliage have gone through full development. There are
plants that can allow multiple harvest within a season. Individuals
harvesting should try as much and avoid leaves that are discolored,
disfigured or infected by parasites or diseases. After harvesting
the leaves should be dried in open spaces. They should also not
be over dried so that cracking will not occur crimping or splitting
of stems.
• Flowers- Most flowers are harvested when they first Bloom.
Flowers should be dried in an area that has shed. This is meant
to prevent them from becoming discolored. All flowers can
be bunched and drying can be done while they hang in an
upside-down manner. Flowers can be collected to make floral
arrangements and is collected for this purpose they should be
selected based on colour and shape.
• Seeds-Seeds are harvested depending on the plant species. The
harvesting of seeds is done when the plants are properly ripe.
Most of the seeds are collected manually and this usually requires
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 51

a lot of labor. Special tools and equipment can be designed to

perform this function so that it is done in a manner that is effective
and also reduces harm to plants.

2.3 PREFERRED PLANT HABITATS

There are different areas in which organisms live naturally and it is referred
to as their habitat. There are five major types of habitats for example, forests,
grasslands, desert mountains, Polar Regions and aquatic habitats. Aquatic
habitats can further be divided into saline water habitats and freshwater
habitats.

2.3.1 Forests
Forests are large areas that are covered with plants. They make up about a
third of the planet. There are different types of plants and animals found in
the forest and that includes medicinal plants. Plants from forests can also be
used as a source of food timber and resources obtained from forests can be
used to perform other functions that help in supporting the livelihoods of
surrounding communities. There are different types of forests worldwide.
They include tropical forest, temperate forest, and boreal forests.
Tropical rain forest: Tropical Forests are commonly referred to as
rainforests. They are mostly located between the Equator and two tropics
that is the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn. The conditions in
search for guests include temperatures that range from 20 degree celsius to
34 degrees celsius. Such areas receive rainfall throughout the year with an
annual rainfall of more than 200 cm. There are various flora and fauna found
within this forests. The Amazon forest is a tropical forest and is the home
to more than 80000 plants species. Globally, it is well known for providing
about 25% of all drugs that are derived from medicinal plants found in
rainforests. The amazon forest is characterized by a climate that is hot, humid
and damp and this is constant throughout the year. It also receives heavy
rainfall that is between 1500 millimetres and 3000 millimetres annually and
has average temperatures of twenty four degrees celsius. Despite these the
amazon forest is characterized by tropical soils which are poor in nutrients
but are still able to support many species of medicinal plants. The amazon
basin also has white sandy soils and have experienced evolution throughout
the years. The father of ethnobotany also travelled to the Amazon to learn
from the Amazonian shaman on the use of different medicinal plants. Some
of the examples of medicinal plants found in the Amazon forest include the
52 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

achiote which is used by native tribes in the Amazon for cultural practices
such as painting, used for the treatment of wounds and fevers. It was also
used in repelling insects.

Figure 2.16. Achiote seed pods.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bixa_orellana
The ayahuasca has been used by Amazon tribes for many years. Research
done in the recent years has shown that is has the potential to be used in the
management of some psychological conditions such as anxiety, depression
and psychiatric symptoms that are minor. Cats claws, a plant that is known
for its attachment to tree trunks and possesses thorns that are small and green
and that is where its name originated from or was derived. It has been used
by Amazonian people in the treatment of different illnesses and conditions
for example rheumatism tooth aches and also wounds. The rat’s tail which
is an unusual name for a plant can help with indigestion problems and has
been proven to also help with abdominal bloating, acid reflux, diarrhea and
bronchitis. Crashing of the root is also possible for application as poultice
in the case of burns, feet with odor and also minor cuts or bruises. Other
well-known medicinal plants in the amazon forest include the Cordonillo,
the jaborandi, the lapacho, matico, sodo, canellia, shampumvilla, curare,
quinine and so many more.
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 53

Figure 2.17. Preparation of the ayahuasca plant.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca
The betel nut is found in tropical forests in southern America and it can
also be cultivated and is used by native tribes to carryout rituals. The kratom
is found in moist tropical forests in Asian countries. The leaves can be
harvested from the wild and also cultivated. It can be used in the prevention
of fatigue and also in the treatment of addiction to morphine.
Temperate forests: Temperate forests are found in Eastern North
America, north Eastern Asia and western and central Europe. The climate
in this region is characterized by temperatures of -30 degrees Celsius to 30
degrees Celsius. These areas receive rainfall of about 150 cm and in most
cases it occurs throughout the year. Trees found in this area shed their leaves
once a year. They experience well defined seasons of summer and winter.
Temperate Forest are found in areas that experience rainfall of
between 200 to 500 cm and between 1800 to 3000 metres in altitude. In
countries like India it is found in most of the hill for example the Shillong
plateau, Mizo hills and the Nagaland. In this area, most of the species are
found within the slopes and values in the lower elevations. Dominant species
in such areas include the alnus, lyonia, quercus and the rhododendron. The
Eucommia ulmoides is found in China and is an endemic family. It exists in
montane forests of western China and is considered an endangered species.
The trees and barks are part of the plants which are used in the treatment
of conditions like hypertension. The Ginkgo biloba is an endemic family of
Medicinal plants found in China and and are used for ornamental purposes.
The Stangeria eriopus is a common deciduous species in South Africa. It is
54 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

a species harvest from forests and marginal grasslands. It is used the Zulu
communities as a protective charm.

Figure 2.18. Ginkgo biloba is used by many herbalists in China.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba
The Hydrastis canadensis is a perennial medicinal plant that is used as an
antibiotic and in the management of inflammation. It is native to eastern and
northern America and is commonly found in native forests. The American
ginseng is a perennial herb found in temperate forests in the United States
and Canada. The roots are used in improving cognitive function and also in
the endurance enhancement. The huhuanglian is a medicinal plant found in
the montane Himalayas. The rhizomes are extracted from the wild and used
in the management of dysentery, fevers and some eye problems. The ginseng
is also found in temperate forests in China. The plants can be cultivated or
extracted from the wild. The usable part is the root which is used in the
treatment of stomach ache, anorexia, toothache and essential oils.
Boreal forests: Peripherals are also referred to as taiga. These forests are
found in countries like Canada, Russia, Scandinavia, China and Mongolian.
The forest experiences very low temperatures that are about -50 degrees
Celsius to 30 degrees Celsius. They also experience snow in these areas
and it ranges from 40 to 100 centimeters. In Canada, boreal forests are
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 55

home to many aboriginal communities who make use of medicinal plants.

Aboriginal communities have been the main focus when it comes to the
use of medicinal plants in Canada. In a study done on this community, 546
medicinal taxonomic groups discovered in the Canadian boreal Forest. The
different types of medicinal plants were used to prepare several medicinal
home remedies using the roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds and
sometimes the entire plant. (Uprety et al., 2012)
Some common examples of medicinal plants include the
• Abies species-examples include the balsam fir and it is used in
the treatment of sores, bruises, wounds cuts, buns, bites and
infections. It contains a variety of aromatic compounds, resins,
tannins and unstable oils. The liquid pitch from back blisters,
bark needles and cons are used for medicinal purposes. Tea made
from the bark can be used in the treatment of sore throats cold,
coughs, tuberculosis and digestive tract infections.

Figure 2.19. The balsam fir.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abies_balsamea
• The Achillea millefolium-Such plants contain aromatic
substances, for example mental and thujone. The parts of the
plant used include the leaves, roots and flowers. The leaves can
be consumed whole to remedy cold and coughs. It can also be
used in making poultice which can be used in the treatment of
56 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

wounds, burns, rashes and abscess. It can also be used to manage

conditions like bronchitis. The leaves can be crushed and used
to make tea and when taken, can be used in purifying blood, the
management of diarrhea. It can be used to deal with gynecological
problems and in repelling insects. It is a plant that is indigenous
to Canada but still being used worldwide.

Figure 2.20. It is native to countries of the northern hemisphere.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achillea_millefolium
• The Alnus species-The part of the plant used is the bark. It is used
as a laxative, as a diuretic and in the management of toothaches,
internal bleeding, excessive bleeding in the lungs, cramps and
tuberculosis. It can also be used in the management of wounds,
mouth sores and also infections. It is a common medicinal
plant that is used by the native communities across Canada in
places where they exist. When investigated it was found to have
antibiotic properties and was effective against a range of bacterial
pathogens.
• The Cornus sericea (red willow) – it is a shrub. The inner bark
is in poultice form. it is used in the treatment of a number of
infections, wounds, sores, cuts, and toothaches. It can also be
used to manage colds and upper respiratory tract infections. It is
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 57

also used as an analgesic and to stop hemorrhaging. It can be used

by athletes to increase their strength and endurance. It was used
by native communities all over the Canada.

Figure 2.21. It is commonly found in wetlands.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornus_sericea
• The Heracleum maximum (cow-parsnip)- the young shoots of the
cow-parsnip are safe for human consumption and are important
during the spring season. This medicinal plant was used by many
communities native to Canada. The roots were crushed and used
in the form of steam baths to treat conditions including boils,
bruising, toothaches, as a pain reliever and also swellings.

Figure 2.22. The cow parsnip.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleum_maximum
58 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

• Juniper species- they are plants commonly used for their flavors
and scents. The parts of the plant that are used include the
round seed cones that are almost similar to berries. The cones
are aromatic and possesses resin and unstable oils. Despite their
use as medicinal plants they are none for their toxicity and their
potential to cause cancers. Medicinal formulations are used in the
treatment of coughs, some lung diseases, tuberculosis, stomach
illnesses, indigestion, vomiting and kidney problems. In steam
form it is used in the treatment of arthritis, chest pains, headaches,
wound healing and sprains. It is also used in traditional ceremonies
and was believed to be a source of protections and also to cleanse
individuals against evil by native tribes in Canada. Five plant
species of the Juniper originated from Canada have been used in
other countries and can be found in the boreal forests of Canada.

Figure 2.23. The berry like cone of the juniper species.

Source: https://www.herbwisdom.com/herb-juniper.html

2.3.2 Grasslands
Grasslands are areas characterized and inhabited by different types of
grasses. Such areas have very few trees and also have shrubs. Temperatures
in this area varies from -20 degrees Celsius to 30 degrees Celsius. There are
variations in the annual rainfall that is experienced and range is between 50
to 90 centimeters. The dry grasslands in Africa are characterized by species
diversity when it comes to both plants and animals. Grasslands provide
shelter to various animals and also plants. Grassland habitats can be divided
into different types.
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 59

• Temperate grasslands- are mostly characterized by grasses,

absence of trees and has huge trees. Temperate grasslands include
the tall-grass prairies which are humid and dry short grass prairies
that are characterized by warm summers and cold winters. The
soils in these grasslands are rich with nutrients in the upper layers
and sometimes experience fires during drought seasons. There
are several alpine plants that can be used for medicinal purposes.
In the Himalayas, many plant species are used for commercial
purposes for medicinal use and aromatic functions. Communities
within Nepal and India rely on medicinal plants as a source of
income and subsistance, therefore they need it for their daily
living. Some of the plant species that are collected from the
wild and sometimes cultivated in Nepal include the Aconitum
spicatum, Dioscorea deltoidea, the Aconitum heterophyllum.
Some of the plants can still be found in the Himalayas in India.
The umathunga is a perennial herb that exists in montane grasslands in
South Africa. The bulb is extracted and used in making enemas. The Igibisila
is also a perennial plant found in montane grasslands in South Africa and the
rhizome is used in the treatment of coughs and colds. The Incoho is found
in montane grasslands in South Africa and the corm can either be cultivated
or harvested from the wild and used in cultural practices for divination and
dream interpretation.
• Tropical grasslands- their locations are near the equator. Tropical
grasslands are experience warm, wet climates and has seasonal
droughts that are pronounced. The trees in the savanna are widely
spread and scarce and the grasses are tall. The type of soil is
porous and drains faster. They are found in different countries
such as Africa, Asia, Australia and South America.
• Steppe grasslands- steppe grasslands are in proximity to semi-
arid deserts. Compared to temperate and tropical grasslands,
steppe grasslands are characterized with short grasses. There is
generally a lack of trees along but are found close to river and
stream banks. The ephedra can be found in dry regions, steppes
and the arid Himalayas. Their stems are usable and harvested
from the wild for commercial use. It can be used for the treatment
of colds, fatigue and sickness at high altitudes. The kanna is
found in semi-arid areas in South Africa. The leaves are utilized
for medicinal purpose. Harvesting is done from the wild.
60 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

2.3.3 Mountains and Polar Regions

The Earth’s polar areas are found in the Antarctic, which is in the North and
the Antarctic which is in the South. It is characterized by tall mountains and
extremely cold climates. Low temperatures have also been recorded in such
regions for example -88 degrees in Antarctica. Polar Regions are homes to
polar bears penguins versus and other animals such as the Mountain Goats,
the Sheep, the yak and snow leopard are found in mountainous regions.
The Western Ghats: The Western Ghats that are found in India. It has
a lot of natural resources and is rich in both animal and plant species. It
experiences a tropical climate and have 4500 species that exist here, out
of thatthirty five of the plant species are endemic. Medicinal species that
exist in the Western Ghats range from lichens, herbs shrubs, climbers and
trees. Most of them are either annuals or perennials. Understanding of this
plant species requires knowledge in the field of, ethnobotany, taxonomy,
botany and ecology. The plants in this region are used at household level as
medicine, used by tribal healers and also used by researchers to understand
the medicinal properties and help in developments in contemporary
medicine.
About 50 species of medicinal plants in the Western Ghats are of value
to indigenous medicine and are used in the treatment of different illnesses
and conditions. Some of the most common plant species include Mimosa
pudica, Hibiscus angulosus, Leucas aspera, Phyllanthus neruri, Calotropis
gigantea, Tridax procumbens, Parthenium hysterophorus. They’re used in
the treatment of illnesses and conditions such as jaundice, asthma, piles and
blood related disorders.
Plants like the Annona squamosa, the Semecarpus anacardium,
Dioscorea bulbifera. They are used in the management of different forms
of tumors. The parts of the plants can be used for different purposes when
mixed together and make very useful formulations, used to manage and cure
strong headaches. Other plants found in Western Ghats can be used in the
treatment of cancer and as pain relievers. The seeds of the Nux vomica, the
black Myrobalan fruits and the jivanthi stem can be used in the treatment
of heart related disorders. The flowers of the prickly chaff, the leaves of
the crab’s eye and the stem of the jivanthi fruit can be used in the treatment
of cancer and other problems related to it. These plants can also be used in
the management of conditions like hypertension, diabetes, obesity and other
related problems. There are lot of plants found in the Western Ghats to have
medicinal value, some of their medicinal parties have not been utilized since
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 61

there is a general lack of access to this plant resources. There is also the
general need to conserve these plants using the various types of conservation
strategies is the ex situ and in situ, in addition to the standardization of
cultivating techniques and development of superior plants by improving the
genetic makeup of a plant used in biotechnology. The creation of awareness
should be done among farmers and those who extract plants from the
Western Ghats especially when it comes to cultivation of these medicinal
plants and their marketing. Research should also be done to exploit these
medicinal plants in order to establish their medicinal value especially in the
case of those whose value is not properly known.

2.3.4 Aquatic Habitats

Aquatic habitats are composed of water. There are mainly categorized into
three types that are freshwater marine and coastal waters. Freshwater habitats
include rivers, lakes and streams, wetlands and many more. Their habitats
are home to aquatic plants and animals such as fish frogs, ducks, Lotus water
lilies and other organisms. Marine habitats include oceans and seas and they
form the largest water habitats and there are a range of plants and animals
that are found in marine habitats they include the blue whale fish, seaweeds
and many more. Coastal habitats refer to regions where the land meets the
sea. Estuaries are regions where saltwater exists. It is home to different
marine animals and birds. It also provides shelter to aquatic plants such
as seeds, marsh grasses and other plants. Coral reefs are success that look
like rocks and are made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. They
are sometimes referred to as rainforests of the sea as they provide shelter
to a number of organisms. Besides corals, sea animal starfish, octopus sea
urchins and a variety of fish are found in coral reefs.
There’s a lack of a global survey on the distribution of medicinal
plants for various habitats.This does not allow the evaluation of relative
importance of Wetlands as a source of medicinal plants. The description of
medicinal plants in Wetlands mostly relies on taxonomic groups that have
already been established. However, local and regional studies on plant
diversity can provide insight into the importance of wetlands as habitats for
medicinal plants and how they contribute to the health and well-being of
populations that rely on them. A survey on freshwater diversity in Northern
Africa revealed 518 plant species of which 43% have pre-existing social and
economic value. (Juffe-Bignoli & Darwall, 2012)
62 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The largest number of species have medicinal use and composed

of plants such as the mint, knotweed and Daisy families form the largest
number of plants used for medicinal purposes in wetland habitats. There are
a great representation of plants used for medicinal purposes from the mint
family. These plants are a representation of diversity in the Mediterranean
and Central Asia. The representation of taxonomic groups of medicinal
plants from freshwater habitats varies depending on the taxonomic group of
Flora in an area. For example in African communities are the headwaters of
the Kayan river. The ginger family provides the large number of medicinal
plant species which are found in Freshwater habitat followed by those from
the grass family These plant families are also represented in the Southeast
of Asia.
People have used plants found in wet regions for medicinal purposes
for many years. Data shows that medicinal plants date from around 4000
BC and today about 70000 species of plants are used medicinally such as
algae and seaweeds. Different parts of these plants are used as alternative
medicine and used in three main forms traditional medicine, alternative
medicine, and as Western medicine.
Examples of wetland plants used for medicinal purposes include
• The white willow, Salix alba, is a riverine plant. The plant
materials are used for sourcing salicylic acid which is used in the
production of aspirin and also using as a skin care product.
• The back of the red mangrove , Rhizopora mangle found in
Wetlands and all over the tropics and can be used for the treatment
of different conditions and ailments.
• Species of Sage especially theCyperus species. It is a medicinal
plant that is found all over tropical and temperate Wetlands and is
used in the treatment of fevers in countries like Europe and Asia.
• Bogbean, Menyanthes trifoliate is a plant species found in
Wetlands and occurs at high altitudes in bogs and shallow water
and it is used by indigenous communities for the treatment of
digestive problems and in countries like Germany. It is used in
the treatment of dyspepsia discomfort and appetite loss.
• Purple loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria is a semi-aquatic and
herbaceous plant. It is a plant that is popular among indigenous
communities in Europe and was used for the treatment of diarrhea
and dysentery.
 Preferred Habitats for Medicinal Plants 63

• Sun dew comes from the taxonomic group of the Drosera plant
species. It is a ham that is insectivorous and can be extracted
from acidic bogs. It is useful in the provision of homeopathic and
pharmaceutical treatment of bronchial problems.
• Labrador tea, Ledum palustre t is used in the treatment of a
variety of illnesses and also can be used in repelling mosquitoes.
• Several types of seaweeds have also undergone extensive
experimentation since plant material from different species has
expressed activity against diseases such as HIV, polio, cancer,
and herpes simplex.

2.4 MEDICINAL PLANTS AND SOIL TYPES

Soil is important when it comes to the growth of plants on the earth’s surface.
It plays a critical role when it comes to plants that exist in the wetland for
instance. It also plays an important role when it comes to transporting solutes,
provision of support to plants, nutrient cycling and also help to filter out
chemicals that have the potential to be toxic to a plant. It is an ecological
factor when it comes to plants survival and their growth and development.
Depending on the habitat, medicinal plants will grow in a variety of soils.
An important factor to plant survival and development is how fertile the
soil is, whether it has all the necessary nutrients that affect plant yield and
productivity. Soils require nitrogen, phosphorus [-p]’and potassium as prime
nutrient in addition to other micronutrient.
Medicinal plants grow in variety of soils.. A study conducted on
threatened medicinal plants grown on Himalayan soil showed that the
soils had median availability in nitrogen, phosphorus existed in lowlands,
medium land, and highlands. The highland soils are low acidic in nature
that results from leaching due to high rainfall . The medium land soils are
alkaline in nature. Organic matter in soil is important as it helps in aeration
of the soils and improves their porosity. Medium land soils were low in
organic content due to the high temperatures. The organic matter in soil also
affects the structure of the soil. Soils in high altitudes were found to better
support medicinal plants compared to soils that were found in low lands due
to an increase in soil organic content that are result of constant and reliable
rainfall in such areas. (Bahar et al., 2016)
3
Therapeutic Characteristics of
Plant Species

CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 66
3.2 Therapeutic Characteristics of Aloe Vera............................................. 66
3.3 Therapeutic Characteristics of Chamomile ........................................ 68
3.4 Therapeutic Characteristics of Ginkgo ................................................ 72
3.5 Therapeutic Characteristics of Echinacea............................................ 75
3.6 Therapeutic Characteristics of Primrose Oil ........................................ 78
3.7 Therapeutic Characteristics of Garlic .................................................. 80
3.8 Therapeutic Characteristics of Ginger ................................................. 83
3.9 Therapeutic Characteristics of Lavender.............................................. 85
3.10 Therapeutic Characteristics of Bulb Onions ...................................... 87
3.11 Therapeutic Characteristics of Neem Plant ....................................... 89
66 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants were discovered during the prehistoric times. Medicinal
plants are source of several medicinally important chemical substances that
are responsible for curing illnesses as well as fighting pests and hence, have
been studied and explored since ages by local communities to cure ailments.
A lot of scientists are working towards ensuring that the medicinal herbs are
safe to use and that they do not contain a lot of toxins (Jadhav, 2008).
The Sumerians were the first people who studied and used these
medicinal herbs, opium was among the medicinal plants that the Sumerians
used. (Petrovska, 2012) Dioscorides, a Greek doctor, worked for the Roman
army, is well known for identification of over 1000 recipes using medicinal
herbs. A lot of medicinal plants have since been studied and a lot of medicines
have been introduced to the people and they include, aspirin which acts as a
pain reliever, quinine that is used to treat malaria and opium.
These types of medicines are used in areas that are not highly industrialized,
the reason being these medicines are not expensive and they can be accessed
easily than Western Medicine. Statistically, in the year 2012 the medicinal plants
were valued to be worth 2.2 Billion dollars. The World Health Organization
has been set up to come up with safety measures that safeguard the people who
use these medicinal plants. It also encourages the use of the medicinal herbs
in treating and curing diseases. However, the cultivation of medicinal plants
faces several setbacks such as the adverse climatic conditions, the destruction
of their natural habitat, the risk of being over-harvested for them to be able to
meet the demand of the people (Jadhav, 2008).

3.2 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ALOE

VERA
Aloe barbadensis commonly known as Aloe Vera is well known for its
therapeutic characteristics. It grows in dry areas as well as tropical climates
especially in countries like, Africa, Asia, Europe and also some parts of the
United States of America. A long time ago the health benefits of this plant
were discovered..
The plant has been used for over 6000 years. This plant was considered
to be immoral and it was given to the pharaohs in Egypt as gifts in funerals.
Over the past years, Aloe Vera has been used by people to treat wounds as
well as preventing hair loss and treating digestion related disorders (Jadhav,
2008).
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 67

Figure 3.1. Aloe Vera plant and the health benefits.

Source: https://www.healthline.com/health/7-amazing-uses-aloe-vera
The following are the therapeutic characteristics of Aloe Vera:
Wound healing: When it comes to the process of healing a wound, it
occurs in three stages. The first stage involves the infiltration of leukocyte,
inflammation and hyperemia. The second stage is where the tissues that are
dead are removed and the last stage is where the removed tissue starts to
regenerate and form new tissues.
Recently, studies have shown that Aloe Vera is used to treat people
suffering from first to second degree burns. The wound healing property of
Aloe vera is due to chemical substance Mannose-6-phosphate. This plant
is also very important when it comes to decreasing glucose levels in the
body, and as a result speeds up the healing process of wounds especially for
diabetics.
It helps in the wound healing process through reducing inflammation
although this results in a scar. There are certain compounds present in Aloe
Vera responsible for wound healing process which include, non-flavonoid
polyphenols compounds phytosterols and indoles.
Healing canker sores: several people at different times of their lives
usually get affected by ulcers in their mouth as well as canker sores. Some
of these sores occur in the mouth and usually take about less than a week
for them to heal. Often these sores are usually very painful and can cause a
lot of discomfort. Aloe vera helps to heal these sores as well as clear them
up. Studies have shown that aloe vera actually helps to reduce inflammation
and heal the sores. Aloe Vera also act as a pain reliever when it comes to the
mouth ulcer as well as the canker sores.
68 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Treating constipation: Studies have shown that aloe vera juice helps to
cure the irritable bowel syndrome which is abbreviated as IBS. Some of the
symptoms that a person may experience when they have the irritable bowel
syndrome are constipation and diarrhea. The symptoms can be cured by
taking the aloe vera juice. This juice is mainly important for helping to cure
and treat the problem of constipation.
The juice helps to reduce the inflammation of the intestine that is
responsible for causing constipation. Aloe Vera contains anti-inflammatory
characteristics. Peoples suffering from constipation issue eats lot of fibre
and reduce consumption of carbohydrate in their diet. Aloe vera contains
certain compounds that helps in curing constipation.
Anti-tumor Activity: There are certain compounds found in Aloe vera
known as glycoproteins and studies have shown that this compounds can
be able to cure tumors as well as ulcers and also they can increase the
proliferation of the dermal cells. There are several research studies that
demonstrated the antitumor activity of glycoproteins isolated from Aloevera
plant.These proteins are helpful in tackling the cancerous cells.(Albuquerque
et al., 2011) The other compound reported in Aloevera plant have anti ulcer
activity(Sinnadurai & Naveenraj, 2013).
Healing of fungal infections: Aloevera also have antifungal activity.
They contain compounds that are important in the healing process of fungal
infections. Some of these fungal infections include: dandruffs, athlete foots
and other fungal infections that affect the human skin such as ringworms.
The Aloevera is applied to the affected area as a medicine and the healing
process begins. Some herbal formulations have been manufactured with
Aloevera as an ingredient that are recommended to treat the fungal infections.
It also helps to clear acne from the skin and it is highly recommended
by a lot of physicians. It also contains compounds that act as anti-aging
properties. It leaves the skin feeling supple because of its hydrating property
and completely cures and treats acne. (Manipal, Shireen & Prabu, 2015)

3.3 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

CHAMOMILE
When the chamomile leaves are crushed, they produce certain compounds
known as terpenoids and flavonoids which have the medicinal property.
This plant is used to cure different diseases in human beings such as ulcers,
insomnia, rheumatic pain, menstrual disorders such as menstrual cramps and
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 69

hemorrhoids. The oils that are obtained from these plants are fused to make
cosmetic products as well as they are used in aromatherapy. There are many
ways that this plant can be consumed and one of the most common ways is
through taking it as tea. There are a lot of studies that have shown that this
plant has healing properties.(Ekor, 2013) It is also highly recommended by
a lot of Physicians. It can also be dried and the powder can be used to heal
various diseases. Traditionally this herbal medicine was used to kill diseases
as well as heal wound and also it was used as a painkiller it is also used to
treat other diseases that are related to the stomach which include diarrhea
being nauseated vomiting as well as indigestion (Kuete, 2013).

Figure 3.2. Chamomile plant. The history as well as the health benefits.

Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamomile
The following are the therapeutic characteristics of this medicinal plant:
Treatment of common cold: A lot of people are usually prone to common
cold which is usually caused by a virus. It is usually not a serious disease
but it only affects the upper parts of the respiratory tract. This disease is
usually not a death sentence but it can develop to become pneumonia which
can be life-threatening if left untreated. Chamomile is very helpful when it
comes to curing common cold as well as curing pneumonia. In order for it
to work one needs to boil the chamomile plant and inhale the steam that is
70 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

produced because this thing is what usually cures these respiratory diseases.
So far this plant has proven to be very efficient when it comes to the curing
of common cold and other respiratory diseases.
Treating eczema: There are creams that are usually made out of
chamomile which help to treat and cure the problem of eczema, specifically
atopic eczema. According to the research made, the effectiveness of this
herbal medicine in the treatment of eczema is approximately 60%. There
are cream that only contain the Roman chamomile which is very efficient
when it comes to helping a person is his or her discomfort that is usually
accompanied when one has eczema, the screen is usually applied directly
to the affected areas. This type of chamomile is usually very rich in other
compounds that are useful when it comes to the treatment of allergies. This
plant is used to treat eczema and also to manage this problem, it has proven
to be of value when it comes to other skin conditions. More research is yet to
be done in order to determine how effective this plant is when it comes to the
treatment of eczema, so far people have not recorded any adverse reaction
to this herbal medicine.
Treatment of hemorrhoids: A lot of research has been made in relation
to the effectiveness of chamomile to the treatment and the management
of hemorrhoids. It has been proven that some of the compounds that are
present in chamomile are responsible for treating and managing as well as
preventing the risk recurrence of hemorrhoids. the specific compounds that
is present in chamomile that is used to treat hemorrhoids is known as tincture
of chamomile, this compound is effective in reducing the inflammation that
is caused by hemorrhoids and as a result the hemorrhoids are completely
eliminated from one’s body. It is a process but chamomile has proven
to be very effective when it comes to the whole process of dealing with
hemorrhoids. One needs to incorporate this medicinal herb in their bathing
water and use this water to wash the affected area.
Treatment of sleeping disorders: When it comes to the traditional settings
chamomile was used to induce sleep as well as cause a calming effect on
people. Chamomile was taken as well as it was infused in oil which was
used during aromatherapy. It was very effective and it is still very effective
in treating insomnia among people. It is used to tranquilize people as well
as make them sleep better and faster for those people who find it hard to
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 71

sleep at night. The compound that is responsible for the tranquilizing effect
is known as flavonoid which binds to some of the receptors that are found
in the brain, these receptors are known as benzodiazepine. According to
research it has clearly shown that people who take this chamomile tea
usually sleep immediately for a period of 90 minutes. The essential oil that
is used in aromatherapy is responsible for reducing stress when it is inhaled.
It is therefore very evident that chamomile is used to cure sleeping
disorders as well as reduce stress because of its calming effect.
Wound healing: A trial was conducted where 14 patients were made
to undergo the process of getting a tattoo and afterwards chamomile was
used on the tattoos. it was very efficient especially when it came to during
the tattoo as well as speeding up there healing process of a tattoo, it was
therefore agreed that chamomile was very effective in the wound healing
process Those people that actually used chamomile after getting their
tattoos, the rate of Recovery was actually higher than the rest of the people.
Chamomile is actually very efficient in the process of wound healing as
compared to corticosteroids. It was seen that the ones that were associated
with the tattoo actually decreased really fast when chamomile was used.
A lot of studies and research are still being undertaken to maximize the
efficiency of chamomile in the healing process of wounds.
Curing vaginitis in women: This problem is usually very common in
women and it is usually an information that is accompanied by itchiness
discharge from the vagina that is not normal as well as pain while urinating,
this disease does not affect people of a certain age instead it is a problem
that all women may experience at some certain point of their lives. As much
as this disease affects or women it is most common to women who are
nearing the menopause stage as well as those who are already experiencing
menopause. It is mainly caused by a reduction in the level of estrogen in
women. Douching using chamomile might be very effective when it comes
to the treatment and healing of vaginal inflammation. This might still be
accompanied by some undesirable side effects. Research is still ongoing
when it comes to the function of chamomile in the treatment of vaginal
inflammation.
Treatment of sore throat: Chamomile acts as a lubricant when it comes to
the throat; this helped to prevent and cure sore throat as well as hoarseness.
72 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

This whole research involved giving a group of people purple chamomile

extract, these people had undergone a series of different operations. It was
given before the operation in order to lubricate the trachea before integration
and the other group was not given any form of lubrication before intubation.
This groups of people were then given or rather they were put under general
anesthesia. Those who received the past from chamomile did not experience
any sore throat after the surgery but those who did not receive the chamomile
puffs extract reported cases of sore throat. It was there are four very evident
that chamomile played a very important role when it came to the lubrication
for the throat as well as ensuring that it was conclusive to say that chamomile
can in fact help to cure and treat sore throat.
Treatment of anxiety and seizures: This medicinal herb has been
researched and it has been conclusive that it is used to treat generalized anxiety
disorder which is abbreviated as GAD. It contains different compounds that
have been related or rather have shown the capability of reducing anxiety
as well as treating seizures. The components include picrotoxin which is
mainly used by seizure patients and apigenin which has proven to reduce
convulsions in seizure patients as well as reduce anxiety. Continuous usage
of chamomile which is often incorporated in tea helps to treat and reduce
the cases of anxiety as well as it is used in the treatment therapy of seizures.
More research is still ongoing when it comes to the treatment of anxiety and
seizures the use of chamomile.(Liu et al., 2017)

3.4 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GINKGO

This plant is highly known for the medicinal value of its leaves. This plant
is very common to the Chinese people and it has a lot of health benefits. It
is often called a living fossil because it started being cultivated a long time
ago. In China people usually use these plants leaves and seeds as a form of
medicine( but modern research has revealed that even the leaves have a lot
of medicinal value. This tree is usually very important in dealing with issues
that affect the brain and also the circulation of blood in the body (Kokwaro,
2009).
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 73

Figure 3.3. A representation of ginkgo plant, the health benefits and therapeutic
characteristics.

Source: https://www.healthline.com/health/ginkgo-biloba-benefits
The following are the therapeutic characteristics of this plant:
Treating depression: During the research done on animal, ginkgo when
incorporated into the treatment therapy of a person who has depression then
he or she might be cured of depression. It performs this function by ensuring
that it treats all the symptoms that are related to depression and as a result
the person receives healing or rather he or she is cured.
This research involved the use of mice, two different groups of mice
which will undergo a very stressful situation. One of the groups was given
ginkgo and the other one was not, the end results were, the group that was
given ginkgo seemed to handle the pressure from the stressful situation
very well and it did not affect them emotionally on the other hand the other
group did not handle the pressure very well and it affected them emotionally
(Kokwaro, 2009).
Ginkgo is well known for its anti-inflammatory nature; this helps a
person to handle a situation that is stressful but one that has a lot of pressure
calmly because ginkgo helps the body to adapt when a person is under stress
by reducing the level of hormones that cause stress.
It is conclusive to say that ginkgo can be able to treat as well as cure
depression but a lot of research is still ongoing to prove this theory. It is
74 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

recommended by doctors as an antidepressant to those people who are

undergoing serious cases of depression.
Treatment of headaches and migraines: Traditionally the Chinese people
used this medicinal herb to treat headaches and migraines. It is able to treat
the different types of headaches depending on what caused the headache
as well as the migraine. Due to its nature of reducing inflammation as well
as the fact that it is an antioxidant in nature, as we have seen ginkgo plays
a very major role in reducing stress levels in a person. If the headache is
caused by stress or rather a stressful situation, then ginkgo can be used to
treat the headache or the migraine.
Ginkgo has another property which is, it is very useful when it comes to
dilating the blood vessels that are constricted and as a result if the headache
is caused by a reduction in the amount of blood that is flowing to the reigned
as well as blood vessels that are constricted then ginkgo is able to treat this
type of headache and migraines.
According to a lot of research by different scientists, there are very
many more risks that are associated with the use of ginkgo in treatment of
headaches and migraines
Treatment of sexual dysfunction: This medicinal herb can be used to
treat many issues that are related to the sexual dysfunction of both females
and males. It can treat erectile dysfunction in men as well as treat low libido
in both women and men. Ginkgo has a certain property that involves the
increasing of nitric oxide in blood levels which in turn helps to circulate the
blood when the blood vessels are dilated.
There are some medicines made from ginkgo that are meant for curing
depression in people and research has shown that they may be effective in
treating sexual dysfunction, ginkgo has been more successful in treating
sexual dysfunction than any other herbal medicine.
The use of ginkgo to increase libido in women as well as sexual
satisfaction in women who are undergoing therapy in relation to their sex
lives is still ongoing.
The use of this medicine plant over a long period of time, has proven to
be very effective in the treatment of sexual dysfunction in both women and
men. Like many other medicinal herbs, this function still needs to undergo
a series of tests before it is made a permanent solution in the treatment of
sexual dysfunction.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 75

Helps to treat various cases of inflammation: The term inflammation

means, the body’s general reaction when a certain part of the body has been
injured or when something foreign has invaded a particular part of the body.
This inflammation could be as a result of some diseases as well as injuries
that the body is currently undergoing. If inflammation is left untreated
it can cause irreversible effects to the tissues as well as the DNA of the
body. Ginkgo has an anti-inflammatory property that helps in reducing the
inflammation that has been caused by these diseases and injuries. Some of
the diseases that cause inflammation and where ginkgo has shown to treat
these inflammations include: cases of cancer, diseases related to the heart,
stroke, arthritis as well as irritable bowel disease.
According to the research that has already been made by different
scientists all over the world, it is conclusive to say that ginkgo plays a very
important role in the treatment of inflammation caused by certain diseases
and injuries that when left untreated have proven to be life-threatening
(Kokwaro, 2009).

3.5 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

ECHINACEA
This medicinal herb is grown in Canada and Europe as well as the Western
states of the United States of America. The parts of this plant that have
medicinal value include the leaves, the flowers as well as the roots. It
was commonly used in the past by the people of Indian tribes. As a result,
many people adopted the use of these medicinal plants in the treatment and
healing of different diseases. This herbal medicine was used by people of
the United States and it was very popular among the people because it is to
cure different bacterial infections, it was used as an antibiotic by different
people (Kuete, 2013).
There are different forms in which these medicinal plants can be
consumed and they include it can be in the form of tablets, the medicine can
be taken in the form of juice as well as it can be incorporated in tea. This
medicinal herb acts by activating body chemicals which are very essential
in the treatment of cold and flu.
According to the research made it is also safe to assume that this
medicinal herb contains some compounds that are very effective in treating
yeast related diseases as well as treating diseases that are caused by fungi.
76 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 3.4. A representation of Echinacea plants and its therapeutic character-

istics.

Source: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/252684
The following are some of the therapeutic characteristics and the diseases
that this medicinal plant is able to treat.
Treatment of common cold: When one takes this medicinal herb when
they are experiencing symptoms of cold, then it is possible for them to be
healed and it is all thanks to the compounds that are found in this medicinal
herb. A lot of research has also shown that Echinacea helps to prevent
common cold as well as flu. This is because of its anti-inflammatory property
that helps to fight off the viruses that result from the occurrence common
cold.
Treatment of eczema: There are certain creams that have been made out
of an Echinacea medicinal plant. These creams are applied directly to the
affected areas and it has been established that after 12 weeks of consistent
use, these creams are able to treat the symptoms that are accompanied by
eczema such as, the affected area being itchy, swell, and red in appearance
as well as the area being dry. Even though it takes a lot of time and patience
for these creams to work, Echinacea things have proven to be among the
best treatments that can be used to treat problems of the skin like eczema.
The compounds that are found in Echinacea are responsible for treating
eczema. More research is still to be done on the complete effectiveness of
this medicinal herb in the treatment of eczema and also the treatment of
symptoms that are accompanied with eczema that proved to cause discomfort
to the affected person.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 77

Treatment of mild forms of gum diseases such as gingivitis: There are

certain more trees that are found in different pharmaceuticals that contain
Echinacea as well as other medicinal components that help in the treatment
of gingivitis. In order for the treatment to be successful one needs to use
the mouth rinse for a period of 14 days and he or she should use the mouth
rinse three times a day that is, in the morning, in the afternoon as well as
in the evening. The continuous use of this mouth rinse that contains the
Echinacea medicinal compound have shown great promise in the treatment
of gum diseases but this whole process needs to undergo more research in
order to make it a permanent solution in the treatment of gingivitis which
is a gum disease. In the treatment of gum diseases like gingivitis, one can
either choose to use the mouth rinse or use a specific patch that is meant for
the mouth, specifically the gums.
Treatment of swelling of the tonsils: In this case two medicinal plants
are used together in the treatment of tonsils as well as other issues that are
related to the throat. These two medicinal herbs include Echinacea as well
as sage. For the treatment of tonsils as well as other throat related issues
one needs to spray the mixture of this to medicinal herbs in their mouth for
a period of five days and after every 2 hours 10 times a day. This helps to
reduce the inflammation that is caused by the swelling of tonsillitis. It can
also be consumed as drops which contain other components like, Esberitox,
schaper and brummer which are supposed to be taken for a period of two
weeks and three times a day that is in the morning, in the afternoon and in
the evening.
These two methods have proved to be very effective in the treatment
of tonsils as well as sore throat. More research is being conducted on the
effectiveness of these two herbal medicines in the reduction of inflammation
that is caused by tonsils.
Treatment of the inflammation of the eyes: A lot of research has been
made in the effectiveness of Echinacea in reducing the inflammation
of uveitis.(Neri et al., 2006)Doctors recommend that a person take 150
milligrams of medicine made out of Echinacea which has the following
components, iridium, SOOFT Italia SpA. One is required to take this medicine
two times a day for 4weeks accompanied by eye drops and steroids that treat
eye inflammation. Note that this medicine is not responsible for improving
the vision of a person; it is only effective in reducing the inflammation of
the eyes.
A lot of research is still being done in order to establish if Echinacea can
be used to treat various diseases such as malaria, migraine headaches,
78 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

syphilis, typhoid, urinary tract infections, and yeast infection as well as if it

can be used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder which
is abbreviated as ADHD (Kuete, 2013).

3.6 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

PRIMROSE OIL
This medicinal herb is mainly known for treating conditions like eczema
as well as pre menstruation syndrome. A lot of research has been done in
relation to this medicinal herb and it has been found that it contains anti-
inflammatory characteristics which help with conditions like diabetes
neuropathy as well as atopic dermatitis. It has also shown very promising
functions such as treating breast pain (Odugbemi, 2008).
According to the research that has been made just recently it is clear
that the evening primrose oil improves the quality of people who live with
multiple sclerosis as well as other people who deal with issues related to
hormones and insulin. More research is being done in order to find other
benefits and other diseases that these medicinal plants can be used to cure.

Figure 3.5. The evening primrose oil, the dosage and the benefits.

Source: https://oilswelove.com/6-best-evening-primrose-oil-supplements-soft-
gel-dosage-and-benefits/
The following are some of the diseases that it cures.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 79

Treatment of acne: It helps in the treatment of acne by reducing the

inflammations on the skin as well as to treat the cuts that are on the skin.
It also to keep the skin hydrated because it helps to retain the moisture of
the skin. The evening primrose in the research done in 2014 helps in the
treatment of cheilitis which is a condition whereby the lips of a person
become inflamed and one experiences pain in the lips. It is caused by a
medicine that is used to treat acne that is known as Accutane and it has a
compound known as isotretinoin (Odugbemi, 2008).
More research that was conducted showed and proved that the
supplements of GLA help in the treatment of acne cuts and bruises that were
inflammatory and non-inflammatory. This medicinal herb is taken thrice a
day that is in the morning, in the afternoon as well as in the evening for a
period of 8 weeks and in six 450mg capsules.
Treatment of premenstrual syndrome: This medicinal herb is very
efficient when it comes to the treatment of symptoms that are accompanied
by premenstrual syndrome. These symptoms include: irritability, depression
as well as bloating.
A lot of women before their monthly cycle experience a lot of
discomforting symptoms which are caused by increased levels of prolactin
in which case most women are usually very sensitive.
The evening primrose oil was very beneficial when it came to relieving
and treating the symptoms that are accompanied by premenstrual syndrome.
It is taken four times a day for a period of 10 months and one should take
approximately 6 to 12 capsules.
Treatment of heart diseases: A lot of people who suffer from heart
diseases usually turn to medicinal herbs such as Evening primrose oil which
contains compounds that play an important role in treating heart diseases.
Statistically speaking, heart diseases are the cause for a lot of deaths in United
States of America where by it is estimated that 600000 people succumb to
these illnesses of the heart.
The research to determine whether Evening Primrose Oil was efficient in
treating heart diseases was done on rats in the year 2014.(Greish, Abel-Aziz
& Gresha, 2014)The evening primrose oil helps to reduce inflammation of
various parts of the body like the heart. It is also important in reducing the
cholesterol levels in the blood. The inflammation of the heart is what causes
the diseases that are related to the heart.
80 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

This medicinal herb while treating heart diseases should strictly be

taken under the supervision of a medical practitioner. One should take the
medicines for a period of four months in 30ml 10 doses of evening primrose
oil. It should also be noted that if one is under other medications that treat
heart diseases then he or she ought to be very careful while taking this
medicinal herb.
Treatment of nerve pain as well as bone pain: The condition that causes
pain in the nerves is known as peripheral neuropathy and it is usually as a
result of diabetes and other health related issues. There is a certain component
present in evening primrose that is known as linoleic acid and it plays a
major role especially when it comes to treating the symptoms that are caused
by the peripheral neuropathy. These symptoms include: sensitivity to high
temperatures as well as low temperatures, loss of the sense of feeling in a
particular area of the body where nerves are located, general body weakness
as well as tingling sensations in the body that are as a result of numbness.
For the treatment of peripheral neuropathy one is required to take the
capsules that contain Evening primrose for a period of approximately one
year as well as ensuring that the capsules are not of more than 480mg.
The issue of bone pain is usually caused by a certain illness known
as rheumatoid arthritis which is often caused by an inflammation and it
is mostly considered to be a chronic disorder. According to the research
that was conducted in the year 2011 the component that is known as GLA
which is usually found in the evening primrose oil, is the component that is
responsible for treating arthritis which affects the bones.
For one to ensure that they are completely healed from the chronic
pain and also to ensure that they have properly managed the pain then it is
advisable, for one to take the capsules that contain the evening primrose oil
for a period that does not exceed 12 months and they should not exceed a
maximum does of 6000mg (Odugbemi, 2008).

3.7 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GARLIC

Garlic is mostly referred to as an Lehsun commonly in Indian households
and it is often confused with onions because they highly resemble each
other. The scientific name for garlic is known as Allium sativuum. This
medicinal herb has been around for a long time and approximately for over
40 centuries thus making it the oldest medicinal plant to be grown. Although
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 81

some believe it was discovered in Siberia, other people believed that the
Asian people were among the first people to discover this plant meaning
that this plant originated from the eastern parts of the world especially the
northern side. It was mostly used to treat issues related to the heart as well
as issues that affected the blood therefore it was very popular when it came
to the treatment of blood infections (Jadhav, 2008).

Figure 3.6. A representation of garlic plants as well as the health benefits.

Source: https://creeklife.com/blog/garlic-health-benefits/
The following are some of the diseases that it is used to heal as well as
treat.
Treatment of cardio-vascular infections: Over the years, garlic has been
growing in its popularity for its success in the treatments of cardiovascular
diseases. Doctors and medical practitioners have always reported positive
results from their researches conducted on this herb. Its use has grown over
the ages and this has prompted more and more researches on this promising
territory. Most of the heart related diseases have all shown tremendous
improvements to dially trisulfide which is an enzyme that is found in garlic.
Most of the people especially those with hypertension after being put on this
revolutionary garlic supplement of 4 doses of 100mg showed very improved
results after a very short period of time. Also, people who have heart attacks
82 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

and have through cardiac arrests showed very positive results after being put on
garlic treatments. They help in making the healing process after a heart surgery
move very fast. The antioxidants in the garlic see to it that the blood pressure of
the patient remains normal which in turn speeds up the healing process.
Treatment of various infections in the body: Garlic has so many
components and compounds which makes a perfect antibiotic that is
recommended by a lot of doctors. Its ability to completely eliminate many
infections that are caused by bacteria that may attack people especially those
that are suffering from life threatening and chronic diseases tend to be given
medicines that have been made from garlic because it is well known for
its ability to fight the bacterial infections. Thanks to its natural nature too
garlic is perfect for very many infections that tend to beat other inorganic
antibiotics that are prescribed and therefore garlic has proven time and again
to be a very worthy antibiotic.
Treatment of various parts of the body which improves the physical
heath of a person: In life many people face various life threatening and
traumatic accidents. According to the history of garlic and the Greek, garlic
possessed some medicinal components that are able to improve a person
physical health by treating various issues that the person might have and
might not be aware of. The Greek used it as a means of boosting the physical
abilities of their athletes. These same theories are applied today in order to
help victims regain their physical abilities. These people are given some
garlic based medicines as well as concoctions which in turn boost their
physical abilities and help them to keep up with their practices that helps
them eventually get on their feet and maybe eventually regain their strength
back making them fully healed.
Treatment of flu and common cold: Flus are some of the most random
highly transmittable and most popular infections amongst the people. They
are simply common communicable diseases and therefore they must be
treated efficiently with haste before they are capable of starting various
pandemics that affect the respiratory tracts of people. Garlic is a major
remedy for these sorts of diseases and it is also very important when it comes
to relieving the symptoms that are accompanied by cold. This eventually
gets to the flu and helps to heal it completely.
Treatment of fungal infections: Garlic is a very strong herb with a very
scent that made it even be avoided by those people who were very rich in
the past. This are as a result of the antioxidants and the different enzymes in
the herb. The herb is divided naturally into sections known as cloves. These
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 83

cloves were the ones that are needed for the whole fungi healing process.
These fungi include even the more popular athletes’ foot. You need to crush
the cloves or mash them and then with coconut oil in order to create a fluid
that is responsible for total and complete healing of all the fungi infections.
Also, it’s important to know that applying garlic directly to the affected can
be quite corrosive and therefore it may cause itching and also the growth of
pimples on the skin that may cause different skin diseases.
Garlic basically has so many benefits to the medical sector and some
others that we’ve not really looked at in depth like, garlic has the ability to
prevent some mental issues like dyslexia and loss of memory, it also has
effect in helping to heal a liver that was previously damaged by excessive
consumption of alcohol (Jadhav, 2008).

3.8 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GINGER

The scientific name of ginger is known as Zingiber officinale which is a medicinal
plant of the family zingiberaceae that was first grown by the local people of
Asia which meant that the people had some religious attachments to them. Also
being a native Asian herb, it was among the first plant that was taken out of the
Asian social settings to the rest of the world. It was a very valuable commodity
of trade to quite a lot of people who regarded this plant that has a stem that is not
actually a stem but a collection of rolled leaves with some yellow flowers. This
herb like many other also has some medicinal effects which has direct effect on
the health of the patient. With the compound found in ginger, ginger becomes a
very important medicinal herb (Panda, 2004).

Figure 3.7. A representation of the ginger plant and some of its benefits.

Source: https://slowaging.org/health-benefits-ginger/
84 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The following are some therapeutic characteristics of ginger and the

diseases they heal.
Treatment of diabetes: For the longest time ginger has been used to
help lower the blood sugars in the body. Tests conducted on people that
are type 2 diabetic concluded that diabetes can be reduced significantly by
taking ginger doses as prescribed the physicians. The reduction of blood
sugars is of very valuable importance especially on people suffering from
diabetes. They are in the constant fear of developing heart diseases and even
in extreme cases having cardiac arrests as a result of these sudden increase
and decrease in blood sugar levels. Therefore, physicians end up giving
a prescription of organic powder ginger to help keep the blood sugars in
check. The use of ginger therefore helps reduce the fatalities of diabetes and
also keeps the already infected from succumbing to the disease.
Healing of joint pains: Ginger boasts to be one the most resourceful
organic ways of reducing inflammations. The consumption raw, cooked or
crushed ginger in any form smoothen your joints and muscles. It helps keep
your muscles and joints relaxed naturally even after exercising. However,
this property does not really mean it generally heals all sort of joint or
muscle soreness. It’s can only be applied in cases that involve physical
muscle struggles and therefore effects to incorporate it in the healing of
other muscle and joint ailments may not be as successful because if the
soreness is not an inflammatory then the ginger may not be of much help in
that type of situation.
Treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: Indigestion is caused by the lack
of proper function of certain levels of the digestive system. It mostly causes
some type of discomfort in the part just at the beginning of the tummy. This
type of pain is mainly caused by clogging of food that should have been
digested processed and eliminating. These can be corrected by consuming
some ginger which helps increase the rate digestion because of the fact that
it is rich in fiber which is very essential in the digestion of food. Therefore,
it solves the indigestion dilemma and also gives room for food. Also, when
experiencing some difficulties eating then ginger may come in handy since
it not only helps you digest food but also helps increase the appetite and
boosts appetite. This will therefore help you with solving most of your food
problems that you may be going through by just recommending yourself
some ginger.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 85

Treatment of issues that are related to the stomach: So basically, most

stomach upsets are caused by small infections or bacteria. Ginger basically
when ingested totally clears your tummy and therefore drains each and every
type infection that your stomach is trying to fight and therefore before even
realizing it your stomach issues have been solved. Also, the stomach is a
very sensitive organ that may seem to be disturbed by anything anytime. At
times expectant women get nausea and morning sickness rapidly. You can
also have nausea too expectedly and unexpectedly. Ginger therefore comes
in real handy with its stomach remedies and helps treat any kind of upset in
the stomach. The ginger also affects the nausea effect and neutralizes it with
enzymes that help to get rid of the nausea feeling making the person more
comfortable. It also helps reduce the cramps in females reduces the cramping
pain that they go through during their periods. Traditionally people used to
use ginger tea as a remedy for all pains menstrual pains and it used to work
for most of them since it helped calm them down.
Treatment of various bacterial infections: Basically, if you have an
infection then it is advisable to get raw ginger that is from the farm and use
it to fight these bacteria. What ginger does is that it prevents other infections
from building up while it also fights the already existing ones. Ginger used
to a way of fighting any type of infection that people would not understand
then. This is possible because of gingers healing properties which made it
possible for them to be quite optimistic of their remedy and therefore of any
strange weird unknown infection then they used ginger to try and see if it
would help.
Having a lot cholesterol in your body is bad for your health. It may lead
to some long-term cardiovascular diseases that are affect the body in very
dangerous ways and can even cause death. Having high levels of lipoproteins
in the body can be reduced by consuming healthy foods like ginger which
literally facilitates to the drastic drop of the levels of cholesterol in the body
(Panda, 2004).

3.9 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

LAVENDER.
Briefly lavendula angustiflia is the most popular genus of lavendula and it is
what we refer to as lavender. This plant is grown in northern Africa Sothern
Europe and some sections of Asia. This plant is grown for its beauty and
86 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

fragrance with even a color named specifically for it. Although it’s a rare
gem it was used in traditional days as an herbicide for it medicinal value
to the natives that grew the plant. Although currently there is barely any
scientifically evidence to back all the theories that have been established
supporting the claim that lavender has healing properties (Panda, 2004).

Figure 3.8. A representation of lavender and he health benefits.

Source: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/265922
Below we will look at some of the traditional medicinal uses of lavender
although none of them has been conclusively scientifically tested and proven
but more research is still ongoing.
Healing wounds: In the tests carried out it was confirmed that actually
a wound that had the wound that had lavender on it sealed really fast. This
shows that the use of lavender on treating wounds can be actually argued
since it facilitates to the quick forming of platelets on the wound which
therefore means it actually helps in the healing process of wounds that are
open since it has a direct and eminent effect on platelets which are the blood
cells that are responsible for the healing of an open wound
Treatment of issues that are related to hair loss: Alopecia areata is a
deficiency that affects the amount of hair growing on someone’s body with
some losing as much as their head hair for as young as the age of 20. This
condition however can be rectified by the use of lavender oil which is a
concoction that has been shown to promote hair growth with up to half of
the hair that was previously there. These have been really effective in most
parts of the world with the people that have hair issues going for this remedy
to fix their scalp hair.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 87

Treatment of anxiety as well insomnia: In most researches that have been

concluded it has been concluded that actually lavender has some tranquiller
in its scent that helps people be calm and relaxed. Most relaxing spurs that
teach people about peace and yoga have all used lavender. The lavender
scent basically has some direct effect on your brain which helps you reduce
the amount on anxiety going on through your mind and be able to take
things a little bit more calmly than you would under normal circumstances.
These tranquilizers in lavender help you to relax and therefore they also
work perfectly as sleep enhancers since in a state of calmness your brain
tends to more soundly than it would if it was in a restless situation,
Treatment of various infections: Although not a lot of research has been
conducted on this some researchers do believe that lavender can come in
handy in treating surface skin infections especially fungal infections that
have proved to be untreatable by other fungal infection remedies mostly
due to resistance. The theory is that lavender attacks the membrane of the
bacteria making it impossible for it to survive ant longer therefore ending up
treating the infection organically.

3.10 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BULB

ONIONS
Referred to as Allium cepa scientifically, the onion is the most popular and
rampant species of this classification. Although its origin is very unclear
some people seem to agree on the fact that it originated in central Asia
somewhere around Iran. Although it was originally analyzed and documented
by Carl Linnaeus in the 1700s this herb has been there for over 7000 years
with mentions existing in some of the world’s earliest manuscripts. In Egypt
for instance it was used in their burial rituals representing the never-ending
life even in death. What makes it even more fascinating is its mention in
the Pompeii pone of the Roman empires oldest manuscripts which signified
continuance and also facilitated in their cooking. The use of onions was
very common considering that when the first Europeans landed in America,
they reported that onion were there in plenty more than anything else. These
shows that the use of onions range all over the universe (Panda, 2004).
88 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 3.9. A representation of the bulb onion.

Source: https://www.herbal-supplement-resource.com/onion-herb-benefits.
html
Described below are some of the uses of onions in medicine as well as
the therapeutic.
Treatment of issues that are as a result of inflammation: Basically,
onions help to reduce inflammation and therefore they come really handy at
relaxing muscle. They help to calm the muscles and the nerves that control
them. They keep the joints relaxed and even after physical fatigue the
ingestion of onions can really facilitate to the massaging and keeping the
muscles feeling refreshed and also to ensure that the muscles are not badly
affected. It also helps in the treatment of asthma which affects the muscles
of asthmatic people and therefore it helps them against having asthmatic
attacks that are triggered by the muscles becoming inflamed.
Basically, the onions that you consume normally produce an enzyme
that are antioxidants, and therefore they can support and build the body’s
defense system so that it may be well equipped to face any kind of attack.
Also, for people who experience a lot of allergic reactions, onions are a
great remedy because they are blue to produce mechanisms that can detect
allergic reactions and prevent them from happening before it can actually
affect you and it starts irritating. These make onions a very immune friendly
enzyme that will boost your body’s ability to face health issue.
Treating stomach issues such as Indigestion and constipation: Like
every other plant that is fiber endowed, onions come in handy in when there
is abnormality in guts. Basically, digestion is one long process that takes
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 89

place from the mouth. Fibers are a very important part of this process and the
lack of fibers leads to cogging in the guts leading to indigestion which some
will system overload of the digestive system and all this will consequently
lead to constipation and all these can be really uncomfortable and the only
way to actually decongest the system is by ingesting some fibers [onions in
this case]which provide the required enzymes for the digestive tract to be
washed clean and your indigestion issues are solved.
Treatment of diabetes by lowering blood sugars: Basically, onion is
able to lower the blood sugars whenever they shoot too high. Onions have
enzymes that literally lower the amount of blood sugars in the body. If you
test for the amount of glucose in the body after consuming onions, then it
will be lower and this means that you do not have excess acids in your body
and also your body sugars are regulated to low amounts which are more
tenable by the body and therefore do not pose any challenge to the body.
Treat weak joints especially in women: Generally, women bodies tend to
start getting weak after they hit menopause. This process is so much more
popular with women that did not ingest onions. Basically, the onions provide
the person with irons that are responsible for bone growth and strength. This
directly means that the women that partake onions are almost half less likely
to fracture their bones than the women who do not.
Basically, onions are some of the reliable organic medications and
very few plants are able to march the amount of healing and therapeutic
characteristics that onions provide. They generally affect almost every body
part positively and the ingestion of onions definitely has more positivity in
your body more than anything.

3.11 THERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEM

PLANT
It has always been regarded to as Azadirachta indica as its botanical name
and it has been around for ages. The tree can grow to a height of over 40 m
and have the diameter of over 20m. Being an adaptive plant the neem tree
can lose over two-thirds of its leaves in the dry season and still flourish.
The tree is popular for its medicinal properties that have over the ages been
flourishing. The Indians for instance seem to have been using the neem
plant for over 2000 years for its commercial and medicinal purposes. Also,
some parts of the world have classified it as more of a parasitic plant and
90 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

therefore gained it a weed status. The plant will literally harass almost every
other plant around depriving it off some really important nutrients and some
countries find this plant as a hazardous plant that is supposed to be banned
in their countries. The neem plant is one of most medically viable plant and
it has been used to date to treat various diseases (Panda, 2004).

Figure 3.10. Neem plant and which diseases it treat.

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/JasmineMariya1/neem-72333138
Here we take a detailed look at some of its uses in the medical sector.
Treating gingivitis: For the longest time especially in India people have
been using neem branches to clean their teeth. These practices have been
taking places for ages and scientists have all come into an agreement that
the neem of neem tree branches are the perfect medicine for bleeding gums
and many other dental infections. The same is used to clean the tongue. In
some parts of the world, the neem tree branches are sold as an organic way
of cleaning teeth. The use of neem tree in dental has evolved over the ages
and a lot of research has been funded over to see just how far the neem tree
can go as far as dental health is involved.
Scalp treatment: Traditionally people use neem tree to clean their hair.
It used to be an efficient way to ensure that they keep lice out of their scalp
and also prevent dandruffs from infesting their scalp. It proved to work well
for them and therefore they continuously used it while they were washing
their hair. Today modern hair shampoo companies that use neem tree as their
primary raw material tend to have the best anti dandruff materials and also
have the most viable hair shampoos in the market. They also help kill any
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 91

type of lice that may have infested the hair leaving the hair perfectly clean
and free of any pest. It treats damaged scalp as well as prevent dandruffs
from forming.
Treating pain related issues and symptoms: Many tests have been
carried on the ability of neem plant medicine to tranquilize pain and cure
fevers and the results are promising. Neem tree is used to prevent and treat
inflammation and therefore this is reason enough for it to be used as an
antibiotic and therefore it is used in most instances to cure fevers and relieve
pains. Although most of these drugs are quite refurbished and they are not
made from just the neem plant but they are a mixture of many other products
that do not change the fact the neem factor plays a very huge role in making
the whole drug a success. These drugs can also be used to relieve terminal
pains if someone is not sterilized during or after very painful medical
procedures that may need pain relieving medicines.
Treating the whole body by cleaning blood: People in India used to drink
a medical mixture that comprises of neem bark and water boiled together
so as to cleanse their blood of many toxins. While the practice is still being
carried on, the people still do it because the bark of the neem plant is enriched
with irons that are used in the detoxifying of blood. Neem plant also helps
with the blood circulation in the body while it detoxifies it.
Treatment of diabetes by regulating blood sugars: Neem being a plant
produces organic sugars that are very healthy for the body. But it also helps
control the amount of body sugars that are ingested in the body at any time.
This gives it ability to balance the body sugars by producing sugars if needed
or also get rid of these sugars when they are not needed anymore. This helps
so much in keeping the body sugars in check at any given time. This will
help in healing the body from any kind of toxic sugars that may be in the
body at all times.
Basically, the neem plant is a very important plant in the medicine and
pharmacy sector. It has very important features which make it very efficient
and lively to the medicinal miracle of the world. There is no amount of time
that its therapeutically characteristics can ever fully exhaust its use because
it’s applied in almost every other sector including the cosmetics sector to
help take care of the skin and fight off any other type of infection that affects
the skin. This literally makes neem plant the most important plant in the
pharmaceutical sector. It has also made major moves in providing a cure
for malaria one of the biggest diseases and therefore neem tree is a very
fundamental part of the medical sector
4
Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment
of Cancer

CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 94
4.2 Modes of Treating Cancer And Its Relation To Medicinal Plants .......... 96
4.3 Plants And Synthetic Medicine........................................................... 99
4.4 Types of Cancer ............................................................................... 101
4.5 Skin Cancer Treatment ..................................................................... 104
4.6 Lung Cancer Treatment .................................................................... 106
4.7 Leukemia ......................................................................................... 109
4.8 Prostate Cancer................................................................................ 111
4.9 Pancreatic Cancer ............................................................................ 112
4.10 Bone Cancer .................................................................................. 113
4.11 Stomach Cancer ............................................................................ 113
4.12 Breast Cancer Treatment ................................................................ 114
4.13 Colorectal Cancer Treatment .......................................................... 114
4.14 Esophageal Cancer Treatment ........................................................ 115
4.15 Advantages of Using Herbs In Cancer Treatment ............................ 116
4.16 Challenges Facing The Use of Plants In Cancer Treatment .............. 117
94 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Cancer is the second most dreading disease in the globe. As long as cancer
has ever existed then life has never been a walk in the park. This disease
has been a menace that would ravage and destroy the human life. The world
health organization would argue that for every six deaths that occur from
every corner of planet earth then one is a cancer related death. Much of this
is associated with the fact that treating cancer might require huge loads of
money. With this, the world health organization has that 70% of all deaths
related to cancer is majorly in low and middle income countries. However,
even a coin has got two sides. The encouraging thing about cancer is that
30-50% of cancer related cases can be prevented (Bill Church, 2006).
The world health organization has further stated that living a healthy
lifestyle and avoiding the use of dangerous narcotics and cosmetics would
go a long way in helping prevent occurrence of cancer. As a matter of fact,
the world health organization through massive research has proven that
majority of cancer related illnesses, if detected early can be treated and cured.
If this might not be the case, then even late stage cancer can be relieved with
good palliative care. WHO further has stated that the use of tobacco leads to
massive cases of cancer related illnesses. Avoiding the use of tobacco would
go on a long way in helping fight cancer.
During the ancient times, cancer was never a subject in the world`s
dictionaries. Nobody knew of such a serious disease until 1775. The word
cancer is derived from a Greek word that is used to refer to a crab. The
finger like projections relate to cancer have the shape of a crab. In the period
28-50BC a roman physician by the name Celsus translated the Greek term
into cancer. However, during this period the term ‘cancer’ was rather used
to describe tumors i.e. malignant tumors. The word cancer is accredited to
Hippocrates, a Greek physician who is considered as the father of medicine.
The Greek physician used the term carcinos and carcinoma to describe the
then ulcer forming and non-ulcer forming tumors (Bill Church, 2006).
The earliest description of cancer dates to the Egyptian era. It appeared
in several papyri from the ancient community. The Edwin smith papyrus
documented in 1600 BC had a description of cancer and written procedures
that would help eject breast tumors from the human body by cauterization.
Ancient Egyptian history has it that it was first recognized from the bones
of Egyptian mummies buried around the pyramids. The ‘father of medicine’
Hippocrates in the year 370BC-460BC described various types of cancer, he
referred to them by the term ‘karkinos’ the Greek term for a crab. The ancient
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 95

Greek tradition did not allow for the opening of one’s body. Hippocrates
would then go on and make drawings of outwardly visible tumors. From the
various parts of the body, Hippocrates would document a different types of
cancer.
In the beginning of the second century, a Greek physician by the name
of Galen used oncos (a Greek term that refers to swelling to refer to all
cancer tumors. This reserved the drawings of Hippocrates to malignant
forms of tumors. The term malignant refers to the very virulent or highly
infectious forms of cancer. With this Galen became the father of modern
oncology. Cancer developed and further with zero and absolutely null efforts
by scientists that would destroy the disease, it reached the doors of the 16th
century. At this period, it was acceptable for cancer doctors to dissect bodies
and rediscover the cause of cancer. Cancer had become a leading cause of
death. For instance, Wilhelm Fabry, a German professor, believed that breast
cancer was a result of a clot in the mammary duct. A colleague of his, Francois
de la Boe Sylvius had it that all diseases were a result of chemical processes
in the human body. He claimed that the acidic lymph fluid was the leading
cause of cancer. The first ever documented cause of cancer was identified in
the year 1775 by a British surgeon named, Percivall Pott. He claimed that
cancer of the scrotum was a common disease in chimney sweeps. This was a
major foundation for scientists. Later on, they would form associations and
work together to come up with finer findings and solutions.
The 18th century marked a century of great technological innovations.
This century marked the launch of microscopes. This was a major boost in
the discovery of cancer cells. Rather than realigning with only body tumors,
scientist could now be able to research on blood and other body cells. During
early periods, plants were mainly used in the treatment of cancer. However,
this century came up with surgery. However, it was quite hard to implement
it as hygiene was a major setback. It was quite hard to ensure clean medical
environments and even cleaner tools and equipment that were important in
dissecting the human body. One alluded history is that of Alexander Monro,
a Scottish surgeon who performed surgery on 60 breast cancer patients.
With his influence on surgery, alexander would go on stating that out of the
60, only two managed to survive (Bill Church, 2006).
Modern forms of treating cancer rely on the genetic basis. In the 20th
century particularly in the year 1902, Theodor Boveri, a German scientist
recognized the genetic basis of cancer. The professor of zoology who dwelled
in Munich and later in Wurzburg would discover a method of generating and
96 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

regenerating cells that had multiple copies of the centrosome. He further

claimed that chromosomes were particularly responsible for the regeneration
of cancer cells. Cancer has always been aligned with tumor growth. The
German scientist went on claiming that the regeneration of the cell had
unlimited growth potential. In his findings, Theodor Boveri suggested that
the cell regeneration was caused by radiation, chemical or physical insults
and pathogenic microorganisms.
Even in the dawn of the 21st century, cancer has become a headache
to medical scientists. Following head to head with cardiovascular diseases,
cancer might soon surpass and become the leading cause of death.

4.2 MODES OF TREATING CANCER AND ITS

RELATION TO MEDICINAL PLANTS
As seen earlier, cancer is subject to treatment and can be treated in various
forms. However, cancer treatment was done even in the past where there were
minimal technological advancements. This advanced the use of plants in the
disease treatment. Ethnobotany defines the use of plants for ethnomedical
purposes. This was however done by different ethnic communities. With
minimal forms of communication, each community has their own way
of dealing with cancer which was then viewed as malignant body tumors
(Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
With the invent of modern technology, plants were not laid to rest, instead
they were conjoined with the use modern technological equipment to help
remove these tumors. By the beginning of the 20th century, surgery came
into place and the world was not prepared. Plants were used as anesthetics
but the hygiene of the environment could not allow proper treatment of
cancer patients. At the end of the 20th century, man realized that cancer could
not be cured, instead its harmful nature could be reduced, initial and early
treatment of cancer was possible and that technology could provide other
means of destroying cancerous cells. This forms of treatment were carried
out in various stages;
• Primary treatment-this stage aims at removing all the cancer cells
from one`s body. This is only done through surgery. However,
if the said form of cancer is sensitive to therapy, then radiation
therapy or chemotherapy was used. Plants also play a key role
during this stage. Plants are used to manufacture medicine such
as anesthetic. In the 20th century, plants could also be used to as
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 97

tubes to suck up blood that came in as a result of bleeding.

• Adjuvant treatment- in an event where primary treatment could
not remove all the cancerous cells, adjuvant treatment could
come into place to remove cancer cells that may have remained.
In this case, any form of cancer treatment can be used as adjuvant
treatment. They include chemotherapy, radiation therapy and
hormone therapy. A similar form, neoadjuvant treatment was used
before primary treatment. This aimed at ensuring the process of
primary treatment remained smooth and effective.
• Palliative treatment- this is a stage aimed at reducing the side
effects of treatment of cancer. In ethnomedicine, some plant
species sap for example, were smeared on body parts that had
undergone surgery to ensure that the patient could be relieved as
soon as possible. Palliative treatment was also used to put down
the signs and symptoms of cancer. For instance, if one had throat
cancer and suffered throat problems. In modern society, one
would be given synthetic pain killers but instead the old ethnic
communities would use pain relieving plants to help the patient.
Forms used in this stage include surgery, radiation, hormone
therapy and chemotherapy,
These methods of cancer treatment include;
• Surgery- this involves dissecting the human body to remove
cancer related tumors and cancer cells. Plants are used in this
case for anesthetic or to create drugs for non-aesthetic purposes.
• Radiation therapy- this is an invent of modern technology.
Reason behind this is that radiation therapy involves the use
of modern machinery. It is an applicative area of physics and
physical sciences. It utilizes the use of high powered energy
beams e.g. X-rays and protons to destroy cancer cells. It occurs
in two forms; external beam radiation and internal beam radiation
(brachytherapy). External beam radiation requires a machine
placed outside the body while brachytherapy requires a machine
placed inside the body. The use of plants during this session is
either during or before radiation therapy.
• Chemotherapy- this is the use of drugs or rather chemicals to
treat and remove cancer cells. Chemotherapy is also not directly
linked to medicinal plants. However medicinal plants are used to
manufacture drugs used in the treatment of cancer. In the olden
98 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

days, there were no chemically made drugs, instead people used

up plants to reduce and remove the tumor growth. With the invent
of technology, synthetic medicine has picked up pace and now
allocates to a major percentage of drugs used in chemotherapy.
• Bone marrow transplant- one of the widely known ways that
cancer cells use to regenerate is via the bone marrow. This is
the material substance that is located inside the bone and used
to make blood stem cells and normal blood cells. Diseased bone
marrows are replaced during cancer treatment. This has minimal
or absolutely no effect with plants. Only machines are used during
transplant.
• Hormone therapy-some varieties of cancer including breast cancer
and prostate cancer are spread and fueled by body hormones.
Such hormones are removed from body and hence blocked from
affecting the body. Plants play a vital role here whereby they
create derived alternatives for hormone replacement. Plants such
as the black cohosh are used instead of synthetic alternatives.
• Immunotherapy- this term can also be defined as biological
therapy. This is where the body’s immune system fights the
cancerous cells. This can be done independently by the body
or from assistance from other external factors. This implies
that other substances such as plants may be fed into the body to
boost one’s immune system. Some cancerous cells are known to
feed into the human body and grow without the body immune`s
system knowing it. With the help of immunotherapy i.e. influence
by factors that boost the body`s immune system, the body can
easily recognize and fight the disease.
• Targeted drug therapy- this is a modern form of treating cancer
that involves the study of the genetic basis of cancer. There
are specific genes and proteins that help boost the growth of
cancerous cells. Targeted drug therapy will now involve the use
of a particular drug to affect the tissue environment which aid in
the growth and survival of cancer cells. Some types of plants are
used for targeted drug therapy. Such plant derived compounds
include the vinblastine, vindesine and taxanes.
• Cryoablation- this is the freezing of cancer cells. It involves
the use of cold to kill cancer cells. A (cryoprobe) a thin and
wandlelike candle, is inserted through the skin into the tumor-
causing cancer. A cold gas is then passed through the needle to
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 99

freeze up the tumor. Cancer cells are known to be withstand such

conditions. Instead the process is repeated over and over again
weakening the cells and finally destroying them. Crypoablation is
a modern process that has no link with plants. The entire process
is done by machines.
• Radiofrequency ablation- this process involves the use of heat
to kill cancerous cells. It is the direct opposite of cryoablation.
It utilizes electrical energy in the process of heating the cancer
cells. In such an event, a cancer doctor may have to use a needle
or a skin incision to direct heat to the said tumor. The heat will
warm and eventually kill the cancerous cells. Plants, similar to
cryoablation are not involved in this process.
• Clinical trials- this is all about disease study process in humans.
Plant use has always been a major source of research for cancer
treatment. Clinical trials help to identify compounds that have
healing properties, these elements can later be used to make
medicines.
From the above modes of treatment, it is evident that plants played a
vital role in the treatment of cancer especially in the 20th century and years
before. Over time, technological advancements have been in the edge of
kicking plants out. However, plants are still incorporated in treatment and
the manufacture of drugs. Indeed, the two are interdependent and without
the aid of plants, then perhaps it would have been impossible to kick cancer
away.

4.3 PLANTS AND SYNTHETIC MEDICINE

Medicine can be made in various forms but most are either herbal or synthetic.
Herbal medicine can also be referred to as herbalism or phytomedicine. These
are medicines that use plants or crude products (made by plants) for use in
the curing of diseases. Herbal medicines are medicine that are manufactured
from compounds that are extracted from plants. Herbal medicine can be in
the form of crude dugs; which is a drug that is medically useful that has not
undergone any processing or modification. A crude drug is taken directly i.e.
consumed directly e.g. chewing the leaves, drinking the sap, chewing the
barks etc. in the manufacture of herbal medicines the important compounds
are extracted. An extract is a mixture of compounds derived from herbs
using some solvents (Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
100 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Synthetic drugs are different from herbal medicine. Synthetic drugs also
commonly known as designer drugs or club drugs. These are drugs that are
chemically manufactured in a laboratory. These synthetic drugs can be made
commercially by big drug pharmaceuticals for treatment of diseases or they
be made illicitly in illegal laboratories for illicit markets. The illicit drugs
are manufactured with the aim of mimicking effects of naturally illicit drugs
such as marijuana.
Herbal medicines are obtained from different parts of the plant, the
flowers, leaves, barks and the roots. These plants can be used while fresh or
some are even dried before being used. Herbalists and big pharmaceuticals
have different ways and beliefs. Herbalists believe that herbal medicines
work because of the delicate chemical balance that is found within the plant,
while big pharmaceuticals believe that the active ingredient is the only
compound that is needed (Bill Church, 2006).
The most common types of herbalists are mostly grouped into two i.e.
western herbal medicine and Chinese herbal medicine. The western herbal
medicines mainly focus on the whole body rather than the illness. When
they come in contact with a sick patient they make and prescribe the herbal
medicine based on person’s health history, family history (if a member of
the extended family has had the same illness) the diet of the patient and the
lifestyle. The herbalists mostly make their herbs from plants from Europe
and North America. They have a belief that the remedies they prescribe
helps the body to heal itself or to reduce the side effects of the diseases.
The Chinese herbal medicine believe that they need to restore the balance
of a patients “Qi” (pronounced as Chee). Which is the flow of energy in the
body and is important in good health. It incorporates the “yin’ and ‘yang”
which are the different qualities of Qi. They believe that when the yin and
yang are in harmony with each other than a person will have good health,
peace and wellbeing. The herbalists from china use plants according to how
they affect the human body. Their treatments involve several things i.e.
acupuncture, massage, herbal therapies. They use different parts of the plant
which include; leaves, stems, roots, flowers and sometimes fruits and their
seeds. They can combine the herbs or sometimes use them individually. The
herbs are then taken n form of teas, capsules, tinctures (herb mixed with an
alcoholic solvent) or powders.
Before any type of herbal medicine is used or tested on human beings
it needs to have undergone four major steps. The first step is to identify
the herbs and its extracts, this involves macroscopically, microscopically
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 101

and chemical investigation of the herb. Secondly, confirm the purity of the
herb, this involves identifying whether the herb contains any impurities or
any adulterants. Some of the pollutants includes toxic botanicals, microbial
toxins, pesticides, toxic metals etc. thirdly the efficacy of the herb i.e. it
needs to be tested. It is first tested on cells, tissues, and organic cultures then
animal experimentation is carried out and then clinical trials are conducted.
Lastly, the safety of the herb is done which involves; investigate on acute
toxicity, study the effects it could have on lactation and pregnancy. These
steps need to be followed in order to ensure that the drug being administered
to people has been ensured that it is safe for their consumption (Bill Church,
2006).

4.4 TYPES OF CANCER

There are close to hundred types of cancer with even more yet to be identified.
However, there are some common types of cancer that continue ravaging the
human life. These types include;
• Breast cancer-this is a type of cancer that forms in the cells of
the breast. It occurs in both men and women. A common myth
about breast cancer is that it only occurs in women as they are the
only ones with breasts. However, men also have breasts located
over the lungs. Men are hence susceptible to breast cancer. There
are also different kinds of breast cancer including invasive ductal
carcinoma and the invasive lobular carcinoma. Treatment of
breast cancer can be synthetic or plant based. As a matter of fact,
breast cancer was a major diagnosed disease in the ethnic times.
Plants were majorly used in its treatment and are discussed later
in this chapter.
• Lung cancer- this is a type of cancer that occurs majorly in the
lungs but often affects people who smoke. Lung cancer is divided
into several types with the major ones being non-small cell lung
cancer and small cell lung cancer. Lung cancer is caused by
several factors including exposure to certain types of toxins,
smoking and second hand smoking also called passive smoking.
In ethnobotany, tobacco as a narcotic was once a famous product
in Europe. It was once compared with gold. With time the people
of ethnic Europe came to understand the risks associated with
tobacco e.g. lung cancer. One fact is that to date, lung cancer is
the leading cause of deaths in the world. With it gaining roots in
102 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

ancient history, lung cancer was mainly treated using plants. It

was a more effective way even before the western culture.
• Skin cancer-it affects the pigments that produce cell giving colors
of the skin. It occurs in various types including basal cell cancer,
melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma.
• Prostate cancer- this is a form of cancer that occurs in a man’s
prostate.
Other cancers include; Colon cancer, Leukemia (cancer of the blood),
Lymphoma, Bladder cancer, Colon and rectal cancer, Kidney cancer, Throat
cancer, Thyroid cancer, Pancreatic cancer, and many more.
The use of plants in the treatment of cancer can be argued in different
terms;

4.4.1 Role of Medicinal Plants in Cancer Treatment Process

The treatment of cancer as seen above can be done in various form including
direct administration of drugs and through therapy. Plants can be used in two
ways:.
• Use of plants derived products during therapy: This involves
the use of plants or plant parts during therapy. For example, in
ethnobotany, during the process of surgery, banana leaves were
placed down for individuals to lie upon. Special beds were made
from stems and lake reeds to make a patient feel comfortable
and allow the doctor to conduct treatment activities comfortably.
Indeed, medicine lies on a very wide field. For treatment to occur,
then there are various factors that need to be put into place. Beds
as mentioned were a major part of cancer treatment. Extracted oil
from plants was also smeared on the body of patients to smoothen
and prepare the skin for surgery or treatment.
• Plants products used directly as medicine in treating cancer:
This is a very wide field that encompasses the use of plants fed
directly into the body of a human being either to kill the cancer
cells, reduce pain or prepare the body for certain activities. For
example, poppy plant used for treatment. The poppy plant was
used to induce sleep during treatment and further relieve pain.
Today it has been used in the production of morphine, a critical
drug that is used before surgery. In the current world, malignant
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 103

cancer tumors can only be removed through surgery, thus making

morphine a very crucial commodity.
• Plants that have shown promising anti-cancer properties but are
yet to be researched on: The world health organization has put
in place processes that a suspected drug must undergo before
being made an official drug. One of these processes involves lab
trials whereby a particular drug must be experimented using a rat,
monkey, and thereafter a human being. There being poisonous
varieties of plants, the world health organization works to ensure
that human life remains important. Scientists all over the world,
work to find out plants that have promising effects on cancerous
cells. However, lab trials are yet to be conducted to identify if
they are safe for human use. For instance, the national cancer
institute in the United States has screened close to 36000 plant
species for anticancereous properties and out of this, 3000 plants
have demonstrated reproducible anticancer activities. However,
the majority of these drugs are yet to undergo lab and human
trial. One example is Tinospora cordifolia and the Ziziphus
nammularia wight. It is estimated that currently less than 40% of
plants have been exploited in the treatment of cancer.

4.4.2 Plants Used in Treating Different Types of Cancer

Herbal medicine has gained popularity among most health specialists in the
treatment of diseases. Cancer just like most critical diseases are also being
treated by the use of plants. As seen earlier, cancer is a very serious disease
that contributes to high number of deaths. Specialists therefore are working
round the clock to look for vaccines and drugs that may save the human race
from this pandemic. With very high costs and side effects that are severe,
there has been a reduction in the popularity of clinical medication. As such,
medical specialists are looking towards other alternatives to treatment and
prevention of cancer. Various types of plants have been discovered to help
treat various types of cancer. Although not proven to be 100% effective,
they have shown promising results. Herbal remedies have come with ease of
availability and cost-effectiveness. The World Health Organization reports
that even though most advanced countries apply the use of herbal medicine
as a form of cancer treatment, only a few such remedies have been tested to
acquire their bioactive compounds that are useful for treatment. Treatment
104 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

of diseases normally involves various options, use of physiotherapy and

diet, using drugs and surgery in that order. Most scientists, advise on the
prevention of tumor growth hence prevent the process of cancer cell growth
(Bill Church, 2006).
Medical scientists claim that the use of herbal remedies is one of the
best alternatives for treating or/and preventing cases of cancer. The reason
behind this is the fact that plants contain various types of compounds that
are hindrance to various types of cancer cell growth. In some cases, the
extracted compounds may be used alone for treatment or can be used in
combination with other anticancer treatments. The most common and
difficult problem to deal with during cancer treatments is that it appears
that the cells are chemotherapy resistant. This problem is the main reason
as to why researchers are working round the clock to find ways to reduce
resistance. Reports from cancer specialists state that herbal remedies not
only have the ability to act as anticancer agents but also have the ability
to reestablish sensitivity toward chemotherapy. When dealing with the
prevention of cancer, various plants, herbs and fruits have been approved to
reduce and even prevent the incidences of growth of cancer cells in various
parts of the human body. In this chapter, we are going to look at various
cancers and their treatment, majorly using plants (Jadhav, 2008).

4.5 SKIN CANCER TREATMENT

Skin cancer is a very common type of cancer all over the world. There
are various types of skin cancers that are explained below and various
mechanisms of action of plant origin against a variety of skin-related cancers.
Non-melanoma skin cancer: Research concludes that this type of cancer
is very common worldwide. It includes Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and
squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). The treatment of this type of skin cancer
usually involves surgical removal of the cutaneous neoplasm. Over the years
however, use of herbal medicine have gained popularity for the prevention
and treatment of this type of cancer. This is because herbal medicine is seen
to include various properties, such as, antioxidant, immunomodulant and
inflammatory properties. These properties are believed to have the capability
to prevent, suppress or reverse the process of carcinogenesis as they include
chemo preventive agents. This type of cancer is best treated when discovered
early because its progression may lead to significant morbidity and even
death. To prevent the occurrence of this type of cancer, it is traditionally
recommended for individuals to use sunscreen and avoiding intense
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 105

exposure to ultraviolet rays. Due to the popularity of plant effectiveness in

the treatment of most diseases, most individuals prefer using plant-based
compounds that may be used in the form of, dried or fresh plants or extracted
plant material to protect their skins (El-Shemy, 2017).
Topical ingenol mebutate, which is a tonic extracted from Euphorbia
is currently used in the treatment of actinic keratosis. Actinic keratosis is a
rough scaly patch that is found on the skin due to years of exposure to the sun.
By treating this, it prevents the possibilities of getting non-melanoma skin
cancer. Ingenol mebutate isolated from E. peplus sap used in the treatment of
BCC and SCC with a larger percentage of success but not effective to a small
number of patients. However, non-responsive patients undergo continuous
treatment of the same and have shown spectacular results. Hypericin, a drug
extracted from the Hypericum perforatum plant is effective for the treatment
of BCC and SCC. The hypericin is a solution injected to the infected area
then the area is irradiated with visible light. With continuous application of
this treatment, patients become fully recovered with no trace of the tumor.
However, the same causes pain and burning sensation during the irradiation
process. Paclitaxel, a plant alkaloid that is extracted from a yew tree known
as Taxus brevifolia is a chemotherapy agent. It has been used in the treatment
of BCC with 100% success, whereby the patients exhibit non-cancerous cells
after treatment. Despite the above plants showing positive results, scientists
should conduct further tests and studies to assess the chemo-preventive and
therapeutic effects of these herbal remedies (El-Shemy, 2017).
Malignant Melanoma: This is considered one of the most dangerous
type of cancer. It is also known as black skin cancer. Although it accounts
for a smaller percentage of all skin cancers, it has contributed to most deaths
that are skin cancer related. It is horrifying that over the years, the number of
individuals contacting this disease is rising. It is treatable if it is caught early,
but if not, it can progress which reduces the chance of curing it. Many plant
extracts analyzed and isolated by traditional Chinese medicine have shown
promise in the treatment of cancer-like diseases. A substance known as beta-
beta-dimethylacrylshikonin, obtained from a plant was applied directly to the
cells of malignant melanoma and it had an effect. This active substance was
extracted from the roots of Onosma paniculata plant, which is a subspecies
of the borage plant. Its effect on the malignant melanoma cells are well
known in the scientific community. Over the years, scientist have worked to
ensure the modification of the important ingredient from the plant and have
further improved its effects on the human body. When the substance was
tested on mice to see if there were any effects, two types of cell death were
observed. First apoptosis, which is a regulated death specifically induced by
106 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

the body. The second was necrosis, which is an uncontrollable death. This
proved that there were no negative side effects to the human body when this
substance is introduced (El-Shemy, 2017).
Most specialists believe that the best way to go about this pandemic is
prevention. Another reason is that most clinical trials are still introductory in
nature. This shows that there is a great need for trials on the photoprotective
effects of plant extracts which would be great preventive measure. Plants that
have shown promising results in the prevention of skin cancer, especially
non-melanoma include, Hamamelis virginiana, also known as witch hazel.
This is used in the preparation of an herbal tonic. Camellia sinesis, also
known as green tea can be used topically or orally ingested. Salvia officinalis,
also known as sage is for topical use. Most of the herbal remedies used in
the prevention of skin cancer are based on the mechanisms of photodamage
to skin and how it may advance to various types of precancers and cancers.
Exposer to UV light hinders the production of adenosine triphosphate, hence
damage of skin immunity and DNA repair. By ingesting or applying a product
that can enhance skin immunity and DNA repair reduces the probability of
skin cancers and precancers (Alan C. Hamilton, 2004).

4.6 LUNG CANCER TREATMENT

Lung cancer is a disease that has proven to have high sickness rates and
undoubtedly high mortality rates. It is with no doubt that a person suffering
from this cancer experiences a significant amount of suffering and an indefinite
decrease in the quality of life. It is currently referred to as the malignant
tumor. The high mortality rates are due to the fact that the cancer normally
remain undetectable until when the illness has progressed substantially
which leads to the reduction in the quantity of life. Lung cancer has been
grouped into non-small cell lung carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma.
NSCLC includes squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and large cell
carcinoma. Due to the widely impact of skin cancer, many strategies for
lung cancer chemoprevention and treatment have been studied. An example
of a strategy used and proven to be effective is the use of ceritinib. It was
tested in patients with advanced lung cancer that harbor genetic alterations.
Scientists are also prioritizing the study of tumor-associated biomarkers
with the aim of reducing lung cancer related deaths. In the current world,
radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and hormones are advances used
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 107

for cancer treatment. They are frequently supplemented by other alternative

therapies, which includes herbal remedies (Daniel, 2006).
Even though chemotherapy is a method that is greatly used, there are
various problems associated with it. It is seen to have limited capabilities
to produce desired effects, patients experience vomiting and loss of hair
due to severe toxicity and is drug resistant. The popularity of using herbal
medicine has thrived as an approach to lung cancer therapy with little side
effects. Scientists are considering herbal remedies as a major source for
developing new drugs. The trust in herbal remedies is not at all in vain as
it has proven to be very useful and effective in sensitizing conventional
agents. Patient survival time is prolonged by its use, the capabilities of
preventing chemotherapy side effects is noticed and there is an improvement
in the quality of life among lung cancer patients. Specialists are currently
using herbal remedies as complementary therapy to lessen cancer-related
symptoms, boosting the immune system, reducing toxicity and also to
obtain direct anticancer effects. Vinca alkaloids, vinblastine and vincristine
are compounds isolated from the Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus
roseus, obtained from the leaves of various Taxus species are still widely
clinically used. Etoposide and teniposide are the natural derivatives of the
natural product epidophyllotoxin are also clinically used (Daniel, 2006).
The forms of therapeutic plants commonly used in the world are
teas and herbal concoctions. Research has shown that various teas and
herbal concoctions widely consumed in most parts of the world have
antiproliferative effects against human lung cancer cells. Some of the herbal
remedies that have some antitumor properties against lung cancer have been
cited. Selaginella tamariscina is an herbal remedy used by the Chinese
considered to have antimetastatic effects in vitro and in vivo against lung
cancer cells. Crocus sativus L. also known as Saffron is an aqueous extract
widely used as a food additive and use traditionally as a remedy against
cancer. Scientist have inquired and examined into with care and accuracy
and found out that antilung activity was associated with the introduction
of programmed cell death. The portion of Toona sinensis leaves that is
bioactive hinder tumor growth in both therapeutic and preventive measures.
An in vitro study showed that herbal remedies act by inducing programmed
cell death. The methanol fragment of Sesbania grandiflora is found to force
control antiproliferative effects against human lung cancer cells. The effect
is related to the introduction of programmed cell death associated with high
108 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

levels of reactive oxygen species intermediates. Researchers concluded that

an injunction of the active components of Prunella had antilung cancer
activity and that the injunction enhanced the effect. Descurania Sophia
is an herbal medicine that is popular among the Korean communities.
Studies have shown that the ethanol extracts from the seeds of this plant
had antitumor effects against lung cancer. The effect was involved with
the regulation of metabolism and signaling of related pathways. Butanol
extract from Mountain ginseng hinders lung cancer cell growth by inducing
programmed cell death (Jadhav, 2008).
Various substances that scientists and doctors have been able to isolate
from medicinal plants have been widely studied due to their antilung cancer
activity. Gingerol for example, a compound of ginger, shows antiangiogenic
capacity and reduces the number of lung metastases in melanoma cells.
Embelin, which is an active ingredient of fruits of Embelia ribes plant
possesses a huge range of qualities of therapeutic properties, which include
antitumor activity against lung cancer cells. Tanshinone is a diterpene
extracted from Danshen plant, also known as Salvia miltiorrhazia, reduces
lung adenocarcinoma tumor growth. Danshen is also an herbal medicine that
is used in china to treat various diseases which include cancer. Carbazole
alkaloid which is a Murraya koenigii extract prevents cancer cell growth by
introducing both internal and external programmed cell death. Scutellaria
baicalensis root is used in China as an assistant during chemotherapy among
lung cancer patients. One very successful incident within the medical
community, was the use of Chelidonium majus, which was prepared in
Ukraine in the treatment of histologically proven lung cancer. The treatment
was administered to men that had cancer that had initially proven to be
untreatable. The use had positive effects and there were no traces of the
tumor afterwards.
When compared to clinical drugs used in the treatment of lung cancer,
the toxicity of herbal remedies may seem common. This however is a very
serious problem to the public. Some of the plants that are used as medicine
are with no doubt toxic and can cause severe damage to the patient’s health
and at other times lead to death. Specialist should therefore assess the toxic
nature of medicinal plants as well as their preparation for human use as it
is very essential in determining whether it can be used as a drug (Jadhav,
2008).
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 109

4.7 LEUKEMIA
Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the blood. It is caused by the rise of
the number of white blood cells in the body. The white blood cells increase
drastically and outnumber the red blood cells and platelets.
Leukemia is not easily recognizable in the early stages and might be
hard to know. When the symptoms appear they include; body weakness, a
person bruise and bleeds easily when he/she is cot lightly, have fever and
feels chilly, infections such as flu which are severe and will keep recurring,
weakness and pain in the joints, mild headaches that persistent, increased
vomiting, drastic weight loss, difficulty in breathing, the spleen swell and
the lymph nodes swell too.
There no known direct cause of leukemia but a person can have
predisposing factors that may cause a person to contract leukemia. Some
of the factors that may trigger leukemia include; persistent smocking,
exposure to a lot of radiation or certain harmful or radioactive chemicals,
hereditary (family history of persons affected by the disease, have genetic
disorder such the down’s syndrome and patients undergoing radiotherapy or
chemotherapy in treatment of another cancer) (Kokwaro, 2009).
When a person is said to have leukemia, it is whereby the body produces
more white blood cells than red blood cells and more than the body requires.
The body produces billions of blood cells on a daily basis, the red blood
cells are more in number than the white blood cells. Another name for white
blood cells is leukocytes, hence the name leukemia is derived. When the
white blood cells are more they affect how the body works and this leads to
less red blood cells to transport oxygen, enough platelets to clot the blood
when one bleeds or enough white blood cells to kill germs.
Leukemia is classified based on two groups how fast it is developing and
the type of blood cells involved. How it develops is divided into acute and
chronic. The type of cells involved are divided into, lymphocytic (involves
bone marrow cells that become white blood cells) and myelogenous (bone
marrow cells that create red blood cells and platelets) (Kokwaro, 2009).
There are four types of leukemia which include, Acute Lymphocytic
Leukemia (ALL), Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML), Chronic
Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) and Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML).
Herbs have been used in the treatment of leukemia and the most
common, which are used to inhibit the leukemia cells include; indigo
(gingdai) and relgar (xionghuang). Indigo is an extract of Isatis tinctoria
110 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

and Baphicacanthus cusia. The main compound in indigo in relation to

leukemia is indirubin. It is known to have better therapeutic effects, faster
known effects low dosage required and has very few side effects. Indirubin’s
major function is to suppress bone-marrow action. It is non-toxic but has
been known to produce gastric irritation.
The Typhonium flagelliforme which belongs to the Araceae family and
commonly known as “rodent tuber” in Malaysia. It has been reported that it
can act as an anti-cancer and anti-proliferative. It also helps in reducing the
cell count in cells number of granulocytes that hadn’t matured and monocytes
when it was administered orally. Grape seeds are rich in vitamin E, linoleic
acid, phenolic OPCs and flavonoids. These extracts in an experiment are seen
to cause cells to commit suicide in the body and upon further investigation it
was found that in 24 hours 76% of the leukemia cells had died. The extracts
activate production of JNK which is a protein that regulates cell death. It
was noted that the protein does not affect normal cells.
Pomegranate juice is also an anticancer agent. It induces cell death by
altering the cycle of the cells. The extract of pomegranate “acetonitrile”
decreases adenosine triphosphate levels in leukemic cells. In pomegranate
ellagitannin and punicalagin are the most active agents. They were seen to
provide most of the bioactivities i.e. apoptosis. Carrots can also be used
in the treatment of leukemia as it contains b-carotene and polyacetylenes.
These two extracts from carrots were induced in vitro for 72 hours and
leukemia cells were seen to induce cell death (apoptosis). They were also
seen to cause cell arrest in leukemic cells which shows that carrots are a
good source of bioactive chemicals (Kokwaro, 2009).
The barberry plants; Berberis vulgaris, Berberis aristata, Bereberis
croatica, Berberis asiatica, Berberis thunbergii and Berberis aquifolium
mainly grow in Asia and Europe. The fruits, leaves, barks and roots are used
in traditional medicine. They contain isoquinoline alkaloid i.e. berberine
which is the active ingredient in barberry. The active ingredient is known
to suppress growth in increased number of different types of cancer cells.
It induces cell cycle arrest. It also inhibits tumor growth in vivo. They also
cause apoptosis through activation of caspase-3.
The Hibiscus cannabinnus contains phytosterols, alkaloids, tocopherol,
polyphenolics, saponins, phospholipids, tannins and fatty acids. These
extracts are a rich source of bioactive compounds with high antioxidative
and anticancer properties. It also induces apoptosis in leukemia HL60
and K562 and murine myelomonocytic WEHI-3H. The Ginseng root is a
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 111

commonly used herb. The extract i.e. ginsenosides are the main ingredients.
They belong to the family of steroid saponins. The extract cause inhibition
of DNA synthesis, angiogenesis, induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (cell
death) in leukemia cells. The ginsenosides suppresses the pathways which
result in inhibition of invasion and migration of monocytic cells. Some
other plants that can be used include; Euphorbia formosana hayata, Allium
sativum (garlic), Moringa oloifera, Vernonia amygdalina (found in Africa),
Achillea fragrantissima, Ganoderma lucidum (mushroom). All these show
that herbs have great potential of treating leukemia. These plants have very
few or no side effects, easily available as compared to synthetic medicine
chemotherapy and radiotherapy (Kokwaro, 2009).

4.8 PROSTATE CANCER

Prostate tumors can have no significant effect or can be cancerous in the
prostate gland. With harmless prostate tumors the increase in size and
eventually squeeze the urethra which interrupts flow of urine. This is not
life threatening as such however, when it starts spreading to other parts then
it starts to be life threatening. It is most prevalent in men who are over 75
years as those below 40 years are hardly found with prostate cancer.
Symptoms of prostate cancer include difficulty and very painful
urination, urinating often, blood in the urine, hips and back is painful in
cases where the cancer has spread to other parts the symptoms can include
body fatigue, drastic loss of weight, anemia and sometimes kidney failure.
Cancer can be caused by genes, diet, ethnicity, hormones and sometimes the
environment of the individual but there’s no direct cause of prostate cancer.
Several factors can act as pre disposing factors that can make someone get
cancer; family history, age, race, high fat diet, and lack of exercise.
Herbs have been used in the treatment of cancer. Soy isoflavones have
been shown to inhibit 5alpha-reductase activity, which is responsible for
the conversion of testosterone to androgen dihydrotestosterne which
is more potent. They also act as chemo preventive agents. Scutellaria
baicalensis contains numerous baicalin which is a flavone glycocide that
prevents enzymatic manufacture of eicosanoids which encourage growth of
inflammation and tumor cell increase (Bill Church, 2006).
A herbal extract PC-SPES has been used for prostate health since the
1990s. The mixture is derived from 8 different herbs Ganoderma lucidum,
Scutellaria baicalensis, Rabdosia rubescens, Serenoa repens, Panax
112 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

notogiseng, Glycirrhiza uralensis, Isatis indigotica, and Dendranthema

morifolium. They were mixed based on their involvement in Chinese
therapy on urinary problems or their antitumor efficacy against cancer.
Wedelia chinesis contains various extracts wedelolactone, luteolin, apigenin
and indole-3-carboxylaldehyde which is capable of suppressing the activity
of androgens. Oral administration of the extract was seen to prevent genesis
of tumors. They can also act as an anti-inflammatory to some bioactivities.
Pygeum which is an extract of the African plum contains fatty acids,
alcohols and betasitosterol which acts as an antioxidant and has an anti-
inflammatory effect on the urine-genital tract. The saw palmetto reduces the
production of testosterone and also decreases the size of the prostate gland
lining. Orbignya speciosa commonly known as babassu, native to Brazil
contains oil extracts which reduces the production of testosterone. The
stinging nettle, pumpkin seed, lycopene, green tea contain antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory extracts that inhibit or slow down progression of prostate
cancer (Bill Church, 2006).

4.9 PANCREATIC CANCER

This normally occurs in the tissues of the pancreas. It’s difficult to detect
this type of cancer because of the position of the pancreas. Symptoms that
are common with this type of cancer include; loss of appetite, drastic weight
loss, a lot of pain in the lower back and stomach region, yellowing of skin
and eyes (jaundice) (Bill Church, 2006).
Curcumin, which is an extract of turmeric (Curcuma longa) has shown
chemo resistance, radio-resistance, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and
immune-modulatory activities that enhance the apoptopic process of cancer
cells, cytokinesis release and anti-angiogenic properties. Viscum album is
widely used in pancreatic cancer treatment.
Twelve extracts i.e. apigenin, genistein, sulforaphane, quercetin,
thymoquinone, epigallocatechin gallate have been used in pancreatic cancer
treatment as they act as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidants, inhibit tumor
growth and cause apoptosis (cell death). Although they cannot be used
independently, they are used in conjunction with chemotherapy, radiotherapy
or surgery.
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 113

4.10 BONE CANCER

These are masses or a large mass of abnormal cell growth in a bone. Several
causes of bone cancer include; an injury healing abnormally, hereditary or
sometimes radiation therapy. Some of the symptoms include painful joints,
bone fractures, difficulty in walking, general fatigue, swelling of affected
part, and drastic weight loss.
In conjunction with chemotherapy a patients is advised to use fruits,
vegetables and whole grains which can help in anti-inflammation. Garlic,
onions, turmeric are also eaten or added to food as spices because they are
anticancer i.e. they cause apoptosis to cancer cells, act as anti-oxidants and
inhibit tumor genesis. Green tea is also used as it contains polyphenols. This
extract helps as an anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation and also sometimes
causes cell cycle arrest.

4.11 STOMACH CANCER

Also referred to as adenocarcinoma. It starts mostly in the mucus producing
cells of the stomach. The symptoms include, feeling fatigued, feeling
bloated immediately after eating, always feeling full, severe and persistent
heartburn, persistent nausea, continuous vomiting and drastic weight loss.
Risk factors that lead to cancer include; foods that are highly salted and
smoked, family history, smocking, stomach polyps, Helicobacter pylori
infection. Stomach cancer is more common due to new types of food that
are industrially manufactured which lead to individuals consuming food that
is less balanced. The foods contain chemical salts that affect the stomach
lining and they also accelerate tumor growths.
Herbs commonly used in the treatment of stomach cancer include fresh
food and vegetables as they contain essential oils and compounds that act as
anti-oxidants and also reduce inflammation. Fruits are rich in vitamin C. It
eliminates toxins and kills cancer cells without having any negative effect
on the patient. Glutathione is also used to deal with free radicals that might
inflict damage on the patients’ DNA. Extracts from the Hibiscus cannabinnus
contain bioactive compounds that contain anticancer properties and also act
as antioxidants (Bill Church, 2006).
Berberine, an extract of the barberry plant is also used as it is given
orally. The extract barberine inhibits growth of cancer cell in gastresophageal
tract. The barberine also prevents the growth of tumor cells, promotes cell
114 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

cycle arrest and encourages apoptosis. Mistletoe, an extract of viscum album

contains bioactive compounds that prevent the growth of tumors. Its helps
in preventing abnormal increase in cell growth. They also induce cell death
without harm to the healthy cells.

4.12 BREAST CANCER TREATMENT

This type of cancer is common among women but also affect men. Research
on this type of cancer led scientist to a conclusion that ethyl acetate, a
compound extracted from onions was very useful for its prevention. It was
concluded that the compound is a hindrance to the growth of cancer cell
and caused programmed cell death in breast cancer. It leads to programmed
cell death for breast cancer cell line which prevents incidences of breast
cancer by hindering fatty acid synthase production and the accumulation of
adipose tissue. Aloe vera extract has a cytotoxic potential, whether alone or
in combination with cisplatin, leads to a considerable loss of the cancer cells
and is therefore used as a chemopreventive agents to patients that suffer from
breast cancer, as well as cervical cancer. It is with no doubt that Aloe Vera is
very efficient to hinder cancer cell growth and increase the significance of
other clinical drugs like cisplatin (Odugbemi, 2008).

4.13 COLORECTAL CANCER TREATMENT

Is also known as bowel cancer, colon cancer or rectal cancer. This type of
cancer occurs when healthy cells in the colon begin to mutate. It is considered
the second deadliest type of cancer after lung cancer. The good news is that
this type of cancer is usually detected early and is considered to be most
curable. To deal with this type of cancer, surgical resection is considered to be
essential. Diet alongside chemotherapeutic drugs is considered an important
factor during the treatment of colorectal cancer. Patients are normally
advised to increase their intake of fiber foods and increase consumption of
organic natural and if possible eat food that is personally prepared. Research
was done to see the effect of ethyl acetate, an extract of Crataegus azarolus
against human colon cancer. Results showed a strong anti-cancer activity
on the colon. It was concluded that the ethyl acetate compound is useful
as an anticancer for treating colorectal cancer. It is believed that the use of
medicinal plants can restore the body’s ability to protect, regulate and heal
itself. It promotes the physical and mental well-being of an individual that
enhances the healing process (Odugbemi, 2008).
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 115

4.14 ESOPHAGEAL CANCER TREATMENT

This type of cancer is the seventh leading cause of cancer death in the world.
Squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma are two main histological
types of this type of cancer. During the early stages, this type of cancer is
asymptomatic and not easily detected until the cancer has progressed. The
traditional Chinese herbal medicine is used in conjunction with radiotherapy
and chemotherapy to treat esophageal cancer. The CHM is said to include
various plant ingredients. The popular ones are lemongrass which is believed
to suppress cancer cell growth, chamomile which has an anti-inflammatory
characteristic, dandelion which has detoxifying qualities, Echinacea that are
commonly used for treatment of sore throats, St. John’s wort which targets
anxiety, licorice root that is popularly used to treat heartburns and ginger
which is believed to improve blood circulation.
As mentioned, herbal remedies have cancer treatment and prevention
abilities. Apart from this they portray chemotherapeutic potential.
Ginsenosides, a compound extracted from the ginseng plant is used
alongside cisplatin. It enhances and increases the antiproliferative effect on
cancer cells. Curcumin, a compound extracted from the turmeric plant is
used in combination with vinorelbine to enhance the effects of the drugs in
chemotherapy (Odugbemi, 2008).
When dealing with radiation therapy, studies have shown that most types
of cancers fail to respond to radiation therapy. Due to this, doctors mostly
recommend high dosages of medicine which may have negative impacts on
the human body. Such impacts may include hair loss, tissue fibrosis, and
myelosuppression among others. This happens due to the propagation of
intercellular reactive species that causes the breakdown of the DNA strand.
The combination of radioactive therapy and chemotherapy worsens the
condition as patients may exhibit various complications such as renal problems
and alopecia. This was an inspiration for scientists to detect compounds
from plants that are suitable in overcoming radiotherapy damages. Some
plants have been concluded to be radioprotectors that have the capability of
preventing radiotherapy damages. Other plants have been discovered to be
radiosensitizers. This is because such plants enhance the desired effects of
radiotherapy, especially with minimum dosage. Aegle marmelos prevents
the reduction of hemoglobin, leukocytes and lymphocytes that are caused
by radiotherapy. Aloe arborescens mill. and Alstonia scholaris S. have a
radioprotective capacity. Isatis indigotica fort reduces the mucosal damage
caused by radiotherapy. Grewia asiatica L., Menthe piperita, Menthe
116 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

arvensis, Panax ginseng L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Syzygium cumin

L., Tinospora cordifolia and Xylopia aethiopica prevents radiation that a
patient may be exposed to during radiotherapy. Citrus sinensis and Rubus
Spp. Counteracts damages caused by UV in the human body during the
radiotherapy process. Embilica officinalis L. leads to significant depletion of
lipid peroxidation and improves the level of glutathione and catalase levels
that are otherwise depleted during radiotherapy. Olea europea L. is helpful
to the human body during radiotherapy as it hinders the incidences of skin
damage that are caused by this treatment process.
Nutritional supplements are also helpful in the process of programmed
cell death or apoptosis. It does this by reducing drug resistance which means
that drug penetration and concentration in the cancer cells are increased. It
helps by ensuring that patients do not suffer from weight loss, malnutrition
and severe comorbidities. It also helps in improving the cancer patients’
quality of life. If nutritional supplements are used during the chemotherapy
treatment, it reduces the instances of drug resistance (Daniel, 2006).
The effects of herbal remedies are therefore important in the entire
process cancer treatment. It is therefore the duty of communities to consider
these natural gifts and try to protect it.

4.15 ADVANTAGES OF USING HERBS IN CANCER

TREATMENT
They boost the immune system. Plants contain vitamins A, B6, C, D and
E which help to increase the strength of the immune system. Vitamin C
is the biggest booster of immunity to the human body. Vitamin B6 helps
in supporting biochemical reactions in the immune system. Vitamin E on
the other hand is a very powerful antioxidant that helps the body fight off
infections. Most of the vitamins can be found in vegetables and fruits hence
cancer patients are generally advised to consume a lot of them during their
treatment.
Ease cancer symptoms: Some plants e.g. turmeric have been to be
used by cancer patients to suppress the pain but they can also search for
pain causing free radicals in the body and kill them. When turmeric and
curcumin are used they act as anti-inflammatories and anti-oxidants. Ginger
can also be used to ease pain and inflammation. Ginger can also be taken
to reduce stomach upsets and improve the appetite of the patient. Scientist
in some instances have prescribed patients to use turmeric in case they had
 Therapeutic Characteristics of Plant Species 117

inflammation than to use aspirin. Papain in some instances has been used by
patients to reduce the effects of radiation after they have undergone radiation
therapy (Daniel, 2006).
Reduce treatment side effects: Ginger helps the patient reduce the side-
effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy in that it reduces the feeling of
nausea and discomfort. It is advisable to take gingerbefore surgery as it has
been known to thin blood, patients are also advised to take it after surgery.
Astralagus is known to ease nauseating and vomiting. Guarana which is a
herb native to the amazon basin helps patients with fatigue especially breast
cancer patients. Glutamine helps patients with weak, numb, or painful hands
and feet.
Slows spread of cancer: Turmeric helps in apoptosis of damaged cells;
this helps to prevent their rapid division to form tumors. Garlic also helps
slow the spread of cancer in that diallyl disulfide kills leukemia cells and
helps prevent cancer in the lungs, breast and skin. Ajoane, which is also an
extract of garlic helps in DNA repair, slow down cell division and apoptosis
of abnormal cells. Terpenes from rosemary plant, helps to inhibit growth and
increase of cancer cells. Apigenin, an extract of parsley helps in autophagy
(tissue killing themselves) in blood cancer cells and inhibits growth of more
cell leading to tumors.
Attack cancer cells: The use of papain present in an unripe papaya can
help reduce cancer cells from growing as they have been known to attack
the tumor cells. Curcumin can be used to attack the cancer cells without
harming the healthy body cells. Some scientists believe that curcumin is
more effective in killing cancer cells as compared to chemotherapy. Another
plant i.e. cayenne pepper contains beta carotene which is toxic to cancer
cells and prevents growth of tumors. Saffron contains crocins that inhibit
growth of tumors. Garlic is also known to reduce the growth of cancer cells
(White, 2002).

4.16 CHALLENGES FACING THE USE OF PLANTS IN

CANCER TREATMENT
Although herbs are safer than synthetic drugs or industrially manufactured
drugs they face challenges and have been known to cause some problems to
some cancer patients.
Some herbs have been known to have side effects, Astragalus can be
potent to a patient and can alter how a patient’s body processes chemotherapy.
118 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Burdock root helps in some instances such repair the liver after cancer
treatment but it may also cause the patient to have irregular heartbeat and
blurry vision. Ginger acts as a blood thinner, patients are discouraged to
desist from taking ginger if they will have surgery or will have a tumor
removed.
Due to human activities and global warming this has led to increased
extinction of plants that were used in traditional Chinese treatment of cancer.
The environment is not conducive for plants to survive. Deforestation and
encroachment in naturally protected areas has led to destroying of more
plants that are used as herbs.
Some side effects of using herbs could also include; making the skin
more sensitive to light especially after having radiotherapy, some increases
risk of bleeding after surgery e.g. Asian ginseng and bilberry, St John wort
causes the body to get rid of the drug imatilib quickly, this makes the drug
less effective making it less effective in fighting cancer (Hamilton, 2004).
5
Antidiabetic Plants

CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 120
5.2 Chamaecostus Cuspidatus ............................................................... 122
5.3 Indian Medicinal Plant Anti-Diabetic Potential ................................ 123
5.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects of Turmeric ...................................................... 133
5.5 Ginger And Diabetes ....................................................................... 135
5.6 The Anti-Diabetic Activity of Okra ................................................... 137
5.7 Other Anti-Diabetic Plants ............................................................... 139
5.8 Cinnamon........................................................................................ 145
5.9 Gymnema Sylvestre ......................................................................... 146
5.10 Milk Thistle .................................................................................... 147
120 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A lot of deaths have occurred as a result of diabetes specifically diabetes
mellitus. The reason as to why this disease has caused a lot of deaths is
because it can cause heart attacks as well as strokes which often prove to
be very fatal. The human body is programmed to make the production of
species that require oxygen very minimal in order for it to stop the formation
of degenerative diseases. It contains antioxidatives that perform this whole
process (White, 2002).
According to different statistics, diabetes is affecting people in all parts
of the world and it has become a major problem to a lot of the nations.
Insulin is a medicine that is used to manage this condition and it is not easily
accessible to many and as a result a lot of people tend to have glucose levels
that are higher than the required range. The most common type of diabetes is
known as type 2 diabetes and it is where the body is not able to produce the
required level of insulin as well as make use of the insulin. This condition is
also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.
According to the statistics provided by the World Health Organization,
in the year 2025 it is expected that more than 300 million people will be
affected by this condition. There are many ways of managing diabetes aside
from using insulin and the other methods are taking medicines that have the
following anti-diabetic agents, sulfonylureas, biguanides and glinides. It has
become a priority for every scientific research out there to come up with
ways of dealing with diabetes because the agents that are present in the anti-
diabetic agents have a lot of undesirable effects. Diabetes could also cause
damage to the eyes and as a result it can lead to blindness.
There is also the risk of nephropathy pain whereby, feels a lot of pain in
some of their body parts and as a result it can lead to complications such as
wounds that do not heal especially in the foot regions and as a result, it can
lead to amputation. It can also lead to the dysfunction of the reproductive
parts.
A lot of research is also being conducted on the anti-diabetic plants, this
is because in as much as these plants are very useful in the management of
diabetes they can also cause and desirable effects to the person that is taking
them. According to the research that has already been made it is clear that
these plants will help in the discovery and the manufacturing of medicines
for affected diabetes patients (White, 2002).
As a result of the research, scientists have been able to come up with
medicine from plants that have the anti-hyperglycemic activity. This means
 Antidiabetic Plants 121

that the anti-diabetic plants help the body systemto perform its function of
producing enough insulin as well as preventing the absorption of glucose
in the intestines. The anti-diabetic plants that are able to perform these
functions are recorded to be more than 400 plants. The use of anti-diabetic
plants to make medicine is very popular among many people because these
plants usually have minimal side effects. The different compounds found in
plants that can be used to control and manage diabetes include glycosides,
alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids and carotenoids. If one fails to administer
insulin to insulin dependent patients, it may lead to a problem known as
ketosis and which might prove to be life threatening for the patient.
As we have seen there are two types of diabetes and they include type
one as well as type two. Type 1 diabetes is whereby a person does not
produce enough insulin because the beta cells are destroyed. This is due
to certain conditions such as autoimmune diseases that affect the body’s
immune system and as a result, the pancreases is destroyed. In as much as
this disease can affect any person, it is mostly rampant among young people.
Type 1 diabetes is also known as autoimmune disease.
Type 2 diabetes on the other hand, is mostly common in the western parts
of the world and the negative effects of this type of diabetes mostly affect
the cardiovascular system.It was previously calledNIDDM or Non Insulin
Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. This type of diabetes is mostly accompanied
by the resistance of insulin and also the inability of the body to produce
insulin that is used to maintain the glucose levels in the body. It is mainly
inherited and it is associated with obesity, old age and not doing enough
exercises (Nordenfelt, 2001).
This disease is affecting people of both developed countries and
underdeveloped countries. Statistically speaking, it is estimated that more
than 25% of the world’s population has been affected by diabetes and the
numbers are still growing. The country that is leading in the number of
diabetic people in the whole world and known as the capital of diabetes is
India.
According to the World Health Organizations claims, t over 30 million
people were recorded to be diabetic in the year 1985 and it rapidly increased
to 171 million in the year 2000. It has continued to predict that by the year
2030 the number of those affected will be 366 million and it will affect
people between the ages of 45 and 65.(Chan, 2016)
According to these statistics, due to rise in number of diabetic patients, it
is expected that the government as well as the people are required to come up
122 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

with ways and measures that ensure that there are resources and guidelines
that safeguard the health of those people who are living with conditions
especially those who are in poor countries (Nordenfelt, 2001).

5.2 CHAMAECOSTUS CUSPIDATUS

It is commonly known as fiery costus as well as spiral flag. It was first
grown by people of East Brazil as well as India where it was very popular
because it contained some compounds such as insulin that are necessary for
the treatment and management of diabetes. The leaves of this plant are big,
which looks fresh with purple shade present underside of the leaves. These
leaves are very pretty because of their spiral nature; the plant cannot grow
past two feet. They produce their flowers only during the time of the year
that is warm (Bill Church, 2006).
When it comes to the medicine that the people of siddha practice, this
plant is known kostum. It is very popular among the people who live in
Kashmir as well as Himalayan because these people usually cultivate this
plant and use its roots to make diabetic medicine. This plant is also very
similar to ginger.
Rhizomes of this plant has medicinal value and source of insulinThe
plant is also consumed as food. The petals have sweet taste and they contain
a lot of nutrients that could be used to meet the nutritional requirements of
the people.
Another benefit of this plant is that it does not take a lot of time to
mature and reproduce. For it to grow successfully it requires the sun as well
as some shade. In India this medicinal plant is grown not only for its ability
to cure diseases as well as manage them, it is also used as a jewelry or to
make jewelries (Bill Church, 2006).
The anti-diabetic activity of this plant: A lot of research as well as studies
have enabled researchers as well as scientists to clearly understand how this
spiral flag plant as it is commonly known, is able to act as a medicine that
can be used to treat as well as manage diabetes.
According to the clinical trials that have been conducted concerning
the efficiency of the spiral flag plant in managing and treating diabetes has
shown the people who have diabetes, if they take one teaspoon of the powder
that comes from crushing this plant as well as taking other medicines that
are prescribed by a physician for this condition, it can be able to invoke the
glycemic process in the treatment and management of diabetes.
 Antidiabetic Plants 123

Research has also shown that continued consumption of tea that has
been made from this plant can be able to treat and manage diabetes. Even
though this tea can be used as a medicine for people living with diabetes, it
cannot be able to treat people who have diabetes that is the result of obesity
and this condition is known as obesity-induced hyperglycemia.
More research is still undergoing on the use of the special plant in
the treatment of diabetes by producing insulin that is used by the body to
maintain normal glucose levels (Bill Church, 2006).

5.3 INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANT ANTI-DIABETIC

POTENTIAL

5.3.1 Ficus Religiosa

In India, it is commonly known as peepal, belongs to the Moraceae family.
It has been incorporated into the Ayurveda traditional medicine system and
it is used to treat diabetes. This plant has been shown to be very effective
in the development of different medicines such as anti-diabetic medicines,
anti-inflammatory medicines and pain killers, anti-viral, anti-microbial,
medicines for anxiety, medicines for treating ulcers, antioxidants as well as
medicines that are used to treat and manage hypertension.
The medicine that is used to treat diabetes is usually extracted from
the bark of the plant. This plant contains a lot of compounds that are used
in the treatment and management of diabetes such as tannins, saponins,
polyphenolic, flavonoids, and sterols. The compound known as Sitosterol-
d-glucoside is known to contain hypoglycemic activities mostly in rabbits.
The fact that this plant can be used to treat and manage diabetes is because
of the phytoconstituents that are present in this plant (Singh, 2006).
The hyperglycemic activity of this plant is due to compounds present in
the leaves of the plant. The previos research studies have shown that people
who took this plants extract, their level of glucose in their blood was lowered
and the level of insulin in the body was increased to the normal levels.
Diabetes also causes other health issues that include elevation of
cholesterol in blood as well as increased levels of triglycerols in the blood.
According to research conducted the extract that is administered to reduce
the levels of glucose level should be given in form of doses of 500mg/kg for
them to be effective, this research was conducted on rats. (Kooti et al., 2016)
124 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The oxidative nature of this plant is very important when it comes to the
treatment and the management of diseases but specifically for people living
with type 2 diabetes. They reduce the stress that is caused by the oxidants
(Panda, 2004).

Figure 5.1. A representation of the Ficus religiosa plant.

Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_religiosa

5.3.2 Eugenia Jambolana

Figure 5.2. A representation of Eugenia jambolana.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Eugenia-jambolana-Lam-Jamun-
berries-and-seeds-picture-by-NS-from-fruits-collected-in_fig5_23936718
 Antidiabetic Plants 125

It is also known as black plum and it belongs to the Myrtaceae. The parts
of this plant that are used in the making of diabetic medicines include the
seeds, leaves, fruits and the bark of the plant. This plant has shiny leaves that
are smooth and they smell like turpentine. It also produces flowers that are
white in color and they have a nice smell.
The black plum has been known to be used as medicine as well as it is
used in the manufacturing of medicines. Before people started using Insulin
they used to use this plant as a method of treating and managing diabetes in
different parts of the world specifically in India. The medicine that is used in
the treatment of diabetes was obtained by boiling the seeds and the extract
(Panda, 2004).
This plant can also be used to treat other diseases aside from treating
diabetes. This plant contains compound such as: anthocyanin, glycoside,
pelagic acid, hydrolysable tannins and other components that have role in
the treatment of diabetes. The seeds of the plant are rich in alkaloid jambsine
and glycoside jambline, which are responsible for converting starch to sugar.
It has photochemical that are responsible for being antioxidants. It
contains some compounds in the bark of the tree that are known as quercetin,
betulinic acid, gallucid acid among others. If the production of insulin
increases more than the expected limit then this plant may be able to reduce
the level of insulin. The seeds can be used to control, treat as well as manage
the blood pressure of an individual due to a compound known as ellagic
acid, which is found in the seeds.
According to research that was done on rats, it showed that when the
ethanolic extract from the seeds of this plant and the powder that is obtained
from this medicinal plant are mixed together they form a solution that was
able to lower the sugar levels in blood. (Kooti et al., 2016) he juice extract
from this plant is essential in healing other diseases such as it provides relief
to the digestive system of a human being. The seeds also have a compound
known as flavonoids that is responsible for protecting a person against gastric
ulcers. This plant also contains antiviral properties that help in treating virus
based infections and diseases such as influenza (Panda, 2004).

5.3.3 Momordica Charantia

It is also known as karela or the bitter gourd and it belongs to a family
known as the Cucurbitaceae. The parts of this plant that produce extracts
126 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

that can be used to treat as well as manage diabetes include the seeds of the
fruit as well as the fruit itself. Aside from treating diabetes, it can also be
used to treat other issues like cardiovascular diseases and other diseases that
affect people who live in Asia, South America, as well as East Africa. The
fruits of the plant are consumed as a vegetable.
This plant has some compounds that mainly perform the function
of treating and managing diabetes and that include, vicine, charantin,
and triterpenoids. These compounds when mixed with the antioxidants
compounds found in the plant, they play a very significant role in managing
this disease (El-Shemy, 2017).
According to the research that has been conducted, it has been concluded
that this plant is capable of reducing the waistline of a person, managing
diabetes as well as treating the symptoms that are accompanied by metabolic
syndrome. This whole research was done on the Taiwanese adults.
When it comes to hypoglycemia as well as the lowering of the level of
fats in the body, these plant has proven to have the necessary compounds for
antidiabetic activity. According to the research that has been conducted over
the past years, this plant has proven to be capable of repairing the beta cells
and as a result the production of insulin has been increased.
The ethanolic extract of flavonoids, has properties that have proven to
be very effective in lowering the levels of glucose in the body because of
its ability to inhibit the production of glucose-6-phosphate. According to
research done, it is conclusive to say that the compound that is present in
this plant helps to regulate the blood glucose level is known as triterpenoids.
The research claims that, this compound is responsible for activating AMP-
activated protein kinase and as a result the plant becomes successful in the
process of lowering the glucose levels in the blood (El-Shemy, 2017).
According to the research done, this plant is responsible for increasing
the strength in skeletal muscles that are responsible for transporting glucose.
This plant plays a major role when it comes to the treatment of symptoms that
are associated with diabetes as well as ensuring that diabetes is controlled.
 Antidiabetic Plants 127

Figure 5.3. A representation of the bitter melon and its anti-diabetic property.

Source: https://www.healthline.com/health/diabetes/bitter-melon-and-diabetes

5.3.4 Ocimum Sanctum

This plant is also known as the holy basil or rather the Tulsi, belongs to the
family of Lamiaceae. The whole plant and the parts of this plant all play a
major role in treating various diseases. This plant can be grown in every part
of the world and it can also be used as food as well as medicine. There is a
certain component that is found in this plant that is responsible for healing
some of the diseases and it is known as Eugenol. The other components that
are found in the stems as well as the leaves of this plant include: flavonoids,
tannins, saponins, rosmarinic acid as well as apigenin and vicenin. These
are just a few examples of the components that are present in this plant (El-
Shemy, 2017).
When it comes to food the Tulsi plant not only makes the food tastier
it is also important because it preserves the nutrients in the food as well
as enhance those nutrients. It cures different diseases because of its ability
to reduce inflammations in the body. It can also be used to strengthen the
immunity of a person as well as to fight various infections that could be as
as a result of bacteria or a virus.
It is used to treat type 2 diabetes. According to the research that has
been made, the plant is able to prevent symptoms that are accompanied by
diabetes such as, a person gaining weight, reducing the levels of insulin
in the blood a condition that is known as hyperinsulinemia, high levels of
fats in the body, the body not responding to insulin as well as high blood
pressure. The research was done on rats where the rats for a period of 30
128 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

days were given the extract from the holy basil and it showed that the level
of sugar in the blood decreased by 24% (El-Shemy, 2017).
This also happened to the rats that were given the powder of this plant.
It works in managing diabetes because, it increases the functions of the beta
cells that found in the pancreas as well as it facilitates the production of
insulin and it is also responsible for increasing the absorption of glucose by
the cells that are present in the muscles. (Noor et al., 2017)
A person can choose to chew the holy basil leaves or one can choose to
make tea out of the leaves by boiling the leaves and leaving them to soak
for 3 minutes, one can choose to continue with this routine every single day.
He or she can also choose to soak the leaves of the holy basil overnight and
then he or she can take it first thing in the morning before taking any form
of food. One can also choose to incorporate these leaves into their food
because they also help in adding flavor to the food.
This plant can also be used to treat diseases that are caused by fungi as
well as other sexually transmitted diseases just to mention but a few (Bill
Church, 2006).

Figure 5.4. Holy basil is native to the Indian subcontinent and commonly used
for Ayurvedic medicine.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/plant/holy-basil
 Antidiabetic Plants 129

5.3.5 Petrocarpus Marsupium

This plant is famously known as the Indian Kino tree as well as bijasar in
India. This tree can grow to a height of 98 feet. The parts of the plants that
are used in the treatment of various diseases include the heart wood, the
leaves, the flowers, the bark as well as the gum. It belongs to the Ayurveda
classification of medicine and it is known to be the most common medicinal
plants that can be used to cure a lot of diseases that have various causes. It
can be used to cure different diseases such as obesity, inflammation of the
body, as well as it is known to be able to prevent, manage, control as well
as cure ulcers.
Every part of the plant is very useful in the healing of various diseases
as listed above. This plant has proven to be a good source of polyphenols.
It also contains other compounds that belong to the terpenoids and phenolic
groups and they include beta-sitosterol, lupenol as well as Iso- flavonoids
just to mention but a few (Bill Church, 2006).
When it comes to diabetes which plant is responsible for reducing the
levels of insulin in the body as well as protecting the beta cells and facilitating
their regeneration, which are brought about by the flavonoid compound that
is found in the plant. According to the research that has been done in relation
to diabetes it has been shown that the ability of this plant to be able to restore
the production of normal levels of insulin as well as the regeneration of the
pancreatic beta cells has proven to be very important in the management of
diabetes as well as the treatment of the symptoms.
According to the research xonducted on diabetic rats, it showed that the
rats that were given the methanolic extract for a period of 7 to 14 days, it also
concluded that the level of glucose in the blood was able to be maintained as
per the normal range and this was achieved by correcting the glycosylated
hemoglobin as well as the production of insulin and the levels of albumin
protein, usually found in urine.
There are certain components found in this plant that are known as
tannates, which is responsible for ensuring that the glucose level in the body
as well as in the blood is maintained within normal range (El-Shemy, 2017).
130 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 5.5. The therapeutic properties of the Kino tree in India and different
parts of the world.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299653709_Antidiabetic_
Effects_of_Pterocarpus_marsupium_Gammalu

5.3.6 The Methi Plant/Fenugreek Plant

It is scientifically known as Trigonella foenum-graecum , belongs to a family
Fabaceae. The parts of the plant that are used in the therapeutic process are
usually the seeds and the leaves. It is mainly grown in India but in other
parts of the world, it is grown in areas that are semi-arid. In India, this plant
is used as a source of food as well as it can be used to enhance the flavor of
food and consumed as spice.. A lot of research has been made in relation to
this plant and its ability to manage diabetes and it has been concluded that it
is very efficient in alleviating diabetes. This plant can be able to reduce the
levels of glucose and fat in the body (Alan C. Hamilton, 2004).
According to the research that has been made on the plant the extract that
is obtained from the seeds as well as the leaves, has succeeded in reducing
the levels of glucose in the blood as well as the levels of cholesterol in
human beingsThe ability of this plant to heal various diseases is presence
of compounds such as, saponins, alkaloid, trigonelline as well as the fiber
content.
 Antidiabetic Plants 131

The ability of this plant to decrease the levels of glucose in the body is
as a result of the glucagon levels that are usually high in the plasma. The use
of these medicinal plants in the management of diabetes is very common
among people because it does not have a lot of side effects. The seeds of this
plant are also used to treat gastrointestinal diseases.
This plant used in the treatment of both type 1 as well as type 2 diabetes.
The ethanol extract is used to ensure that the levels of insulin in the body
remain in normal ranges (Panda, 2004).

Figure 5.6. A representation of the fenugreek and its role in the treatment and
control of diabetes.

Source: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/natural-therapies/fenugreek.html

5.3.7 Garlic
It is scientifically known as Allium sativum. Garliccan be used to cook
andtreat major diseases, plus according to research it canmanage diabetes
amongpatients withtype 1 or type 2 diabetes. These types of diabetes are
caused bylack of enough secretion of insulin as well as over production
of insulin or both situations. Diabetes can also be as a result of excessive
ingestion of carbohydrates, proteins as well as lipids.
Garlic is also reported to maintain the insulin level in blood. Studies
have been conducted in both animals and people that have demonstrated the
antidiabetic effet of the plant (Panda, 2004).
132 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The ability of garlic to reduce the level of glucose in the blood is mainly
as a result of a certain component known as alicin as well as other sulfur
compounds. Statistically speaking, the studies as well as the clinical trials
that this plant has undergone in order to make sure and support the efficiency
of garlic in the treatment of diabetes have concluded that there are more than
70% studies and researches that aim at backing up the antidiabetic efficiency
of this plant.
With respect to garlic oil, the research has shown that it is able to
manage diabetes in more than seven mice affected with type 1 diabetes.
(Liu et al., 2012) Many forms of medicines are made from garlic and they
include; garlic in homogenate form, garlic in aqueous form as well as
garlic in powder form. In this cases, it was noted that eleven of the mice,
their blood sugar level was maintained at normal ranges. The addition of
compounds that contain sulfur in the extracts from garlic, has also been a
successful method in the treatment and management of diabetes as well as
taking care of the issues that are cause by diabetes and all this is thanks to
the antioxidant property of this plant (Panda, 2004).
Some diabetes complications include things like, cardiac diseases,
adverse reaction of vascular organs, abnormal increase in levels of oxygen
in the kidneys as well as the liver. There is also an eye complication that
is known to causecataracts. When the extracts of garlic together with
the compounds that contain sulfur are used for treatment of diabetes, the
complication do not occur and if they have already occurred then it becomes
easy for them to be treated.
As we have seen diabetes is a life threatening disease if it is left
untreated. The medicines that have been released to the market right now are
still not enough and efficient in the treatment and management of diabetes
especially in dealing with complications that are as a result of diabetes. This
has motivated a lot of scientists to opt for using garlic and other plants that
can be used to control the level of insulin in the body. Insulin is also very
expensive and the use of these plants has enabled the people of India to
traditionally manage diabetes. There is a lot of research that can back up the
use of garlic as an anti-diabetic plant (Panda, 2004).
 Antidiabetic Plants 133

Figure 5.7. Garlic is effective in the treatment and management of diabetes.

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/AllahDadKhan/medicinal-plants-and-di-
abetes-a-series-of-presentationbymr-allah-dad-khan-former-dg-agriculture-
extension-kp-province-and-visiting-professor-the-university-of-agriculture-pe-
shawar-pakistan-allahdad52gmailcom

5.4 ANTI-DIABETIC EFFECTS OF TURMERIC

As we have already seen the main cause of diabetes is over production of
insulin, lack of enough production of insulin as well as both the situations. It
is often accompanied by high death rates. The turmeric plant, was cultivated
by the Harappan people, this plant is common in two types of medicine
systems among the Indians; Ayurveda as well as the Siddha. It can also
be used in homes to treat various diseases as well as it can be offered as
an offering to the gods of Indians during worshiping or while performing
certain rituals (White, 2002).
This disease is very old and has been in existent for a long time, studies
have shown that in as much as this disease cannot be completely treated,
it can be easily managed and controlled. The medicines that have been
134 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

developed recently have shown risks of causing some adverse reactions to

the people who are using them. This plant can be used as a spice aside from
it being used as a medicine.
Turmeric contains a component known as Curcumin which according
to a lot of research that have been done, it has proved to be the component
that is responsible for the management and the treatment of diabetes. This
plant is also able to treat both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. According to the
research that has been done, after giving a person a single dose of the extract
that has been made from turmeric, it was recorded that there was a slight
drop in the levels of glucose in the body and it was concluded that for this
plant to be able to fully perform its anti-diabetic property then it required the
person to be given a lot of these doses as well as enough time for the plant
to be able to perform its function (Jadhav, 2008).
According to the research, it was also noted that the normalization
of the blood sugar levels in the body of the person that is receiving the
treatment was observed from day 7 of the study when only 300mg/kg of
turmeric extract was used. Increase in these doses resulted to an increase
in the effectiveness of this extract in relation to controlling diabetes. There
is a medicine that is used to treat and manage diabetes and it is known as
Pioglitazone and it has shown very tremendous results when it comes to
managing sever cases of diabetes as well as the mild ones.

Figure 5.8. A representation of turmeric and the function it plays when it comes
to diabetes.

Source: https://www.diabetesselfmanagement.com/blog/turmeric-diabetes/
 Antidiabetic Plants 135

5.5 GINGER AND DIABETES

The scientific name for ginger is Zingiber officinale and it belongs to a
family of other medicinal herbs as well as spices that are used in food called
Zingiberaceae. According to the research that has been made, these plants
are capable of treating and managing diabetes as well as other diseases that
might affect an individual. Ginger is also very useful in ensuring that normal
levels of insulin in the body are maintained at all times (Jadhav, 2008).
The family that ginger belongs to, has proven to have a lot of medicinal
plants that are estimated to be over 1200. It is grown in different parts of the
world but it is used mainly in Southeast Asia as a source of medicine as well
as a spice. This plant is very popular among people because it cures and treats
a lot of diseases such as, when a person is feeling nauseated then he or she
can take tea that is made from ginger extract, the pain that is accompanied
by arthritis as well as treating and clearing the problem of arthritis, it can
also be used as a pain reliever for headaches as well as migraines. Ginger
has also played a major role in the treatment as well as maintaining normal
pressure of the blood in the blood, it has proven that it has qualities that can
be used to treat hypertension.
According to the United States, the FDA (food and drug administration)
have gathered a lot of research in regards to this plant and it has been
concluded that this plant can be used as a spice in food because it does
not contain toxins and it is fit for human consumption. They have also
established that this plant can be used to cure different diseases. This is
because it helps the body to fight against inflammation and treat diseases
like gout and arthritis. It also has the ability of relieving pain and therefore it
can be used as a pain killer as well as treating other diseases that are caused
by fungi as well as micro bacteria. It can also be used to treat cancer as well
as obesity and also diabetes. It can also be used to maintain normal blood
sugar and regulate the blood pressure of an individual (Jamshidi-Kia et al,
2018).
There is an extract that is obtained from ginger and it is known as the
hydro alcoholic extract that is used to research the benefit of ginger when it
comes to diabetes and it is given to rats which act as test subjects and this
rats are supposed to be diabetic in order to test this theory. When the rats
136 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

were fed this extract, their blood glucose level was taken and it was noted
that the level of glucose in the blood dropped significantly. This research
also showed that the diabetic rats that were obese, after being given the
extract it was observed that after a period of time there was a reduction
in their weight. (Arika et al., 2019)here was no observable change of the
weight of rats that were not diabetic. According to this research it was safe
to assume that diabetes that was caused by obesity could be managed using
this extract that was acquired from ginger.
There is a research that has been made recently and it has shown that
the compounds that give ginger the strong unpleasant smell are important
because they ensure that the glucose produced by the body is able to be
utilized fully specifically in adipocytes as well as myotubes.(Khandouzi et
al., 2015)It has also proven to be very effective in reducing the levels of
glucose in the blood especially in the rats who consumed food that had a lot
of fat than normal. There was also a conclusion whereby, the ginger extract
was very efficient especially when it came to ensuring that the glucose
serum was lowered when it was high as well as it was very effective when
it came to repairing pancreas that was damaged which led to the shifting of
the levels of glucose in the blood (Jamshidi-Kia et al, 2018).
When a research was conducted on rats with normal blood glucose level
and the ones with induced abnormal levels of glucose in the blood, it was
concluded that the levels of glucose were maintained on normal levels when
the rats were fed with ginger that was cooked as well as ginger that was
consumed raw. (Khandouzi et al., 2015)There are many forms of ginger
that can be used to treat and manage diabetes and they include: powder
that is made from drying the ginger then crushing it, boiling the ginger and
drinking the extract as well as it can be found in form of a methanol extract.
These forms of extract play an important role when it comes to reducing the
levels of alanine in the blood as well as reducing the levels of aspartate in
the body. It was also found to be beneficial in reducing the levels of fat in the
body as well as reducing the levels of glycogen in the liver. The oil showed
faster results as compared to other forms of ginger followed by the extract
that was made from ginger.
 Antidiabetic Plants 137

Figure 5.9. A representation of ginger and its anti-diabetic activities.

Source: https://www.intechopen.com/books/ginger-cultivation-and-its-antimi-
crobial-and-pharmacological-potentials/a-review-of-the-antidiabetic-activi-
ties-of-ginger

5.6 THE ANTI-DIABETIC ACTIVITY OF OKRA

The scientific name of this plant is Abelmoschus esculents. This plant can
be used to treat as well as control diabetes. This plant has different names
that is given to it by different people of different communities and they
include: ladies finger, okra, bhindi or gumbo. It is grown throughout the
year in countries such as Africa, Asia, South of Europe as well as America.
It is expected to be grown in areas that include tropical climate as well as the
subtropical climate and also warm temperatures (Jamshidi-Kia et al, 2018).
The fruit of this plant is green in color and it is between 10cm and 30cm
in length and the diameter is between 1 and 4cm. It has a lot of seeds and
a fibrous texture inside the fruit. The fruit of the plant is consumed as both
138 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

food as well as medicine. When the fruits of this plant arenot yet mature,
they can be used as a source of food that is consumed as a vegetable.Fruit
extracts can also beused to make thicker stews, soups and,sauces.
The pods that have not yet matured fully are used for making pickles.
The extract of this plant that is soluble in water can be used to make ice
cream, chips out of potatoes and it can also be used while a person is baking.
This plant is rich in a lot of nutrients such as potassium that is good for
the heart, source of vitamins, body building property, high levels of fiber
that assist in digestion and prevent constipation (Daniel, 2006).
The main focus is the role of this plant in treating the symptoms of
diabetes as well as managing diabetes. It can also be used as a pain reliever
as well as medicine for the treatment of cancer, ulcers and also fatigue. A
recent research that was being done in various test subjects showed the
ability of okra to reduce the levels of glucose in the blood and its ability
to successfully ensure that this plant has been able to maintain the glucose
level in the blood under normal ranges. In the past, there were a lot of
successful findings that were in relation to the anti-diabetic property of the
Okra plant and thanks to the recent studies this theory has been proven to be
true. (Sabitha et al., 2011)
When the seeds as well as the peelings of this plant were used, it was
clear that there was a significant drop in the level of glucose in the blood
when it was administered to the rats affected with diabetes. This plant was
also very useful in maintaining normal ranges of cholesterol in the body as
well as decreasing the levels of fat in the blood to avoid the development of
other complications like obesity.
The main compound that is responsible for treating and maintaining
the normal levels of blood glucose is known as rhamanogalacturonan.
When it came to administering this plant in high doses, the glucose level is
significantly decreases and the bodies of the tests subjects seemed to handle
glucose very well unlike other times. When this plant was boiled, it showed
that there was no significant change in the blood glucose levels when it was
administered to the diabetic rats (Daniel, 2006).
 Antidiabetic Plants 139

Figure 5.10. The Okra plant and its ability to manage diabetes.

Source: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/natural-therapies/okra.html

5.7 OTHER ANTI-DIABETIC PLANTS

A lot of research is being conducted to be able to establish whether the
medicinal plants can be relied on fully in the treatment and management
of diabetes or if they can be incorporated into other drugs for them to be
able to perform this function as it is required. The research has shown the
importance of observing high levels of hygiene as well as the people who are
harvesting should ensure that they do not mix up the plants when harvesting
so as to avoid cases of a person getting very bad side effects as well as for
them to be free from any toxins (Daniel, 2006).
The following are some of the other medicinal plants:
• American ginseng: This plant is scientifically known as Panax
quinquefolium and according to the research that has been made
it has proven to play a major role in reducing the levels of glucose
in the blood. It is able to perform this function because, it helps
the body to release insulin which is the main compound that is
found in the body that helps to keep the levels of glucose in the
blood in normal ranges. The studies have been done on people
and it was conducted before and during the time that these people
were eating, they were given the extracts of this medicinal plant
and there was a notable reduction in the levels of glucose in the
plant. This was observed after they ate the fruit. (Gui et al., 2016)
140 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 5.11. A representation of the American ginseng in the managing and

controlling of diabetes.

Source: https://www.memorangapp.com/flashcards/238737/
Diabetes+Mellitus+-+Anti-Diabetic+Agents/
• Bay leaves: The plant is scientifically known as Laurus nobilis.
In relation to the research that was conducted, bay leaves were
very effective in keeping the levels of glucose in the body within
normal ranges. One is required to take 500mg, which is very small
when measuring with teaspoons. It helps the body to produce
and use insulin that is very essential in the regulation of glucose
levels in the blood.
These leaves perform four functions that are essential in managing
diabetes and the functions include: As we have already seen, the leaves are
able to control the levels of glucose in the blood by decreasing the levels of
glucose in the blood when they are high. Diabetes has proven to be very time
consuming because it requires a lot of resources as well as time for a person
to be successful in the controlling as well as the management of this disease.
Bay levels also ensure that the cholesterol levels in a human being
are maintained on normal ranges if they increase or decrease. According
to the research that has been made, a specific type of cholesterol that is
known as HDL cholesterol is in fact not a bad type of cholesterol. It is
important because it protects the body of a person from various diseases
and issues such as cardiovascular diseases as well as it plays a major role
 Antidiabetic Plants 141

in releasing hormones. The other type of cholesterol on the other hand, it

is very destructive when it comes to the health of a person because it can
be able to, cause diseases that are related to the heart as well it increases
the blood pressure under which the blood is traveling in the body and
these complications may lead to worsening of the diabetic situation. The
compound that is responsible for maintaining normal levels of cholesterol
in the body is known as Polyphenols.
The bay leaves also play an important role in ensuring that the body
responds well to insulin. The different compounds found in this plant play
a major role in ensuring that the cells that are found in the pancreas can be
able to produce insulin. This plays a major role in avoiding some of the
complications that are brought about by diabetes. The insulin is responsible
for converting glucose to glycogen which is required for keeping body
energized. This function is very important in ensuring that the type 2
diabetes has been managed and treated in terms of the symptoms that it is
accompanied with.
It is very efficient in ensuring that a person is able to lose weight. When
it comes to diabetes then it is important to note that a lot of weight or rather
being obese can be very bad and it can worsen the condition, these leaves
have compounds that assist the body in shading off the excess weight only
if it is mixed with other herbs like turmeric. The leaves play a function in
ensuring that the body does not retain a lot of water that can cause health
hazards and hence the blood pressure is lowered.

Figure 5.12. The benefit of bay leaves when it comes to diabetes.

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/24/24/4501/htm
142 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

• Berberine: A lot of research and studies have been done on this

plant and it has been established that taking half a teaspoon which
is estimated to be 500mg of this extract when taken for a period
of time, thrice or twice a day can be able to control diabetes by
ensuring the level of glucose in the blood is in normal ranges as
well as increasing the digestion of lipids and their absorption.
(Kooti et al., 2016) It performs the same function as a drug that
is known as metformin that is used in the treatment therapy of
diabetes.

Figure 5.13. A representation of the anti-diabetic effect of berberine plant in

people who are old.

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211383512000883
• Cayenne: The plant is scientifically known as Capsicum
frutescens. This plant is mainly used to treat the pain that is
usually associated with diabetes as a result of the damaging of the
nerves that diabetes causes. The common name is chili pepper
and it can be used in form of a cream that is applied to the affected
area for pain relief.
 Antidiabetic Plants 143

Figure 5.14. A representation of the cayenne pepper and its role in diabetes.

Source: https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/542191242609799416/
• The evening primrose oil: According to a lot of research as well
as the studies that have been conducted, it has been established
that this medicinal plant plays an important role when it comes
to controlling and treating diabetes. This plant is very important
because it helps in the improvement of how the blood flows as
well as it ensures that there is normal functioning of the nerves.
(Jack et al., 2002)
• Flax seeds: Scientifically known as flaxseed. This plant is well
known for its ability to be a good source of fiber that is soluble.
According to the research as well as the studies and the trials
that have been conducted, it has been successful in maintaining
normal ranges of levels of glucose in the blood if one takes them
in high amounts. (Prasad et al., 2016)It is also very important
when it comes to the digestion processes, the fact that it is rich in
fiber allows for it to prevent constipation. It can be used as oil as
well as in powder form. It can be taken in the bread because this
plant can be used in the baking process.
• Ginkgo biloba. It is specifically meant for people with type 2
diabetes and it is often accompanied by a medicine that was
144 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

genetically engineered to ensure that it has performed its function

the way it was required to.(Kudolo et al., 2001)
• Hydroxycitric Acid: abbreviated as HCA. This acid is found in a
certain plant known as grindle berry as well as Garcinia cambogia.
It is important when it comes to lowering the levels of cholesterol
in the body as well as it prevents a person from getting hungry
easily and as a result the person is able to lose weight. Being
obese can lead to an increase in the probability of one getting
diabetes. It is also should be noted that when one chose this plant
as their method of controlling diabetes then they are not expected
to use any other plants as well as other genetically engineered
medicines.(Thazhath et al. 2016)
• Red Yeast Rice: Scientifically known as Monascus purpureus.
This plant has the ability of reducing inflammations in the body
as well as ensuring that the body as well as the blood does not
have high levels of lipids. When using this drug to treat and
manage diabetes one needs to be very cautious because some of
the chemicals that are present in this plant are also used in anti-
diabetic medicine known as Lovastatin.

Figure 5.15. The effect of red yeast rice on diabetes and how it can be used to
treat as well as manage diabetes.

Source: https://aor.us/magazine_issue/the-truth-about-red-yeast-rice/
 Antidiabetic Plants 145

5.8 CINNAMON
It is scientifically known as cinnamomum zeylanicum, a spicy tree basically
used for its sweet inviting scent. Originally a Sri Lankan tree, it is an ever-
green plant that is popular to the Asians as well as other people of the
world. Spices from cinnamon are some of the most ancient spices known
to mankind, they are basically curved out of the trees bark and left to dry.
Cinnamon bark oil is used in many cleaning agents and was also used
traditionally used in the olden days as an antibiotic and the treatment of
teeth. Cinnamon has over the years been used to treat many illnesses and the
people of South Asia have been using it as a very important medical remedy
because it reduces inflammations as well as treats fungal infections. A lot of
research has been done and here we will look at cinnamon’s anti-diabetic
properties as well as, we will analyze its properties that give it an edge in its
fight against diabetes (Jadhav, 2008).
Anti-diabetic properties: Over the years there has been an explosive use
of herbal treatments to combat diabetes in diabetic patients. Most patients
have opted for these treatments because they believe that these medicinal
plants are safe to use and also they do not have a lot of side effects like
the genetically engineered medicines. The use of cinnamon has been
in use especially in India due to cinnamon supplements ability to reduce
the measurements of glucose and glycosylated blood pressure which are
adversely irregular in type 2 diabetes. Cinnamomum cassia a very important
part of cinnamon has also been found to be able to increase the ability of
insulin to feel and therefore it will by far lower the amount of starch that
the body is taking through the ileum because the insulin will force the
consumption to be only of the important and just enough carbs. Also, when
diabetic patients consume cinnamon through the mouth it will help by far
take down the amount of glucose in the body which further can be explained
as the amount of sugars in the body that are very dangerous in the body
of either type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients. Due to the increased amount
of insulin, there is a reduction of triglyceride and cholesterol in diabetic
patients who are always at a higher risk of contracting heart diseases. In the
presence in Cinnamomum cassia there is a significant drop in most of these
levels of fats and oils in the cells and this even further proves the importance
of cinnamon as a major antioxidant. All these are the major reasons for most
diabetic patients developing cardiovascular complications and therefore
cinnamon comes in real handy in rectifying most of these factors which are
triggers for heart diseases. All these can, therefore, be reduced to explain
that cinnamon has very significantly important factor in most of the body’s
146 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

anti-diabetic properties in diabetic patients by its key ability to control the

bodies oxidation stress and the resistance of insulin by reducing the carbs
that are peroxidase and also thoroughly leveling the anti-oxidation processes
by using the cinnamon supplements hand in hand with fructose which is far
more positive to the patients than the use of fructose by itself which is used
to increase the antioxidant properties of the body in most of the patients. All
these show that cinnamon is really important in the treatment of diabetes
and maybe the next big breakthrough in the diabetes treatment process since
it has shown some very promising results in its recent investigations and
therefore this is an area that is yet to be totally exhausted in its diabetic
treatment properties and also its ability to remedy it (Jadhav, 2008).

5.9 GYMNEMA SYLVESTRE

This is a shrub that is very major plant in the tropics especially in Africa and
Australia and also a member of the Asclepiadaceae family. It’s basically
popular for its medicinal properties and its ability to remedy illnesses. It has
been used over the ages since traditionally to treat many diseases and also
remedy overweight conditions. This plant of sweet taste is also big on its
ability to counteract the effects of allergies, treatment of various infections
and also an established remedy for diabetes.
Anti-diabetic properties: The leaves of Gymnema have over time proved
to help consume and therefore reduce the amount of glucose in the ileum.
Diabetes mellitus is treatable as well as controllable when using this plant
because of how gymnemate is able to get rid of excess sugars in the body
and therefore level the glucose levels in the bodies of diabetic patients at the
required levels that are do not pose any danger to the patient. The compounds
that are found in this plant are capable of ensuring that the pancreas
produces enough insulin, the levels of glucose in blood are maintained in
normal ranges as well as it ensures that the glucose in the blood after being
converted to glycogen is stored as energy in the body. These acids which
usually spread rapidly all over the body aid in the formation of pancreatic
insulin in the body which is a very important factor so as to facilitate the
maintaining of serums on the required range as per a healthy person. All
these, therefore, facilitate to the release and distribution of insulin all over
the body. The extract of the leaves of gymnema also help in the lowing of
the sugary red blood cells and also plasma body strengthening cells there
lowering the need to take other medicines. Cataract being the major problem
that eventually results to loss of eyesight in the world is at times caused
 Antidiabetic Plants 147

by diabetes which in most cases only gets to being cataract by facilitated

to by sugars in the bodies of diabetic patients and therefore these patients
are given some plant medicine made from gymnema and it acts directly
against those cataract inducing agents and therefore help prevent the loose
of eyesight through cataract which is irreversible in most cases. Also the
plant is capable of burning of carbs and the, therefore, limiting the amount
of carbohydrates that the body is able to absorb at any given time. This
basically means that the body is able to regulate the general starch intake
by cutting off at the combustion level. This means that the body does not
absorb excess starch and sugars and therefore it easier for diabetic patients
who are affected adversely by the effects of excess carbs which could if not
controlled can lead to high cholesterol rates and this could even lead to death
due to the inability of diabetic patients to handle the spikes in their body
sugars and lipids (Panda, 2004).

5.10 MILK THISTLE

Scientifically referred to as Silybum marianum, mainly grown in the south of
Europe and north of Africa. Basically, this medicinal plant is mainly used as
an herbal supplement. It is also used to treat alcohol induced liver cirrhosis
when a person over drinks as well as hepatitis and also diabetes type 2 mainly.
Anti-diabetic properties: In most of the researches carried out silybum
has proved to the most promising agent against anti insulin and diabetes
induced high levels of glucose in the blood. Therefore, the ingestion of milk
thistle will lead to the decrease rapidly in the glucose levels in the blood
without necessarily meaning that the levels of level of glucose in blood will
have to increase. This also in turn ensure that the body will in turn use less
insulin to control the body sugars. Also, Silybin marianum is important in
keeping the blood glucose levels in low manageable levels. The bigger merit
of the use of milk thistle is that it uses ways that are not dependent of insulin
production in the body to reduce the general blood sugars. There is also a
component of milk thistle that reduces the inflammation and hence it plays
a key role to ensure that the levels of cholesterol are maintained in normal
ranges which can be a complication of diabetes. This, therefore, means
that in order to reduce blood cholesterol it is that we use plants that lower
blood sugars by improving the production of insulin as well as increase the
reaction to insulin in patients that are suffering from diabetes (Panda, 2004).
A lot of research is still on going to be able to ensure that these plants
can indeed be used to make medicines for people living with diabetes.
6
Potential Medicinal Plants Used
in Hypertension

CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 150
6.2 Herbs Having Antihypertensive Potential ......................................... 153
150 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Hypertension is a cardiovascular disorder where the blood pressure in the
arteries is elevated above 140/90 and is considered severe when the blood
pressure is above 180/120.
When there is blood pressure a person suffers symptoms like blurred
vision, server headaches, nose bleed, fatigue and confusion chest pain
because the heart is forced to pump blood at high speed, an irregular
heartbeat, blood in urine since there is increased pressure on the glomerulus
making blood cells be forced to go through the small pores. In severe cases,
there is sweating, convulsions, blood sporting in the eye and sometimes
some blood vessels do break causing internal bleeding in various parts of
the body.
Untreated hypertension can lead to more serious diseases, including
weakened and narrow blood vessels in kidneys, heart disease, heart failure,
kidney failure, aneurysm, dementia, memory loss and metabolic syndrome.
Through a research conducted by world health organization, hypertension
affects mostly the old age people making it an old age disease.
Children are also at a risk of hypertension because of the current lifestyle.
There are two classification of hypertension:
• Primary hypertension –which refers to high blood pressure due
to no underlying medical cause. Primary hypertension is the most
common accounting for 90%-95%of all hypertensive cases.
• Secondary hypertension-In this, high blood pressure that is caused
by other underlying conditions that affects the kidneys, arteries,
heart, or endocrine system.
Risk factors contributing to hypertension.
• Age: A normal human being is said to be strong between childhoods
to around 55 years of age. As one grows old, so does their blood
vessels. The body’s blood vessels undergo crucial changes up
to and including blood vessels directly linked to the heart. An
increase of blood pressure will bring about an increase in the rate
of cardiovascular risk. Due to such conditions, old aged people
are more likely to suffer from cardiovascular disorders. When an
old person becomes overwhelmed or is shocked, then the heart
jumps into a rapid change in blood pumping hence overwhelming
the body`s blood vessels and eventually leading to shock.
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 151

• Race: The term race means a major subdivision or rather

divisions of human beings who have distinctive body or
communal characteristics. Race is used to describe large ethnic
groups of people such as the Africans, Indians, black Americans
etc. for instance, the blacks are known to develop higher risks of
contracting hypertension at a very tender age. Over a series of
research conducted, lower blood pressure levels were found on
young African children while the ones for American children was
almost at the required level. Various scientists attribute this to
the way of life among African ethnic communities. For example,
African people tend to use a lot of salt while seasoning their food.
They also tend to use other varieties of food with a lot of acidity.
As they go by such activities, the American race would prefer
going for soft and body-tolerant varieties of food.
• Family history: Hypertension may be considered genetic. To
draw insight into this, consider a family A. family A has father
A and mother B. if one of them is diagnosed with hypertension
then the disease might spread over to consecutive generations.
The family A may successfully bore children, daughter C and
son D. Daughter C may be married off to a different family E.
the son from family E may bear a child with daughter C from
family. The child may easily contract hypertension as a result of
genetic transfer from his/her mother. This would go on for many
generations on the family. To draw the story closer, the human
body is developed as a result of genetic mutation and various
forms of variation. This means that we are in a good position to
inherit one thing or the other from our parents. Hypertension may
in this case, traverse down families and generations. As a matter
of fact, your parent may not bear certain characteristics but with
time you may inhibit hypertension characteristics from your great
grandmother.
• Obesity: This can be defined as the art of being overweight. It is
considered as weight above what is basically considered healthy.
Obesity is measured in a unit called body mass index*(BMI)
when one has excessive body weight then there is a higher chance
for the body not to functions as required. There is higher risk of
one obtaining cardiovascular morbidity and hence cardiovascular
risks. Research has it that obesity goes a long way in activating
the lymphatic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin system
152 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

hence resulting in hypertension. Obesity is a factor that can be

easily avoided. However, if one does not take care of his/her body
weight, then obesity is; likely to kick in and in fact so hard to
reverse. Obesity is associated with poor lifestyles and poor forms
of livelihood. It is normally associated with the forms of foods
that we take in.
• Not being physically active: Being physically active implies that
one maintains a healthy activity by engaging in physical activities
that boosts one’s health projectile. Such activities Include being
able to run regularly and engaging in various forms of gaming
activities. They may also include indulging in various activities up
to and including farming, masonry and other physical economic
activities. People who remain inactive all day long tend to record
higher heart rates or regular forms of heart failure. The higher
ones heart rate is then the higher the force required to push blood
through the arteries. Truth being said, failure to become active
can be a direct link to obesity. This becomes a double deal with
hypertension.
• Use of tobacco: The air we breathe always goes to direct
contact with your blood. This is meant to define that the tobacco
indulge goes a long way in directing the dangerous compound
into your blood system. Tobacco is known to contain three very
dangerous compounds i.e. tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide.
The dangerous fact about this is that chewing or smoking of
cigarettes immediately increases ones’ rate of hypertension. The
chemicals in tobacco are also aligned with damaging the walls of
the artery. As a result of this, the body’s arteries may be caused to
become narrow and require a lot of force during the pumping in
of blood into various body parts. Smoking is however a universal
challenge. If one smokes close to a bunch of people, he/she is
most likely to affect the others. They directly become passive
smokers and absorb smoke from the tobacco fragments.
• Indulge of too much salt: Too much salt goes a long way in
making the body retain its fluids. This constricts blood vessels
and hence increases the risk of obtaining hypertension.
• Too little potassium in the diet: Potassium is a very important
factor in the fight against hypertension. Its work is basically to
balance and control amounts of sodium in your blood. As result,
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 153

if there is uncontrolled amounts of sodium in your blood, then

you may end up retaining body fluids and hence a bigger rate of
contracting hypertension.
• Too much alcohol: Alcohol is the most abused drink in the entire
world. Not only does it lead to liver cirrhosis but also leads to
massive levels of blood pressure. It destroys the body`s blood
vessels hence reducing the effectiveness of the pumping process.
• High stress levels: Stress is always accompanied by one
performing things that may appear recreational but instead
dangerous to the body. For example, one may indulge in the use
of tobacco or alcohol. Such activities may increase the risk related
to high blood pressure.
Hypertension is one of the diseases that have been given much attention
by the public health worldwide. A large percentage of people are affected
by this disease each year. Over the years this disease has been highly rising.
This has become one of the top deadly diseases as many of the people lose
their lives each year.
The world health organization has taken the initiative of trying to find
the cure for this disease. Medical health researchers have been investigating
on this disease and mainly majoring on the cause and the effects it brings to
the human body. Through this research, it was discovered that some plants
could be used to manage and treat hypertension. These plants contained
important nutrients that could help treat a person affected with hypertension.
From these plants, one could acquire nutrients such as proteins, vitamins,
calcium, iron, calories, and carbohydrates. Some of these plants include;
olive, rhubarb, buckwheat, hawthorn, barberry, eastern grapes, yarrow,
strawberry, ziziphus, garlic and sage. The means by which this plants help
in the management of hypertension is highlighted below;

6.2 HERBS HAVING ANTIHYPERTENSIVE

POTENTIAL
Allium sativum (commonly known as Garlic)-This has long been used during
home hypertensive therapy and has been bringing about promising results
as an anti-hypertensive agent. It boosts the body`s production of nitric acid,
relaxing the smooth muscles causing the blood vessels to dilate. It is thought
to be increasing nitric oxide production resulting in muscle relaxation hence
there is blood vessels vasodilation. Analysis on patients who use garlic
154 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

demonstrated that garlic reduces blood pressure in patients with increased

systolic pressure.
Annona muricata (could also be referred to Custard apple)-the leaf
extract of custard apple has been reported to lower blood pressure by
relieving the peripheral vascular resistance.
Apium graveolens (commonly known as celery): This medicinal plant
is effective to treat hypertension because it acts on the liver as resistance.
A theory stated by the Chinese says the liver is affected by one type of
hypertension hence it makes it effective to it. This plant was used to produce
some juice which was then mixed with the same amount of honey. The
mixture is then used as medicine and has been proven to be effective to
hypertension. This mixture formed from the juice and honey was taken at a
certain percentage and was administered orally and taken three times each
day. This type of herbal medicine was important in places such as China since
many people affected by hypertension got cured after using this medicinal
herb. The usage of this herbal medicine made from celery highly increased
as it was discovered that it could also help in the reduction of diastolic and
systolic blood pressure. There was a great positive difference in the blood
pressure of the affected humans after being administered to it compared to
before they used this form of treatment. This plant has been proven highly
effective to treatment of humans` blood pressure hence its usage has highly
increased. The juice produced by the celery is used to reduce some effects
caused by the blood pressure such as headache, pains within the shoulder and
also helps to do away with dizziness. Pregnant mothers with hypertension
are highly advised to use this medicinal herb as part of their treatment.
Aristolochia manshuriensis (commonly known as Guan Mu Tong):
After the study of this plant, medical researchers discovered its extract
contained very important agents. This urgents recovered from the plant
extract included the following; tannins, hederagenin, aristolochic acid,
oleanolic acid, aristoloside and magnoflorine. It was noted that these agents
could be used as a diuretic and antiphlogistic in the management of edema
and rheumatic pain. This Chinese plant has been found to be very effective
and is used as a medicinal herb. Scientist has managed to produce quality
and functional medicines using this plant extracts. Some of the medicines
were made from this plant helping the treatment of hypertension as they
inhabited hypotensive properties.
Artocarpus altilis (commonly known as Breadfruit). The plant is native
to the Malay Peninsula and the western Pacific islands. A study has shown
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 155

that the leaf extract of the plant decreased the tension of phenylephrine-
stimulated isolated guinea pig aorta rings by 15 to 35%.
Avena sativa (commonly known as Green Oat): This plant is important
as it contains nutrients that are effective in reducing significant risk of
cardiovascular diseases as this medicinal plant is rich in lipids and glucose.
The need for antihypertensive medication becomes less necessary when one
is using a diet rich in green oat. From the usage of this medicinal plant,
there is significant management of blood pressure. People suffering from
diastolic and systolic blood pressure that is related to hypertension are highly
encouraged to using a diet that is rich in oat cereals. This form of treating
hypertension has been so essential and could be used as an effective dietary
therapy for its affected patients.
Camellia sinensis (commonly known as Tea): Drinking tea is considered
so beneficial to human health in many ways. Through research conducted, it
is noted that using tea has an effect to cardiovascular diseases. Researchers
also noted that there is a difference in their research on tea and hypertension.
From this research, it is noted that black tea (Camellia sinensis) isn’t effective
on people suffering from hypertension. It is also noted that taking of green
tea which is commonly known as unfermented tea and oolong tea that is also
referred to as partially ferment tea could help to reduce the risk associated
with maturing hypertension.
Capparis cartilaginea (commonly known as Lasaf): This is a shrub
plant that has been analyzed in depth by the medical researchers. This shrub
plant is commonly located in areas filled with rocks and could also be found
in cliffs. It has been discovered that the extract from this plant is effective to
persons suffering from blood pressure. This medicinal plant contains a crude
extract of C. cartilaginea that is used to produce medicine used in managing
blood pressure.
Copticum (Family: Umbelliferae; Common name: Ajwain): This is a type
of medicinal plant that is used in manufacture medicine from its crude extract
of C. coptimum. With the administration of this dose that`s manufactured it
would lead to lowering of the blood pressure. This medicinal plant dose
could also produce a fall in heart rate. Due to the high effectiveness of
the medicine manufactured from this plant, when a person suffering from
hypertension is subjected into administering this medicine they heal fast
compared to when chemical medicine is used. The effectiveness of this
medicine depends with the amount of dosage one takes thus when one is
subjected to high dosage the level of hypertension decreases highly. It is
156 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

commonly advised to be used by humans suffering from both the systolic

and diastolic blood pressure.
Solanum sisymbriifolium: This medicinal plant comes from the family
of Solanaceae and is commonly referred to us sticky nightshade or Wild
Tomato. The root of S. sisymbriifolium Lam., a perennial herb, has been
used as a traditional medicine possessing diuretic and antihypertensive
properties in Paraguay. The hypotensive effect of the crude hydro alcoholic
extract from root was investigated both in NMT and hypertensive rats. The
intravenous administration of the extract (50 and 100 mg/kg) produced a
significant decrease in blood pressure in anesthetized hypertensive rats. Oral
administration of the extract (10, 50, 100, and 250 mg/kg) also produced
a dose-dependent hypotensive effect in conscious hypertensive animals.
In anesthetized NMT rats, the extract (50 and 100 mg/kg) also induced
hypotension in a dose-dependent manner. Lastly, no significant effect on
blood pressure was produced by the extract when administered orally (10,
50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg) to conscious NMT rats.(Tabassum et al.,
2011) In another study, nuatigenosido was isolated from the extract as one
of the prospective active compounds. Nuatigenosido at 100 g/kg and 1 mg/
kg lowered blood pressure in rats and at 10−6 and 10−5 M augmented the
contractile force in the right atrium of a bullfrog, and at 10−7 M increased
the overshoot amplitude in frog atrial myocytes, action potential durations
were shortened, the calcium current was increased, and the delayed outward
potassium current was increased.(Ibarrola et al., 2006) The results suggested
that nuatigenosido may play an important role in the therapeutic effects of
this herb.
Cassia absus (Family: Caesalpiniaceae; Common name: Chaksu): This
type of plant is largely found in India and majorly located in the tropical
regions. The crude extract from this plant is used in making of medicine
that helps in the treatment of blood pressure. Due to the decrease in blood
pressure it would lead to an equivalent decrease in hypertension as a result
of higher dosage. However, it has been noted that tachyphylaxis is produced
with repeated injection on the same dose of the crude extract.
Caesalpiniaceae (Common name: Coffee weed).: This is a medicinal
plant that could be used in lowering of blood pressure. It is mostly advised
to people with blood pressure connected to hypertension. Natural medicine
could be made using this plant leaves and could be used as an antihypertensive
agent. Coffee weed is a small tree and grows at a medium height. Research
done shows that the extract of this plant is effective in a way such that it
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 157

relaxes smooth muscles hence leading to decreasing of blood pressure

Coleus forskohlii (Family: Lamiaceae; Common name: Karpurvali): A
research conducted shows that this plant is potentially able to manage blood
pressure. A test carried out showed that this plant contained some properties
that could help in lowering of the blood pressure since it facilitates relaxation
of the smooth vascular muscle. It is also discovered that in small doses the
pharmacological properties of coleonol, a diterpene, separated from C.
forskohlii, is responsible for lowering the blood pressure of anesthetized
cat and rat. It is also responsible for the spontaneously hypertensive
rat relaxation of the vascular smooth muscle. It has a positive inotropic
effect on isolated rabbit heart when administered in small doses. This is
the same case on cat heart in vivo.(Tabassum et al., 2011)Coleonol also is
responsible for nonspecific spasmolytic activity on smooth muscle of the
gastrointestinal tract in various species but not on bronchial musculature of
in guinea pig it isn’t exhibited on the bronchial musculature. It is also noted
by the researchers that large doses of coleonol have a depressant action on
the central nervous system.
Zingiber officinale: This is a plant belonging to the family Zingiberaceae.
It is commonly known as ginger. It is mostly used in diverse Asian cooking’s
improving body’s circulation and helps in relaxation of body muscles
that surround blood vessels. In a research conducted in rats, an extract of
ginger was used in the body system of the rat. It appeared the ginger extract
induced a dose dependent fall in the arterial blood pressure of the rat. A
similar experiment on a guinea pig exhibited a cardio depressant activity
on the guinea pigs rate of blood vessel contraction and expansion. Through
research, ginger has proven that it blocks voltage dependant calcium channels.
Very few human trials have been done regarding the plants effectiveness on
dealing with hypertension. However, the plant really seems to promising in
giving out beneficial results.
Commelina virginica: This medicinal plant belongs to the family of
commelinaceae. It could also be referred to as Virginia dayflower. This
medicinal plant (Family: Commelinaceae; Common name: Virginia
dayflower). It is a perennial herbaceous plant in the dayflower family. It
is native to the Midwestern and southeastern United States. Whole plant
extract has been reported to decrease the tension of phenylephrine-stimulated
isolated guinea pig aorta rings by 15 to 35%.
Crataegus pinnatifida: This is a plant belonging to the family Rosaceae.
It is commonly known as the Chinese hawthorn in China. Ancient Chinese
158 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

history has it that the plant was used in the treatment of HTN for many
years. The plant intensively lowers blood pressure resulting to a drop in
blood hypertension. It contains two compounds; oligomeric procyanidins
and flavonoids which take up these crucial tasks. They are chemically potent
antioxidant agents. Cat`s law demonstrates that Rhynchophylline, basically
an alkaloid with its unanimuous abilities inhibits platelet aggregation and
thrombosis hence widely reducing the risks of heart attacks and strokes
by lowering the high body blood pressure and further increasing blood
circulation. It extends its role by primarily decreasing the high rate of blood
clot and plaque on various blood vessels. This inhibits the risk of brain related
disorders and cleans up the bodies arteries and veins. Samples of this plant
inserted into rabbits revealed a drop in blood pressure in the rabbit’s blood
stream for a consecutive 3 hr period. The grataegic acid has been regarded a
hypertensive principle. The acid results in vasorelaxation of muscles related
to the blood vessels hence reduction in heart-effort relating to blood pump
Crinum glaucum: This is a plant belonging to the family Amaryllidaceae.
It is commonly known as the river lily or the swamp lily. In the ancient
times, it was highly used in communities of western Nigeria to treat asthma
(a ravaging heart disease). This made the herb known and widely researched
on by scientists to determine its value in the treatment of respiratory and
cardiovascular disorders in humans. Relatively, the plant was determined to
be of great importance leading to a relative increase of tidal volume. Tidal
volume is used to refer to the ventilatory rate and depth. The plant was also
determined to lead to a corresponding decrease in both systolic and diastolic
pressure
Lumnitzera racemose: This is an herb belonging to the family
Combretaceae. It is commonly and widely known as the black mangrove.
It resembles a small shrub that looks handsome and appealing to people.
It is found majorly on the coasts of India all the way to Andaman and the
islands of Nicobar. Traditionally the plant was used to treat and cure skin
disorders including snake and insect bites. Over years, the shrub sought the
attention of scientists which correspondingly lead to it being recognized to
be of antihypertensive action. Lab extracts involved the removal of aqueous
acetone from the plant. Scientists took up 11 hydrolysable tannins off the
leaves of the shrub. From the research conducted in rats, it was found that
the herb contained corilagin, costalagin and chebulinic acids. These are the
major active substances that work against hypertension
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 159

Cuscuta reflexa: This is an herb belonging to the family Cuscutaceae. It

is commonly known as the giant dodder. The drug has been determined to be
a major agent in the fight against hypertension. Scientist have explained that
crude extracts from the plant would go on a long way to decrease systolic
and diastolic blood pressure as well as in anaesthetized rats. The plant
seemed to work with higher doses when dealing with high blood pressure
but c could only need a single dose when dealing with low blood pressure.
Pretreatment with a certain drug known as the atropine would not abolish
the cardiovascular responses to C. reflexa as other doctors would have said.
Daucus carota: This is a plant belonging to the family umbelliferae.
It was anciently used as an herb in the treatment of HTN. It is commonly
known as the carrot and has been widely used in various diets. Some parts
of this fruit or rather vegetable were isolated for lab trials. For instance, two
coumarin glycosides coded as DC-2 and DC-3 were taken to the labs for
research. The administration of these compounds resulted in the use of the
fruit against lab rats to human beings. They resulted in a massive fall in arterial
blood pressure in rats and later on in guinea pigs. The research explains that
the extracts highly worked through inducing potassium on the blood vessels
of rats and guinea pigs. It also worked on a blockade of calcium channels
which corresponds to the lowering of blood pressure. However, other two
compounds extracted from the plant would deem dangerous in increasing
blood pressure. For this, scientists would refer removing daucuside and
daucosol from the plant`s fruit.(Godfraind et al., 2017)
Desmodium styracifolium: Preparations from the dry leaves and
stem of the plant injected intravenously into anesthetized dogs increased
coronary circulation, lowered arterial BP, slowed HR, and decreased the
oxygen consumption of the heart. The cardiovascular pharmacology of
aqueous extracts of D. styracifolium (DSE) and Clematis chinensis (CCE)
was studied in rats both in vivo and in vitro by Ho et al. in 1982. DSE
produced two successive hypotensive actions: the first one mediated through
cholinergic receptor stimulation, whereas the second was potentiated by
blockades of autonomic ganglion and alpha-adrenoceptor. In contrast to
DSE, CCE produced only one hypotensive response, which was mediated
through histaminergic activity. Furthermore, both extracts relaxed isolated
methoxamine-preconstricted helical tail artery strips. CCE also produced
both negative chronotropic and inotropic effects on isolated atria, whereas
DSE showed positive chronotropic effect, without apparent effect on the
contractile force.
160 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Fuchsia magellanic: These medicinal plans are also called chiko, hardy
fuchsia and tilco. These plants are from the family of Onagraceae. This plant
is native to Southern Argentina and Chile. Infusion of the leaf extract reduces
body temperature, acts as a diuretic, and lowers blood pressure. Researchers
have investigated the ethanol and aqueous extracts of this species in NMT
rats and found a moderate to strong reduction in the mean arterial pressure.
Glycine max: Soybean has been found to be effective as a hypotensive
agent. One study has shown a very modest reduction in blood pressure
whereas other study shows no benefit.
Gossypium barbadense: It is a tropical perennial plant that produces
yellow flowers and has black seeds. A study has shown that the leaf extract of
the plant decreased the tension of phenylephrine-stimulated isolated guinea
pig aorta rings by 15 to 35%. (Hasrat et al., 2004) In Suriname’s traditional
medicine, the leaves of the plant are used to treat HTN and delayed/irregular
menstruation.
Hibiscus sabdariffa: This is a plant belonging to the family malvaceae.
It is commonly referred to as the sweet rosella. It is indeed one of the most
extensively used plants in the treatment of hypertension. The leaves and
other part of the flower such as the calyx and corolla were used in ancient
West African communities for medicinal purpose and also as edibles.
This plant has been regularly knocking on the doors of lab researchers
especially in regards to the treatment of various diseases such as Ebola and
the coronavirus. One study in the late 20th century recognized the value
of the plant in the treatment of hypertension. This has been alluded to the
importance of the calyx for this particular process. In one experiment, dry
calyx extracted from the plant proved to be true to its work. The dry calyx
could be thoroughly mixed with water. An administration of a sample of
this led to a relative fall in blood pressure. It led to a direct effect on the
aorta of the rats i.e. a vasorelaxant effect on the blood vessel. The plant also
helps reverse cardiovascular challenges in both rats and human being.
Later criminal trials conducted kin human beings have revealed that the
plant has antihypertensive effects.
Lavandula stoechas: This is a plant belonging to the family Lamiaceae.
It is widely referred to as the French lavender. Lab extracts from this plant
have proven to be corresponding to a fall in blood pressure. The use of
atropine later before abolished other forms of cardiovascular responses.
This suggests that the use of extracts from the French lavender could be
mediated through mechanisms similar to that of acetylcholine
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 161

Artocarpus altilis (commonly known as Breadfruit). The plant is native

to the Malay Peninsula and western Pacific islands. A study has shown
that the leaf extract of the plant decreased the tension of phenylephrine-
stimulated isolated guinea pig aorta rings by 15 to 35% (Joshi et al.,2012)
Lepidium latifolium: This medicinal plant is commonly known as
rompepiedra or stone breaker. It is a plant belonging to a family called
cruciferae. From this medicinal plant natural medicine has been created.
This medicine is commonly found in Canary Islands and is majorly used for
renal lithiasis. From a research conducted it is discovered that this medicinal
plant contains hypotensive effects in consideration to its diuretic effects on
rats. Through this plant extract a dose is produced and this dose is usually
administered orally. A dose of this medicinal plant is highly effective and
should be used as prescribed. It is commonly advised that the dose for L.
latifolium in a man is 3 to 5 g on daily basis. This dosage should also be
taken in the form of tea. This means of medication has been proven effective
and highly advised to be used.
Linum usitatiisimum (Family: Linaceae; Common name: Linseed,
Flaxseed): This is a plant herb that is said to have originated in Egypt. This
plant is important as it contains very important agents that are useful for
the body. The useful agents it contains could also be used in treating some
major diseases. Examples of these diseases include; heart diseases, arthritis,
inflammatory heart diseases as well as many other problems related to health.
Researchers are in the idea that blood pressure could be lowered by rich
omega-3 acids. This could be highly significant with people affected with
hypertension. This plant is also believed to have the potential to prevent a
person against contracting atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease by means
of various mechanisms. This could include lowering of platelet aggregation,
inflammatory markers, reducing serum cholesterol and improving glucose
tolerance. It is highly advised that one consumes about 15 to 50 on daily
basis as this ground flaxseed is effective in reduction of cholesterol in the
human body. It also can lower low-density lipoprotein concentrations a not
interfering with triglycerides or high-density lipoprotein found in cholesterol
Lycopersicon esculentum: This is the common tomato plant. It is from
the family Solanaceae. The plant contains compounds that act as effective
antioxidants that are helpful in inactivating free radicals hence slow down
the progression of atherosclerosis. The antioxidants are present in the fruit
extract, which is composed of carotenoids, such as lycopene, beta carotene,
162 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

and vitamin E. The extract is known as Lye-O-Mato. Researchers claim

that this extract precisely reduces blood pressure in patients with untreated
but mild hypertension. Researchers also claim that there is a significant
relationship between systolic blood pressure and lycopene levels. Tomato
extracts can be used alongside ACE inhibitors, which are considered
calcium channel blockers, or a low dosage of diuretics. Scientists claims
that when this is done, there will be a significant drop in blood pressure. This
treatment is considered very efficient when used and also there have been no
complaints regarding side effects when it comes to patient’s response.
Moringa oleifera: From the family Moringaceae, it is commonly known
as the murungai. Its leaves provided a leaf extract that causes a fall in
systolic, diastolic and a mean blood pressure in a dose-dependent manner. It
has been seen that the plant would directly affect the blood pressure in not
more than two minutes. However, high doses from the plant could result
in an increase of heart rate. This is because the high doses would reduce
a small degree of bradycardia. Research also approves that thiocarbamate
and isothiocyanate fractions of the crude extract were responsible for the
antihypertensive activity
Musanga cecropiodes: This plant is commonly known as Umbrella tree
or Cork wood. It is from the family Cecropiaceae. It is a fast growing tree
that is found in the tropical rainforest of West Africa. Researchers claim
that extracts from the stem-bark of the tree have an antidiarrheal activity.
Scientists have concluded that the latex and leaf extracts are vasorelaxant
and play a big role as a hypotensive agent. The liquid extract from the stem-
bark have been claimed to bring about a dose-dependent reduction in mean
arterial blood pressure.
Ocimum basilicum: This belongs to the family lamiaceae. It is commonly
known as basil. It has been reported that a crude extract of O. basilicum causes
a fall in systolic, diastolic, and mean BP in a dose-dependent manner with
median effective dose of 30 mg/kg. The antihypertensive effect is brief
and returns to normal within two minutes. This cardiovascular effect of the
extract has been attributed to eugenol, which exerts its effect by blocking the
calcium channels.
Peganum harmala: This is a plant that belongs to the family Nitrariaceae.
This plant is widely as commonly known as harmal. The crude extract
fraction and all pure compounds: harmine, harmaline, tetrahydroharmine,
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 163

harmol, and harmaloi from P. harmala produced antihypertensive effects

in anesthetized rats stored in labs in a dose-dependent manner. Extensive
research has proven that the plant is also cool for human beings.
Phyllanthus amarus: It belongs to the Family Euphorbiaceae and is
commonly known as Common name Nela nelli. In traditional medicine
Nela neli was used to lower blood pressure and as a diuretic. Amaechina
and Omogbai reported that the aqueous extract of the leaves of this plant
(5-80 mg/kg) was administered through the muscles to anesthetized NMT
male rabbits. It led to a significant fall in mean diastolic, systolic, and means
arterial pressures in a dose-response manner that had been graded. The dose
of 5 mg/kg produced the most minimal hypotensive effect which then led
to causing a fall in mean diastolic, systolic, and mean arterial pressure of
13.3 ± 3.1, 19.7 ± 5.4, and 14.3 ± 3.4 mmHg, respectively. The dose of
80 mg/kg produced the most maximum fall in mean diastolic, systolic, and
means arterial pressure of 49.7 ± 7.9, 45.5 ± 9.5, and 48.00 ± 6.5 mmHg,
respectively. The extract produced greater depressant effect on the diastolic
BP than the systolic BP.(Shanazari et al., 2011)
Pinus pinaster: This is a plant belonging to a family called Pinaceae and
its common name is (Maritine Pine). Pycnogenol is an extract from French
maritime pine bark. It is most commonly known as a treatment for venous
insufficiency and other vascular conditions. But it is being studied for a
long list of other conditions, including HTN. Preliminary clinical research
shows that pycnogenol 200 mg/day can modestly lower BP in people with
mild HTN. It has been reported to act by inhibiting angiotensin-converting
enzymes.
Pueraria lobate: This plant comes from a family group of fabaceae
and has a common name called (Kadzu). The dry root of this plant is
officially listed and used in China as a muscle relaxant, antipyretic, and
for the treatment of dysentery and HTN. The total is flavones, from the
ethanol extract of roots, have shown hypotensive effect on anesthetized
dogs and anaesthetized hypertensive dogs. The isoflavone-puerarin, when
administered intravenously at a dose range of 100 to 200 mg, in clinical
trials to patients suffering from HTN or angina pectoris, showed a decrease
in blood catecholamine levels, blood pressure,
Artocarpus altilis (commonly known as Breadfruit): The plant is native
to the Malay Peninsula and western Pacific islands. A study has shown
that the leaf extract of the plant decreased the tension of phenylephrine-
stimulated isolated guinea pig aorta rings by 15 to 35%.
164 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Punica granatum: This medicinal plant is grouped under the family of

lythraceae and has a common name called (Pomegranate). Pomegranate juice
is becoming a more popular fruit drink. Research shows that pomegranate
reduces the activity of angiotensin converting enzymes (ACE) by about
36%. Clinical research reveals contradictory results. One study shows
modest reduction in systolic BP after drinking 50 ml/day of pomegranate
juice for a year. Another study shows no benefit after drinking 240 ml/day
of the juice for 3 months.(Wang et al., 2018)
Raphanus sativus: This plant belongs to the family of cruciferae
and is commonly known (Radish), the plant has been found to have
antihypertensive activity. Isolated tissue preparations were suspended
in tissue baths containing Krebs solution, while acute toxicity study was
performed in mice for 24 hours. The extract caused a dose-dependent (0.1-3
mg/kg) fall in blood pressure and heart beat of rats that was mediated through
an atropine-sensitive pathway.(Chung et al., 2012) In isolated guinea-pig
atria, it showed dose-dependent (0.03-3.0 mg/ml) inhibition of force and
rate of contractions. In the atropine-treated tissues, the inhibitory effect was
abolished and a cardiac stimulant effect was unmasked, which was resistant
to adrenergic and serotonergic receptor blockade. In the endothelium-
intact rat aorta, it inhibited phenylephrine-induced contractions, which was
blocked by atropine. The extract was safe in mice up to the dose of 10 g/kg.
The study showed that the cardiovascular inhibitory effects of the plant are
mediated through activation of muscarinic receptors, thus possibly justifying
its use in HTN. (Tashiro et al., 2017)
Rauwolfia serpentine: This medicinal plant belongs to the family called
apocynaceae. Its commonly used name is Rauwolfia. It is a tropical woody
plant ingenious to Asia, South America, and Africa. Extracts of its different
parts and of plants resembling to rauwolfia were used in Hindu medicine
for snakebite, insomnia, insanity, and many other diseases and complaints.
This is considered to be the most powerful hypotensive plant. Reserpine, the
purified alkaloid of R. serpentina, was the first potent drug widely used in
the long-term treatment of HTN. Only a small dose is required to achieve
results and to avoid side effects. Nasal congestion is the most common side
effect. In 1952, reserpine was introduced under the name Serpasil in the
treatment of HTN, tachycardia, and thyrotoxicosis. The combination of
reserpine, dihydroergocristine, and a diuretic is still on the market.
Rhaptopetalum coriaceum Oliver: This is a plant belonging to the
family of scytopetalaceae. A decoction of the plant stem bark is traditionally
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 165

prepared or soaked in locally distilled gin and taken as a remedy for HTN.
Preliminary studies carried out on the plant stem bark extract showed
its blood pressure-lowering effects on NMT rats. In vitro studies of its
vasodilatory mechanism revealed its action to be through calcium channel
blockade, at a concentration of 0.2 mg/ml of R. coriaceum extract. This was
done through inhibition of Ca2+ release and blockade of potential sensitive
channels and receptor-operated channels by inhibiting noradrenaline and
KCl-induced Ca2+ influx. Results from the in vitro studies suggest that
ethanol extract of R. coriaceum may be more potent as calcium channel
blocker than nifedipine.
Sesamum indicum: This is a plant that belongs to a family called
Pedaliaceae. It is commonly known as sesame. Alcoholic extract of seeds
(1–30 mg/kg) caused hypotension in anesthetized rats. A fall in systolic as
well as diastolic blood pressure in dose-dependent manner was observed.
Heart rate was found to decrease at slightly higher doses (10-30 mg/kg).
Atropine (2 mg/kg) was reported to abolish the cardiovascular responses,
indicating the presence of acetylcholine-like substance in the seeds. Sesamin
and sesaminol are the major phenolic constituents of sesame oil. A study
in hypertensive patients indicated that sesame oil consumption remarkably
reduced oxidative stress and simultaneously increased glutathione
peroxidase, superoxidase dismutase, and catalase activities. (Sankar et al.,
2006) These results support the hypothesis that sesame oil consumption
may help to enhance antioxidant defense system in human beings. The
investigators suggested that sesamin is a useful prophylactic treatment in
HTN and cardiovascular hypertrophy.
Theobroma cacao: It belongs to the family malvaceae and commonly
known as chocolate, cocoa bean or cocoa butter. Cocoa powder, enriched
with flavonoid constituents, is used for preventing cardiovascular disease.
Flavonoids, contained in chocolate, stimulate formation of nitric oxide,
increase vasodilatation, and reduce endothelial dysfunction. A growing
body of clinical research also shows that daily consumption of dark or milk
chocolate can lower systolic BP by about 5 mmHg and diastolic by about 3
mmHg.
Uncaria rhynchophylla: It belongs to the family Rubiaceae. It is
commonly known as the cat law herb. It was traditionally used to lower
blood pressure and relieved one of various neurological symptoms. This
has over time been researched on only to be found under a compound called
hirsutine. This is a indole alkaloid that extensively relaxes the blood vessel`s
166 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

muscles. A methanol extract of the hooks of an Uncaria species was found to

have a potent and long-lasting hypotensive effect in rats and the activity was
different from that of rhynchophylla and its analogue. Further studies of the
extract resulted in the isolation of 3-indole alkaloid, glycoside, cadambine,
dihydrocadambine, and isodihydrocadambine. The latter two were found to
be the hypertensive principles, whereas cadambine was inactive.
Viscum album: It belongs to the family santalaceae and commonly known
as mistletoe. The aqueous extracts of Viscum album leaves have shown
significant coronary vasodilator activity on the Langendorff›s isolated and
perfused heart model. The data obtained suggest that the aqueous extract
of V. album contains some biologically active principles that may act as
inducer of the nitric oxide/soluble guanylate cyclase pathway. The effect of
the crude aqueous extract from mistletoe leaves was studied on arterial BP
and HR in albino Wistar rats under pentobarbitone anesthesia. The depression
produced by the extract on the corresponding HR was not significant in the
NMT, ROH, or SIH subgroups. Propranolol blocked the action of the extract
on BP. However, atropine did not prevent the extract-induced depression of
BP. The extract-blocked noradrenaline induced an increase in BP in the NMT.
The results suggested that the mistletoe extract produces antihypertensive
effect without alteration in HR, possibly involving sympathetic mechanism
Vitex doniana: It belongs to the family verbenaceae. It is commonly
known as the black plum. Research has been conducted on rats concerning
this disease. It proved to reduce both the systolic and diastolic blood pressure
in a range of about 45 minutes. The blood pressure would then return to
normal in the next 2 hours.
Artocarpus altilis (commonly known as Breadfruit). The plant is native
to the Malay Peninsula and western Pacific islands. A study has shown
that the leaf extract of the plant decreased the tension of phenylephrine-
stimulated isolated guinea pig aorta rings by 15 to 35%.
The renewed interest in the search for new drugs from natural sources,
especially from plant sources, has gained global attention during the last two
decades. The tropical rain forests have become an important point of this
activity, primarily due to the rich biodiversity they harbor, which promises a
high diversity of chemicals with the potential novel structures. However, of
this rich biodiversity, only a small portion has been studied for its medicinal
potential. Thus, natural plants and herbs can be our source of drugs, with
fewer side effects and better bioavailability for treatment of HTN in future.
 Potential Medicinal Plants Used in Hypertension 167

This medicinal plant is effective to treat hypertension because it acts on

the liver as resistance. A theory stated by the Chinese says the liver is affected
by one type of hypertension hence it makes it effective to it. This plant was
used to produce some juice which was then mixed with the same amount
of honey. The mixture is then used as medicine and has been proven to be
effective to hypertension. This mixture formed from the juice and honey was
taken at a certain percentage and was administered orally and taken three
times each day. This type of herbal medicine was important in places such as
China since many people affected by hypertension got cured after using this
medicinal herb. The usage of this herbal medicine made from celery highly
increased as it was discovered that it could also help in reduction of diastolic
and systolic blood pressure. There was a great positive different in the blood
pressure of the affected humans after being administered to it compared to
before they used this form of treatment. This plant has been proven highly
effective to treatment of humans` blood pressure hence its usage has highly
increased. The juice produced by the celery is used to reduce some effects
caused by the blood pressure such as headache, pains within the shoulder and
also helps to do away with dizziness. Pregnant mothers with hypertension
are highly advised to use this medicinal herb as part of their treatment.
7
Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in
Reproduction

CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 170
7.2 Factors Contributing To Womens
Knowledge on Herbs on Reproduction......................................... 172
7.3 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used In
Reproduction In Developing Countries ........................................ 172
7.4 Traditional Uses of Herbs In Reproduction ....................................... 173
7.5 Case Study: Knowledge of Herbs Used In Reproduction
by Women In Ghana .................................................................... 174
7.6 Reduced Knowledge on Herbs Used In Reproduction
Among Women In Developing Countries ..................................... 177
7.7 Developing Countries Embracing The Use of Herbs
In Reproduction ........................................................................... 180
7.8 Women’s Knowledge on Herbs Used In Reproduction
In The Developed Countires ......................................................... 182
7.9 Women’s Knoweldege on Herbs Used In Reproduction
In The Current Day ....................................................................... 185
170 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Ever since time immemorial, the term reproductive health has been given
major importance. This is attributed to the reproductive diseases that have
been present. In the past, our ancestors made use of certain herbs that were
readily available in the surrounding. Till to date, there are some herbs that
are still currently being used among women more so in the native areas.
This is because these herbs are relatively cheaper and highly effective when
used. The herbs were used in the various areas of reproductive health. There
are herbs to be utilized by women for infertility treatment, the herbs were
used to cleanse the womb. The herbs were probably utilized after the woman
gave birth.
When we talk about reproductive health we also talk about fertility.
Some of the herbs were used to increase fertility among women. There were
other herbs whose role was to cleanse the reproductive system in general.
Several medicinal herbs were recommended since ages for pregnant women
and further to aid in health of mother and baby both after the delivery. Theses
herbs were used by local communities and their method of use varies among
the communities. Local communities use these herbs as per their custom and
belief. Currently, the traders make huge money through selling the medinal
plant based herbal formulations (Rai, Acharya, & Rios, 2011).
A great emphasis is being given on improving maternal health and
reproductive health. This is because of an increase in potentially life
threatening diseases that threatenwomen’s lives. The challenge has been
the fact that with maternal and reproductive health, there has been a lot of
stigma related to these topics. Therefore, if women have more knowledge
on the health benefits of herbs in improving their reproductive health, they
would be in a better place. Societalchallenges likepoverty push for the need
for women to be knowledgeable about the natural remedies for women
health problems, which are more affordable than conventional medicine.
The herbs reported to have role in improving reproductive health includes
shatavari, chaste tree, red clover, ashwagandha, female ginseng, common
nettle, Maidenhair tree, wild yam, common evening promise, common
motherwort, Feverfew, blue skullcap, common sage, guilder rose and yarrow
among others.
These herbs vary in their use. For instance, there are herbs used to
heal the ovaries. Thereare a number of complications that can affect the
ovaries such as ovarian cysts, acne and irregular periods among others.
Natural herbs have proven to be useful in controlling these problems. They
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 171

include cinnamon, evening promise, turmeric and berberine among others.

Theseherbs are also used for birth control. They work in a manner that they
are able to manipulate the female hormones, minimizing the chances of
womengetting pregnant. The plants used fortreating reproductive diseases
are known as ethnomedicinal plants.
For herbal medicines, there are different parts that are used fortreatment.
Among them are roots which is the most common part of the plant used for
medicine. Usually it is the woody or fleshy roots that are used for making
herbalmedicines. Other parts include rhizomes orunderground stems,bulbs
such as garlic, and plant barks. These are obtained from the outer layer of
the plant. There are also tubers which arecommonly used fortreating certain
cancers. In some cases, plant seeds and fruits are also used for medicine(Rai,
Acharya, & Rios, 2011).
There are a number of methods used in the preparation of medicinal
plants. The method of preparation may vary from one community to another.
There are also various ways in which plant parts are utilized. It can be utilized
when dry or when fresh depending on the method of preparation. The level
of toxicity will also vary whether it is fresh or dry.. There is also the adding
of honey which may be used as a preservative for medicinal concoctions.
Other methods of preparing herbal medicines may include crushing the
plant parts to obtain a juice from it, or theboiling of plant parts such as
potash which aids in the extraction of the medicinal substance. Potash is also
a useful resource in the preservation of herbal medicine, apart from helping
in the prevention of high blood pressure.
When examining knowledge of women of herbs used in reproductive
health, thereare case studies that have beenconducted on different areas.
For traditional communities, it is more likely that they are knowledgeable
on herbs that can be used in maintaining good reproductive health. When
conducting case studies to gain information, there a number of methods that
are used to do the research. For instance there is need to get data from the
women so that on the basis of the data obtained, an analysis can beconducted
and the outcome shows the knowledge that women have on these herbs.
There are a number of factors that come into play todetermine the level in
which women will utilize information aboutherbal medicines (Rai, Acharya,
& Rios, 2011).
172 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

7.2 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WOMENS

KNOWLEDGE ON HERBS ON REPRODUCTION
The use of medicinal herbs in curing and managing the reproductive health
of women is recommended since ages and pass on from generation to
generation through informal education system. In the traditional setting, the
elder women would pass the knowledge to the younger girls. In today’s
age several challenges are being faced while passing on the information to
the younger generation. This is attributed to the lack of conservation of the
environment making some of the herbs to be extinct.
Nowadays the use of herb for treatment and revitalizing reproductive
health is reduced and the younger generation is using more allopathy
medicines This could be due to the fact that most of the herbal medicines
are not even tested and conformed with experimentation. The side effects of
using herbal medicine has also not been established and known, which leads
to low usage of medicinal herb in treating the reproductive diseases.
The other factor that may hinders the use of herbs in treating reproductive
diseases could be the lack of conservation of the ethnobotanical knowledge
about the plants. There have not been many records on the use of herbs being
used in maintaining reproductive health. The other challenge is the over-
dependence of most of the world’s populations on processed medicines.
Most of them make use of manufactured medicines to greater extents in
that most of them prefer processed medicines compared to natural remedies.
These are among some of the factors that may hinder the use of herbs among
women.

7.3 WOMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF HERBS USED IN

REPRODUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
In most of the developing countries, in as much as the countries are trying to
pick up the use of technology in maternal treatment, reproduction included,
there is much of knowledge concerning herbs used in reproduction. For
most of these countries, there has been a general dependence on traditional
medicines in curing most of the diseases. In most of these countries, the
women are more knowledgeable of the herbs that are used in treating and
maintaining of good reproductive health. This is because most of them have
acquired the knowledge from their ancestors who once utilized these herbs
(Berry Ph.D., & Alford, 2012).
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 173

In the traditional setting, our ancestors did not have access to processed
medicines as there were no industries nor hospitals then. For instance, in
the case of childbirth, there were mid wives who had knowledge in child
delivery. The mid wives have much knowledge on reproductive health in
that they knew the herbs that were to be given to the women whose wombs
were weak to strengthen them. They also knew herbs that women could take
so that their wombs may be cured after pregnancy. In developing countries,
there are communities that still uphold these traditions. Most of these
communities are located in developing countries.
For these communities, they make use of herbs when dealing with
reproductive diseases. The advantage for these communities in as much as
there may be poverty looming around, most of these herbs are present in the
surrounding thereby they can quickly access the herbs free of charge. For
most of these communities, they do not fear the possibilities of there being
a side effect as a result of using these herbs. This is because the same herbs
have been used by their ancestors and it has been proven to work. For the
developing countries, the factors allow for the use of the herbs in treating
most of the reproductive health (Berry Ph.D., & Alford, 2012).
Most of the communities emphasizes on the use of these herbs because it
is the tradition of their community and they are tasked with the responsibility
of upholding it. In most of communities, there is a major emphasis on
childbirth and fertility. Therefore, most of the herbs that are utilized are
those that deal with the cleansing of the womb and also improving women
fertility. There are a variety of uses of the herbs utilized in reproduction. As
mentioned earlier, the uses may vary from community to community.

7.4 TRADITIONAL USES OF HERBS IN

REPRODUCTION
In the case where the woman was able to make use of these herbs to control
their pregnancy. Some of the herbs they ingested allowed them to tamper
with their hormones in they were able to plan pregnancy. In this case, they
made use of bush trees. The same herbs were used if the woman was not
sure whether she was pregnant. In the case where the woman felt that she
was not ready to take care of her child, some of them made use of some plant
species that were strong enough to cause abortions. This is limited to some
of the communities. Some of the plant species commonly used for abortion
were the Chenopodium ambrosoides, rue plant and the Artemesia. These
174 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

plant species are known to be strong and are not regarded for use to every
individual. They are limited to some communities (Okonofua, 2014).
In case of fertility issues, there are several medicinal herbs that are
known to improve fertility such as neem, castor oil, damiana, liquorice, red
clover and garlic . Most of these plants are known to cleanse the womb.
In the case where the ovaries had a problem, red cloverherbs are utilized
so that the ovaries would be able to produce eggs and ensure good health
of the ovaries. The herbs would also cleanse the ovaries. Garliccould also
cure ovarian diseases like cysts. There are herbs that could regulate the
menses and in some instances affecting the hormones so that it leads to the
simulation of the production of ova.
In the case of pregnant women, red raspberry leaf tea can be given to
women to strengthen the womb so that they can be able to carry the child.
There are also herbs that are given to women to help them maintain their
progesterone throughout the pregnancy period. After childbirth, there
are herbs given to the women to help them recover from the pregnancy,
there are others that heals the womb and herbs that help them regain their
strength. Marigoldherbs also cleanse the womb giving room for women to
get pregnant again.
There is significant evidence that for most of these communities, the
women in the developing countries have knowledge on herbs used in
reproduction, they can be clearly demonstrated from a number of case
studies that have been conducted in these countries. A good example is the
case study that was conducted in Ghana specifically the southern sides (Rai,
Acharya, & Rios, 2011).

7.5 CASE STUDY: KNOWLEDGE OF HERBS USED IN

REPRODUCTION BY WOMEN IN GHANA
This case study was conducted in Ghana to look into the rate at which women
have knowledge on the herbs used in reproduction. It is also important to
note that the case study was done to also investigate the high rate of child
mortality. The study was conducted on the reproductive problems faced by
the resident women. The questionnaires was prepared and assessed based on
the filledin information by the respondent women. The questions aimed at
looking into the knowledge of the women on the types of plants that could
be used to cater to women’s reproductive health (Okonofua, 2014).
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 175

Interviews of women have also been undertaken to assess the reproductive

health. Most of the respondents for this study were preganant women; those
who had already given birth, those who had not and the midwives.
The results from the study indicated that there is significant use of herbal
medicines in treating the reproductive ailments. The women were given
the herbal suppliments and medicines to cure the ailments. For instance,
menstruation issue, the plant species commonly used was the Ageratum
conyzoides, while, for pregnancy and delivery related issues, the same plant
species was also given along with some other medicinal herbs For sexually
transmitted diseases, the most commonly used plant species was the
Monodora myristica. In the case of infertility, the Ricinodendron heudelotii
was commonly used. The study also showed that there are plant species that
are used for other reproductive problems including contraception, vaginal
cleansing, and abortion among others.
The study reported the medicinal plant species that are commonly used
for delaing the reproductive issues. Some of the plant species included the
Strophantus pp, Sida acuta, Monodora myristica, Alchornea cordifolia and
Ageratum conyzoides among others. The knowledge concerning the use
of the herbal medicines for reproduction was indicated when the women
the variety of methods that are utilized in applying the medication. The
different plants have a different method of preparation. Some of the methods
of ingesting the medication included oral methods that includes drinking
the medication, there are those taken through herbal baths, there is use of
enema and finally, there is the option of placing the medicine in the vagina.
The study indicated that most of the medication is usually taken orally
(Okonofua, 2014).
Some of the other methods that medication was ingested involved the
medicines being added to certain foods. There are number of medicinal
recipes that are used the most common being recipes for medicines ingested
orally followed by the use of enema. The study showed that use of enema
method of medicine ingestion is commonly used among communities in
Africa. It involves the medicine being administered through the colon or
rectum. The medicine administered through this method is usually in liquid
form. This method is commonly utilized due to several reasons, one being
the fact that most of the herbal medicines are usually bitter. The other reasons
include the fact that some of the herbs are poisonous to be ingested, some
use this method as it is their tradition and in some cases the method is used
by pregnant women the case where the fetus is still.
176 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The study shows the significant use of herbs in reproduction. Going into
detail we can clearly elaborate this. For instance, in the case of pregnancy
and delivery. The results of the studies show that women highly rely on the
use of herbs. The study indicates that most of the women give birth in their
homes. This implies that the midwives play a crucial role in childbirth and
there is a large utilization of herbs in the delivery process. The research
indicates that a number of herbs are utilized during the pregnancy and after
the birthing process. Some of the reasons given for the use of herbs among
women is that they are known to make the delivery process to be much
easier. Others gave the reason that the herbs help both the mother and the
child to be stronger while some of them make use of these herbs to reduce
the instances of vomiting during the pregnancy period. Some of them make
use of herbs during the delivery process because the herbs are known to
clean the womb, some of the herbs are said to stop severe bleeding and in
some women, they use it to allow for the proper removal of the placenta and
also induce the production of breastmilk (Okonofua, 2014).
In the issue dealing with menstruation, the results from the survey
also indicated heavy use of the medicinal plants in the regulation of the
menstrual cycles. Some of the herbs are used to induce the menses among
the women. There are herbs that are used among women who tend to have
painful menses where the herbs work like a painkiller relieving the pain.
There areseveral recipes being utilized when dealing with menses some of
them to control the menses, inducing the menses or regulating the pain.
There is a high indication of herb use among community members which
is indicated by the use of herbal plants to improve the fertility of women. In
most of the African countries the matters fertility are given much emphasis
among the communities. This is because children are given much emphasis.
There are some well-known recipes known to solve the issue of infertility.
They make use of different plants to solve the problem while some of the
plant parts utilized includes the barks and the roots. These parts are boiled
and ingested orally. There is also an indication of the use of herbs through
the utilization of herbs in the treating of STD. the presence of STD’s has
been said to really damage women’s reproductive health to a great extent in
that is has been linked to causing infertility. Most of the plants have been
utilized by the women to treat these diseases mostly syphilis and gonorrhea.
It was established that there were about 13 herbs used in treating gonorrhea
while there was one that is used in treating syphilis (Okonofua, 2014).
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 177

There also well-known herbs that are used in family planning. These
herbs affect the hormones of the woman allowing her to get pregnant when
she wanted. There are also herbs that are used in inducing abortions though
they are not commonly used as it is illegal.
From the study, there is a clear indication of the knowledge of herbs
among the women. This implies that the knowledge is being passed on from
one generation to another. There are researches that have been conducted
in other developing countries that prove the same case. There is clear
demonstration of the knowledge of use of medicinal herbs in treating
reproductive diseases. For instance, in countries like Jamaica, it has been
noted that most women tend to consume bush tree. In some other countries,
there is the use of herbal medicines to control the pain of menstruation
(Okonofua, 2014).

7.6 REDUCED KNOWLEDGE ON HERBS USED IN RE-

PRODUCTION AMONG WOMEN IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
In as much as there is knowledge among individuals concerning herbs
used in reproduction, it has been noted that there is reduced knowledge of
these herbs. Even from the study that was conducted in Ghana, there is an
indication that there is a reduction in knowledge among the women. In some
of the developing counties such as Kenya, if a survey would be conducted
then the results would indicate that there is a reduced knowledge on herbs
used in reproduction amongst women. This may be demonstrated by the
increasing cases of reproductive diseases amongst women. However, even
though for these countries there is the richness of culture, there is the decline
of knowledge amongst the people implying that knowledge that is amongst
the elder is not being shared to the younger generation (Berry Ph.D., &
Alford, 2012).
There areseveral reasons that have contributed to the reduction of
knowledge amongst women. One of the reasons includes the developments
that are ongoing in the countries. There is a western culture that has been
adopted by these countries in that there is reduced interaction between the
older and the younger generation. Usually, for the information to be passed
from one generation to another, there needs to be interaction between them
so that they can bond. The challenge is that the older generation is left in the
178 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

rural areas while the younger generation is left in the cities as they work.
With the separation there will be no sharing of the information.
In some of the countries, the older generation are taken to retirement
homes. It would have been more beneficial if the younger generation were
to spend time with older generation. The older generation are also said
to be the best group of people to offer sex education to children. For the
young girls, as they are taught about this, their grandmothers can also shed
light on reproductive health and on the herbs that were used with regards to
reproductive health. This way they will learn more on the herbs that they
can use in light of any reproductive situation (Berry Ph.D., & Alford, 2012).
There is a reduction of knowledge due to urbanization. This has involved
individuals picking up modern trends and lifestyles. This includes the
movement form the rural areas to come to the urban areas. This has greatly
affected in that most of the youngsters are moving to cities so that they can
acquire an education and a better future. With this move, most of them tend
to abandon their traditional roots and adopt the modern ones. In most of the
urban areas, there are reduced natural vegetation. In these urban areas, there
are reduced number of the elder generation in the urban settings.
There has been reduced use of the herbal medicine in the developing
countries which have been greatly attributed to the colonialism that occurred
in most of these countries. Initially, in most of the developing countries they
had their own systems and traditions which were disrupted by the coming
of the colonizers. For instance, with regards to the medicine, there were
medicine men who were the ones who administered the medicines and they
made use of plants that were available in the environment (Berry Ph.D., &
Alford, 2012).
The use of the herbal medicines was viewed to be much inferior
compared to the medicines that were utilized by the colonizers. The same
perception is still present after the colonization in that even today, most
of the women have more a preference of using the western medication
compared to the medication offered traditionally. Most of these medications
have been taken to be making use of magical power or witchcraft as there
is no much information concerning these medicines. The fact that it had not
been tested brought about suspicion among most of the users making most
of them opt not to use it.
Most of the knowledge was passed down from the ancestors to the
younger generation. With the increase in urbanization, there has been a
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 179

reduction of interest in the use of this type of medicines amongst women.

There has been a decrease in the number of traditionalist in this countries
and a reduced number of individuals who are interested in carrying out these
practices. There has been a reduction in the use of this kind of herbs because
of the dangers that are associated with this drugs. For some of them they
are skeptical conserving the lack of knowledge on these herbs. There is the
possibility of these herbs having side effects on the body (Berry Ph.D., &
Alford, 2012).
There is also the issue of these herbs being toxic to some extent. In
the case study that was conducted in Ghana, the women said that there
some herbs that are not ingested orally because they are regarded to be
toxic therefore other means of use are incorporated. The knowledge of
these herbs has reduced significantly due to the minimized conservation
of this knowledge. There is little documentation of the herbs. In each
community, there are different recipes for how these herbs are used. With
this vast knowledge preservation in the mind may not be effective that is
why conservation through the use of documentation will be important. It
may involve researchers going to the field and gathering information from
the traditionalists and the local community members. After the collection of
the information and document it. This way allowing the information to be
preserved for the future generation (Rai, Acharya, & Rios, 2011).
The other major reason contributing to the reduction in knowledge
or the reduced knowledge is the stigma that has been related to the use
of herbal medicine. In most of the developing countries there is a stigma
that has been associated with the use of herbal medicine. This is in line
with the discrimination that has been present against individuals who are
making use of the herbal medicine more so during the pregnancy. Most of
the people view it to be irresponsible as there is the presence of technology
and processed medicines that can be used by the women to ease the birthing
process.
There is also the challenge that most of the herbalists are usually
reluctant to share the information conserving the preparation of the medicinal
substances. And there is some ignorance that has been present among the
people contributing to the reluctance of the herbalists. However, with these
challenges, it has been recorded in countries in Africa that there is still a
significant knowledge and use of herbs in reproduction.
180 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

7.7 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES EMBRACING THE

USE OF HERBS IN REPRODUCTION
In most of the developing countries, there has been a sparking with the use
of herbs with regards to reproductive health. Over the years there has been
an increase in the number of reproductive diseases endometriosis being the
recent one. There has been an incline to embrace the use of herbs as they are
more natural and have less of a chance of causing any possible side effects.
With the use of the manufactured medicines, there has been an increased
resistance by the body to some of these drugs. Some of these drugs have not
been effective in treating most of the reproductive diseases. There has also
been an increase in the concern of what chemicals are used in the making
of these medicines and most of the world is starting to embrace the use of
herbal medicines (Odugbemi, 2008).
Most of the world organizations are opting to look for more natural
resources in the treating of the diseases as they are more readily available.
Governments have put aside money to be utilized in research on herbs more
so on reproduction because of the increase in the rate of child mortality.
Women are opting to look for more natural ways to help them in contraception.
There has been an increasing need for reproductive security to ensure the
proper health of the countries. This has led to most of the herbal medicines
being placed under investigation so that they can identify any possible side
effect of using these type of medication.
This has involved researchers going to the traditionalists and obtaining
knowledge from them. There have also been talks to encourage the women
to get more knowledge on reproductive health from the elder generation.
Previously, talks on matters reproduction are usually sensitive as in most
of these countries matters reproduction are not talked about in the open.
With regards to medication and treating reproductive medication, this talks
have not been held. With the light being shed on reproductive health there
has been talk to improve the reproductive health and among them being the
use of herbs in treating most of the productive diseases. Women have also
gotten to know more on the use of natural remedies in maintaining good
reproductive health (Odugbemi, 2008).
There has been a seminar that have been conducting that emphasizes the
use of herbs in maintaining good reproductive health. This has encouraged
the spread of this information to most women. The other factor facilitating
the knowledge and use of herbs among women is the fact that this mode of
treatment is much cheaper compared to the processed treatments. This form
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 181

of medication is also readily available for the women and the method of
preparation is much easier. With the documentation of the use of these herbs
available on the internet, there is a high likely hood of the women having
knowledge on herbs used in reproduction.
There has also been talks to conserve the environment. Most of the herbs
used in treating these herbs are naturally located in the environment. There
has been a great call to the environment to conserve the natural vegetation.
There has been a general reduction of the natural environments on the face
of the planet. With regards to the conservation of plant biodiversity, it is an
important for the plants to be conserved to allow for research.
There has been advancement that has been made for the women to be able
to gain more knowledge concerning the use of herbs. Some of them being
the study of plant species in entomology in the institutions of higher learning
is a good avenue for the women in that field to learn more information on
this herbs. The advantage is that they can obtain the knowledge of the herbs
used in many communities. They can also obtain the information form many
communities. They get to research more about the herbs so that they can get
to known the advantages of utilizing this type of medication. They also get
the most appropriate amount of the medication that can be utilized. They get
to know of the health benefit with regards to reproduction. This will enable
them to share knowledge amongst other women who then share with other
women. By so doing the knowledge of this herbs is spread amongst other
women (Odugbemi, 2008).
There has also been an awareness that has been created on the knowledge
of the herbs. On social media platforms there a number of groups that have
been generated where women get to shed light of the variety of herbs that
are present for the women. It allows women to gain more information
concerning the herbs. There they get to shed information concerning the
various symptoms if reproductive diseases. They give information on the
recipes that they could use at home to control the reproductive diseases.
It is therefore correct to say that in the developing countries, there is
significant knowledge of herbs used in reproduction. This is indicated by
the use of herbs among the various communities. There is also the indication
demonstrated by the dependence of these countries on herbal medicine. The
factors and social-economical state of the country that make the women
in these countries to make use of the herbal medicines. This includes the
fact that they are cheaply available and they can prepare the medicines in
182 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

the comfort of their homes. The presence of midwives and traditionalists in

these communities indicates that the women as well as the communities do
indeed make use of the herbal medicines (Odugbemi, 2008).

7.8 WOMEN’S KNOWLEDGE ON HERBS USED IN

REPRODUCTION IN THE DEVELOPED COUNTIRES
In developed countries, there is a small number of women who may know
about herbs that are used in reproductive diseases. In developed countries
there is more dependence of the manufactured medicines when dealing with
reproduction among other methods. The groups of women that may have
knowledge on the herbs are those that have moved from the developing
countries to the developed countries. They may have had interaction with
these herbs and may have had knowledge on how the herbs are utilized and
the method of preparation (Panda, 2004).
Most of the women in the developed countries do not have knowledge
on the herbs that are used in reproduction. In most of this countries, the
health care systems are more advanced and there are minimal numbers
of women suffering from reproductive diseases. In these countries, the
health care is easily accessible to most of the women and they are more
knowledgeable on what to do to maintain good reproductive health. There
is a lot of technology that is being used in the health care system to allow
for the proper reproductive or general health sector. For these women, there
is little chances of them knowing the presence of herbal medicines and how
they can be utilized.
In most of these countries there areseveral drugs being used in the
treating of most of the reproductive health. In the treating of STD and also
during pregnancies, some medicines are given to women to help them to
deal with the problems. There is also the use of the technology available for
women where the women can utilize them. For instance, with issues related
to infertility, there is the option of these women to have fertilized eggs
to be planted in their uterus allowing them to carry children. There other
technological methods that are used to improve the fertility of the women.
In child birth, there are more modernized methods that are utilized there
being the option of caesarian for women who have complications in the birth
process. Most of the women in these countries may not have knowledge on
herbs that can be used from reproductive diseases (Panda, 2004).
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 183

Though this is so, there are developed countries like China who make
use of herbal forms of medication. The herbal medication is known to help
with issues of infertility amongst women. Even though there is advanced
technology. Most of the women in China have a knowledge on the herbs
used in reproduction as China is well known to use herbal medicine in
treating a variety of the diseases. The Chinese culture is known to make use
of herbs. Their ancestors made use of a variety of herbs in their time to cure
many diseases. Even with the growth in development in the country, there is
still an indication that herbal medicine is being utilized amongst women in
solving problems with reproduction. This indicates that there is knowledge
of the herbs used in reproduction.
There is evidence of the knowledge of herbal medicine form
reproduction in China as there is significant utilization of herbs. There
are well known treatments that are used in treating issues dealing with
infertility and pregnancy. There are also herbal therapies well utilized in
China amongst women to help with the menstrual cycles and maintaining
a hormonal balance that have been useful when dealing with the family
planning and contraception methods. The herbal medicine has been said to
be more efficient in use compared to the other present medication used in
reproduction.
Among other developed countries there aremany women who know the
herbs used in reproduction. Some of the women in this category are those that
have had contact with these herbs. In most of the developing countries, they
are made up of citizens who are natives of other communities. Before they
moved to the developed countries, they may have acquired the knowledge
of these herbs from their ancestors who had passed on information to their
mothers. They may have then shared this information with other women.
Also in some of the developed countries, there are remote location where
certain groups of people live there. There are people who choose to live
away from civilization. Therefore they make use of the readily available
resources which includes the utilization of plants for medication among
other uses (Panda, 2004).
There are still some native tribes’ in existence in these developed
countries. Take the red Indians for example, there are still groups of
individuals who still live in the forests and have raised their generation
away from civilization. For these groups of people, it will be definite that
the women will have knowledge on herbs used for reproduction as they
do not make use of medical services. Nature is a great resource in treating
184 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

any complication that may arise pertaining reproduction. They also make
use of the herbal plant in things such as cleansing of the reproductive and
maintenance and delivering of children. Their methods of preparation may
be dependent on the beliefs of the group of people.
Generally, in most of the developed countries, there is little knowledge
on the herbs used in reproduction. A large number of women are not
knowledgeable of this method of treatment. There aremany factors that
contribute to the minimal number of women having this knowledge. Some of
the factors being the fact that use of this medication is said to be traditional.
In most of the traditional settings, the use of this method is accompanied by
the conducting of rituals in the case where an herbalist is involved. This has
led to people associating the use of herbal medicine as the use of magic in
curing of the problem and cleansing of reproductive organs. This has led to
many women being skeptical about the use of this kind of medicine (Daniel,
2006).
There is also the fact that there is a stereotype that the use of herbal
medicine is not efficient and is the major contributor to the increased rates
of child mortality in developing countries. Even though there is the presence
of the herbs that is utilized in the developing countries, there is still record of
high rates of child immortality that is recorded amongst them. Some of them
attribute it to the use of herbal medicine in handling reproductive issues
rather than the use of modern medication or health care services. This is
may not be true. The other factor contributing to the lack of knowledge
of these herbs amongst the women may be due to the presence of good
medical services. For most of the women in the developed countries, they
have adopted the culture of the urban world in that when there are issues
regarding reproduction, they make use of modern techniques to solve the
problems.
For instance, if the woman is infertile, they are given drugs to improve
the fertility. There is also the option of implanting a fertilized ovum to the
womb of the woman allowing her to bear children. There are technologies
already in place to help women concerning reproductive issues. The
urbanization has also caused the loss of knowledge of information amongst
the women in that as they adopt the modern culture, they tend to forget
their roots making most of the also forget these natural means of ensuring
high level of reproductive health. Though there may be knowledge of these
herbs, there has been the problem of uncertainty with regards to the use of
these herbs. Most of these herbs have not undergone scientific investigation
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 185

to ascertain whether they are fit for human consumption or not.

There is also the fear of possible side effects with regards to the use of
these herbs. There has also been reduced sharing of the information of the
information of these herbs because most of the younger generation tend to
lean towards modern methods of treatment compared to traditional. Very
few numbers of individuals want to be in touch with their cultures and want
to learn more of the variety of herbs that can be utilized in reproduction.
The damaging of most of the natural forests has also reduced the number
of the plants making some of them head for extinction meaning that the
women may not have had a chance to learn or make use of these herbs.
In the developed countries, it may be correct to say that there is minimum
knowledge of the herbs used in reproduction by women which is clearly
demonstrated by the use and dependence of manufactured medicines in
curing most of the diseases with regards to reproduction. It may also be
indicated by women taking supplements to help them gain strength through
the pregnancy and also the use of more modern means to deliver babies such
as the use of cesarean. There is also the use of processed medication to help
ease the deliver rather than the use of herbal medicine (Daniel, 2006).

7.9 WOMEN’S KNOWELDEGE ON HERBS USED IN

REPRODUCTION IN THE CURRENT DAY
This part looks at the level of knowledge on the herbs amongst women in
both developing and developed countries. The advancement in technology
and development has affected the knowledge of herbs amongst women.
However, it is important to note that there is a significant number of
women who know the herbs that can be used in solving issues pertaining
to reproduction. There is also the growing knowledge of these herbs. For
instance, in the developing countries, even though it was noted that before
there was present knowledge of these herbs amongst the women, there were
factors such as urbanization and development in the countries with regards
to medicine and technology which have led to the decline in the knowledge
of these herbs amongst women (Okonofua, 2014).
Even though this is so, in the current day and age, it has been noted that
there is significant knowledge of these herbs that is still present and is still
growing amongst the women. It has been noted that with the issues more
so dealing with uterus issues, most of the women are embracing the issues
of herbs. In the urban areas, it has been noted that there is growing use and
186 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

knowledge of the herbs amongst women. This is indicated by the number of

women who are making use of these products. Most of them have embraced
the use of home prepared herbal medicine considering that there is still the
stigma that is present in these countries on matters reproduction. There are
many factors that have contributed to the growth of this knowledge one being
the fact that most of the individuals in most of the developing countries live
under the poverty line.
By them making use of these readily available medicines, they can
effectively make use of the herbal medication. Most of these plants naturally
grow in the environments. The other factor is the popularity that is coming
about with the use of this kind of treatment. For so long there have been the
need of industrialist as well as medical practitioners to come up with more
natural methods of curing most of the diseases reproduction being amongst
them. There is also the positive feedback that is received from groups of
individuals who have made use of this kind of herbs. Most of them have
made reports that their reproductive health have significantly increased after
they started making use of more natural methods of treatment. Some of them
point out the fact that with regards to the use of these herbs, they act more
like detoxificant therefore is has improved their general health (Okonofua,
2014).
The knowledge of these herbs has increased todaybecause there are
reproductive technologies being tested on women that require them to make
use of these herbs. Most of these technologies are utilized on pregnant
women. There have been studies that have been conducted with results
indicating that the use of these herbs has been helpful for the process. There
are a number of plants that could be used to improve reproductive health.
Once discovered this information is given to the general public and the
women get to acquire the knowledge of the herbs.
In the current day and age, most of these herbal medication is being
packaged and sold in supermarkets and stalls. There are companies that are
well known to deal with herbal medicines. For instance, in Kenya, there is the
Neema among other companies with herbal medicines. For this companies,
they need to get permission from certain bodies dealing with the safety of
medication before they sell their products. Most of these companies are
made up of a group of researchers who may study the different plant species,
test the product before they sell their products. They advertise their products
on television and social media amongst other plat forms. This has been a
major avenue for women to get knowledge (Odugbemi, 2008).
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 187

In most of the developing countries there has been an increase in the

number of herbal clinics. These are clinics that make use of natural remedies
in treating most of the diseases currently know. For these clinics, they make
use of documented knowledge of these herbs. In most cases, they have to
conduct the research on their own and then manufacture the herbal products.
They prepare the recipes that should be followed when certain herbs are
utilized. Women have gained knowledge of herbs from these herbal clinics.
The other way that has led to the increased knowledge of women on
the herbs used in reproduction is through blog. In the current generation,
the internet has been a key resource in helping individuals gain information
on a variety of things reproduction included. There are women who were
privileged to get the knowledge of these herbs directly from their ancestors.
They therefore know the recipes properly and they know the correct dosage
of the herbs. They have been able to share the information that they have
through the blogs. There are a number of blogs that purely speak on herbs.
There are also those that talk on reproductive health. They also share
information on homemade remedies that can be utilized in improving
reproductive health. This way they can gain knowledge on herbs and the
procedure that is followed while making use of the herbs. Most of the blogs
indicate success stories of women who have made use of these herbs and
how effective they are (Odugbemi, 2008).
The biggest challenge in the developing countries with regards to the
knowledge of these herbs is the fact that most of the knowledge has not been
documented. If the information was documented, it would have played a
significant part in the research currently being conducted on herbal medicine.
In the developed countries in the current day there is an increase of the
knowledge of these herbs amongst these women. The knowledge may be
put at the fore front because the use of herbal medicine is being legalized
in these countries in that there are regulations that have been laid out by the
WHO. The regulations have been laid out to ensure that the quality of the
herb being used is okay and there is a quality assurance that should be met
when making herbal medicine. In some of the developed countries the use of
herbal medicine is regulated by the FDA. This has allowed women to make
use of herbs.
Over the recent years, people are getting concerns over the types
of chemicals that are used in the making of the medicines that are used
for reproduction. Some of them are said to cause side effects which is a
major concern amongst most women as they would not want to suffer
188 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

from bareness. They therefore look into other forms of treatment that they
can use and herbal medicines has been amongst them. This has created a
drive in most women to learn more of the natural remedies that they can
use to help them. This has facilitated the increase in knowledge of herbs
amongst most of the women. In most of these countries, when they look
for herbal modes of treatment, most of them seek information. The most
common herbal medications are mostly from China who for long periods of
time have been known to make use of herbal forms of medication to cure
a number of diseases. Also the knowledge on these herbs amongst women
has increased women due to the formalization of the training with regards to
making use of herbal treatments. Women have shown interest learning more
about the natural remedies they can use to improve their reproductive health.
To facilitate this, most of the governments have formalized the education
of herbalists though most of these skills are learnt through apprenticeship
(Odugbemi, 2008).
In some of the developed countries they have set regulations that allows
the use of herbal medicines. A good example is Australia where their people
have been allowed to set up herbal clinics. In some other countries the use of
herbal medicines is taught in institutions of higher learning. Here they train
herbalists. The training is mostly offered with regards to herbal medicines
that need extensive preparation in the area dealing with pharmacy. By so
doing they ensure the safety of these medicines when offered to women.
Most women in the developed countries have basic knowledge of the herbs
that they can prepare at home. For instance, ginger has been said to be a
great detoxificant. There is a simple way which may include boiling the
ginger and ingesting. This is one of the ways in which they can cleanse the
reproductive system.
Currently, there is significant knowledge of herbs amongst most women.
There is an indication of the use of herbal remedies amongst young women.
This has been seen in countries such as China. In these region, the women
there make use of the herbal remedies for a number of things. They are
known to make use of these herb during the pregnancy period as well as
postpartum. There has been an acknowledgment of the fact that most of
the women are seeking information concerning this. The other factor
contributing to the increase in knowledge of herb for reproduction is the
fact that most of the health care services are said to be expensive. As use
of herbs is currently being championed for, it is a much cheaper method of
treatment or use to allow for good reproductive health. The advantage being
the fact that it is readily available for most of the women and the methods of
 Women’s Knowledge of Herbs Used in Reproduction 189

preparation is usually easy as they can prepare most of the remedies at the
comfort of their homes.
The internet has been a useful resource that has enable most of the women
to gain more knowledge on herbs. There are various outlets that have most
of the information. There are journals that are written by ethnobotanists that
show a number of recipes guiding the women to make use of these option.
There are is also the presence of blogs that speak more on herbal medicines.
These blogs discuss on the variety of herbs that are available and their uses.
They may give a description of the symptom of the reproductive problem
and the most suitable herb that should be utilized. Most of these blogs also
equip women with the recipes that should be followed when these herbs are
used (Odugbemi, 2008).
The knowledge of herbs amongst women in developed countries has
increase with the fact that most of the reproductive technologies make use of
the herbal medicines. This will require the women to have knowledge of the
herbs that they can utilize. A case study was conducted for women who were
undergoing assisted reproductive technologies. The study aimed at looking
at the outcomes of the birth after the women made use of herbal remedies.
The study indicated the need of both men and female physicians on knowing
herbal medicines so that they can properly guide the pregnant women. This
tactic was taken up to reduce the declining rate of fertility amongst a number
of women. The study has indicated the growing knowledge of herbal
remedies amongst most of the pregnant women with the fact that most of
these remedies can be availed at the comfort of their homes. It is important
to note that there is a number of women who prefer the use of supplements
compared to the herbal remedies during the pregnancies due to the safety
issues that are related to herbal medication.
The growing presence of herbal clinics in the developed countries has
also been a major contributor to women having knowledge of herbs. It is
therefore correct to say that there is a significant number of women who
have knowledge on herbs that can be used for issues related to reproduction.
A large number of them are found in the developing countries. This is
because most of the developing countries do not have well developed
health care systems which is demonstrated by the high mortality rate as
well as the minimal use of technology in the medical sector. Though there
is increasing awareness amongst women on issues related to reproduction,
most of these problems are solved through the use of herbs. Also in most of
the developing countries, most of the women have the knowledge of these
190 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

herbs as their ancestors have made use of these herbs and they are known to
pass the information to their children through a number of ways known as
apprenticeship.
There is knowledge of these herbs as a significant number of women
make use of these herbs in one way or another. There is clear demonstration
more so in the developing countries through the presence of herbalists who
make concoctions through herbs that are being given to women. There is also
the presence of mid wives in the developing countries. This can be proved by
statistics that was done in most of these countries a good illustration being
Ghana where there was a significant number of women whose babies were
delivered by mid wives. The mid wives make use of certain herbs to help in
the delivery process. There is also the demonstration of the knowledge of
these herbs by women who consume some of these herbs to help ease the
delivery process. A significant number of women more so in the developing
countries are knowledgeable of recipes that have been passed down from
their ancestors to help the with matters reproduction (Odugbemi, 2008).
There are a significant number of women who make use of the herbs to
help them in family planning as per the beliefs of their community. Some of
them make use of the herbs for cleansing purposes, treating ovarian issues
and also reducing the chances of infertility amongst them. Even though there
is much knowledge of the herbs amongst women, it is important to note
that some of this knowledge has been lost. The richness of the knowledge
of herbs is not as rich as the days of our ancestors who heavily relied on
these herbs. The major factor that has contributed to this is the fact that
most of this information has not been documented. There are little records
of such kind of information. The other challenge has been the reluctance of
most herbalist in sharing this kind of information and the reduced number
of greatly knowledgeable personnel. There is a notable increase of the
knowledge of these herbs amongst women in the developed countries. In
conclusion, there is a significant number of women who have knowledge
of herbs used in reproduction and a number of herbs that are being used
(Okonofua, 2014).
8
Medicinal Plants Used by Desert
Habitants

CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 192
8.2 A Brief Recap On Medicinal Plants .................................................. 193
8.3 Medicinal Plants Used In Desert Habitats ........................................ 197
8.4 List of Medicinal Desert Plants ......................................................... 198
192 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Our environment is made up of different components. Some are referred
to as living organisms and others are referred to as non-living organisms.
The relationship between both the living and the non-living organism is
symbiotic; that is, the survival or the thriving mechanisms of either the living
organisms or the non-living organisms are co-independent. One component
cannot thrive without the other. The living organisms are further divided into
different categories. Under this new categorization, the different categories
are still co-independent on each other. For example, plants and animals
which are part of the living organisms rely on each other for their survival;
that is, plants provide animals with clean oxygen for their respiration
processes whereas animals more so the human species provide plants with
carbondi oxide a gaseous compound used by plants to manufacture food
(Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
The symbiotic relationship has been said to extend to greater lengths
over the several evolutionary ages. As of our current evolutionary age,
most of the symbiotic relationships have ended up being valueless. This
is because of the new innovations which have led to the neglect of some
of the environment components. However, not all relationships have
been forgotten, some communities have made it their responsibility to
pass information on the existence and importance of different symbiotic
relationships from generation to generation. Several ways have been used
in the passing of such information. Some of the ways include oral passing
of information, incantations, writing of scrolls by the most evolved species
among other ways.
Almost all components of the environment depend on each other for their
survival. The living organisms are known to be the most co-independent
component of the environment. Living organisms are further grouped into
different categories. However, most of the categories fall under two main
groupings, the animal group and the plant group. Animals are known to be
of different species which are distributed all over the planet. Plants also are
of different species found in all parts of the planet.
Plants and animals are known to be the species which completely depend
on each other for their survival. Symbiotic relationship in plants and animals
has gone to the extent that plants depend on each other for their survival and
animals depend on each other for their survival (Munir Ozturk & Khalid
Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 193

8.2 A BRIEF RECAP ON MEDICINAL PLANTS

As discussed earlier, plants and animals depend on each other for survival
in different ways. Animals may depend on plants for food, for shelter, for
medicine among other need. Plants may depend on animals for conservation,
protection among other needs. Additionally, plants may also depend on each
other for manure, for support among other need. The medicine need is seen
to be common in both plants and animals. However, only plants are known
to be the main suppliers of such kind of medicine.
A medicinal plant, as the name suggests is a plant whose parts; be it the
leaves, the stem, the roots, or the entire plants, have some medicinal value
to either other plants or animals. The plant parts can be manufactured into
more advanced products that still serve the medicinal purpose or used in its
original form for the same medicinal value. Medicinal plants are commonly
referred to as herbs in most societies. The word “herb”, which was originally
a Latin word referred and does still refer to basically any part of a plant
hence its use as medicine word for instead of saying a plant-leaf medicine,
or a plant-root medicine, or a stem plant medicine, we can simply use the
word herb (Munir Ozturk & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, 2018).
To most individuals, herbs are known to be only used for healing purposes.
However, medicinal plants can also be used as food to animals more so the
human species hence boosting the health of an animal in different ways for
its more of adding more disease fighting components in the body so that in
times of illnesses, the disease causing microorganism are defeated. To the
human race, some communities are known to use the medicinal plants for
spiritual activities since they are said to be closely connected to the spirit
world. Such communities believe that the spirits reside in medicinal plants
since the spirits are known to be the supernatural beings that rule the human
race. Some individuals might also use medicinal plants as flavonoids or as
perfumes to add more fragrance to their surroundings.
The use of plants for medicinal purpose is said to have been in existence
for ages. The first human race is said to have made use of plants for medicinal
purposes since by then innovations were quite limited and their existence no
technology to manufacture medicine. The main challenge back then was that
poisonous plants were sometimes used for medicinal purposes and instead
of serving the healing purposes, they ended up worsening the situation of
the victim, be it an animal or a human being. However, religion is said to
194 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

have existence even in the first evolutionary period. Stories have it that,
supernatural beings used to gift specific individuals with the gift of healing.
The healers had the capability of distinguishing between the poisonous and
the not poisonous plants and also identifying which plant species will be of
medicinal value. They also have the ability of determining which medicinal
value a certain medicinal plant could be used for. All this knowledge was
said to be hereditary and the supernatural beings were the ones responsible
for choosing which family will have such abilities (Bill Church, 2006).
The knowledge on medicinal plants is said to have been passed from
generation to generation up to our current generation. Originally, the
knowledge was passed orally and also through observation from generation
to generation. Since the human species evolved with time, there came period
when the information was recorded on manuscripts and scrolls. However,
not all individuals of the community have the ability to record information
on scrolls and scripts. Supernatural beings are still believed to be the ones
who gifted specific individuals with the ability to read and write. It was the
responsibility of the chosen ones to further educate the rest who were willing
to learn. The languages used differed from one community to another. Still,
the languages did evolve from one generation to another hence the need of
more gifted individuals who would translate the previous manuscript to their
current language (Bill Church, 2006).
With the continued advancement of life almost in each evolutionary
period, the use herbs continued to diminish. Previously, medicinal plants
would be consumed in their raw form, for example, if the leaf which had
the medicinal benefit, the victim would chew the leaf in its original form.
However, in our current evolutionary age, medicinal plants are being
manufactured into pills, liquids among other forms of medicine. The
manufacturing process introduces new components to them since they have
to be preserved for use for almost over a year. Not that they are not effective,
the added components to the original herbs do make them function a bit
differently from the original herbs.
However, the manufacture of medicine has not rendered herbs to be
completely valueless to our current generation. In fact, most individuals are
going back to the original herbs for they seem to work fast hence more
effective than the manufactured drugs. Apart from them being effective,
there are several reasons which are pushing most individuals to prefer
them to our current manufactured drugs. One of the reasons is that with the
increase in our current population, the availability of manufactured drugs is
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 195

low. Most manufactured drugs are not being distributed equally in all parts
of the globe. Due to such scarcity issues, the price of manufactured drugs is
quite high. Such a challenge leaves the less fortunate in our societies with
limited options hence they choose to go for herbs. The other reason for the
use of herbs in modern days is that most manufactured drugs are causing
side effects to patients due to the added components in them which are
known to boost the duration of use. The continued use of the same type of
manufactured drug for the treatment of a certain ailment over a prolonged
period of time does lead to the development of body resistance to that drug;
that is, instead of the drug helping in the recovery process, the body is quite
used to it and the reaction which the drug should activate remain dormant
until the patient uses a different drug (Hamilton, 2004).
Countries which have played a bigger role in the conservation of the
environment are said to be the ones benefitting the most from the use of
medicinal plants. This is because the most indigenous plants are known to
be in preserved forests. Most of the manufactured drugs from such countries
are also known to have minimal side effects for the raw materials are used
in large percentage with only low percentage of foreign components such as
preservatives being added to the drug. This has improved the health system
of such countries since the availability of drugs will be high, the cost of
manufactured drugs will be low, and the side effects from manufactured
drugs will be minimal among other advantages. Such countries will also
have improved economy for most of their authentic drugs will be exported
bringing more foreign exchange to them. Their medical facilities will have
to improve since most of their facilities will be filled with patients from
different countries whose health systems are not that trustworthy due to the
use of manufactured drugs which are of low quality.
There are millions of plant species of the planet, and according to the
World Health Organizations (WHO), thousands of such plant species are
being used as medicinal plants either in their natural form or manufactured.
Still, the WHO did release a report showing that most individuals in our
current generation, even the wealthiest individuals, are relying on medicinal
plants for most of their primary care needs for they seem to be more effective
than the manufactured drugs. The use of herbs for treatment is considered
very safe by many because of minimal side effects experienced from their
use and also the fact that herbs are considered to be completely natural hence
most individuals consider them to be safer than other drug types. Medicinal
plants, more so the ones consumed in their original form are known to be
independent of any age group or gender unlike the manufactured drugs
196 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

which are dependent on gender and age group. This fact makes herbs to
be more advantageous as compared to manufactured drug for there is no
need to search for a drug that will be effective only to a small percentage of
individuals (Hamilton, 2004).
Traditionally, most individuals believed that medicinal plants could only
cure specific ailments. The more complicate ailments were left untreated
leaving the patient to fate either to die or recover depending on the strength of
their immunity system. However, with the current discovery that medicinal
plants are more effective than manufactured drugs, thorough study has been
conducted almost on all medicinal plants so as to determine the specific
ailments they can heal. Results have shown that, in the near future, there will
be no need for the manufacture of drugs chemically, instead, medicinal plants
will only be processed for the purposes of adding preservative components
so that they can last a bit longer. This is because medicinal plants have been
discovered to heal even most of the serious ailments in the globe effectively
and at faster rates than manufactured drugs.
With the new discovery of the real value of medicinal plants, most
nations have come up with plantations. These plantations are known to
purely grow indigenous medicinal plants. The growth of medicinal plants
will boost the health system of most nations and improve the economy in
general for most labor force will be high in the country since most of the
ailments which have been known to send most people home will have found
a cure and there will be no need of sending workers home; instead, there will
exists sick leafs which will be minimal since medicinal plants cure at faster
rates (Nordenfelt, 2001).
Apart from the use of herbs for medical purposes in our current
generation, many communities are slowly going back to their old ways of
use of herbs for other purposes. Countries which have been able to hold onto
their culture for all the evolutionary period which have been experienced
in the planet, they still use herbs normally as it was used before. Kings,
in monarchial governments are making use of herbs either to decorate
their palaces or their national events. As explained earlier, herbs are said
to be in close contact with the spiritual world. Whether the governments
are Christians, Muslims, Atheists, whichever religion group the monarchial
believe in, to them, herbs are connected to their supernatural beings in one
way or the other. The decoration of events and palaces with herbs is said to
be a sign of good luck; that is, either the event will go on well, or the palace
will be forever blessed and the reign of the current ruler will be successful
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 197

since they have the presence of gods or close associates to their gods in their
midst.
The growing use of medicinal plants in the manufacture of drugs has led
to the establishment of plantations which will ensure constant supply of the
raw materials required for the manufacturing processes. With the abundance
of medicinal plants, scholars have gown an extra mile in the study of
medicinal plants so as to evaluate, in what other ways could the plants be of
great help to the society. Some researchers have been able to convince other
manufacturing industries, whose main responsibility is the manufacture of
different products other than drugs, to incorporate some medicinal plants
raw materials in the manufacture of their products. This is because most
scientists have managed to come up with the discovery that; apart from the
use of medicinal plants in the manufacture of medicines, some components
from them are quite useful in the manufacture of other products such as
natural dyes among others (Odugbemi, 2008).

8.3 MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN DESERT

HABITATS
To many individuals, deserts have no value or have limited value to them.
However, we, the human race, tend to forget that everything on this planet
does have its purpose, be it a good purpose or a bad purpose. That is why
there exist some animal species which reside in deserts; even though we
human beings despise deserts, there are some of our race who reside in
deserts and have never had the thought of moving to new locations. The
most astonishing thing about deserts is the fact that for ages, the desert soil
has been known to be a hundred percent infertile; and yet, mother nature has
proved us wrong again, for its not the first time for her to do so; and shown
has that nothing is impossible to our beautiful priceless mother nature, since
we are part of it even if we tend to neglect her most of the times (Odugbemi,
2008).
Most of the desert plants have their unique way of surviving in such
diverse conditions. Despite their amazing ability of surviving in deserts,
many scientists, more so the botanists have paid little attention to them.
However, the rapid change in our environment has pushed some scientists
to have a look at desert life and study it. Since most scientists in our current
generation, more so the botanists have made it their responsibility to study
desert plants, they have been able to venture into the study of desert plants
198 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

to understand them. Fortunately, the world is in adventure of discovering

more and more plants which could have some medicinal value; and since
the study of desert plants has been commenced in most nations who have
vast hectares of land that are deserts, the results seem to be quite interesting.
A large percentage of desert plants have been discovered to be of
medical value to society. Actually most of the desert plants which have
been discovered to fit under the category of medicinal plants are said to
be one among the medicinal plants which have quite many medical uses;
that is, they can be used to cure multiple ailments. However, the study of
medicinal plants in desert regions have enabled the scientists to discover
some quite poisonous plants which need to always be handled with caution,
and if possible, the residents of desert areas need to reside in areas whose
proximity clearly shows no close existence of such plants. It is not that such
plants are a curse to the human race, it is just that the plants have found a
way of protecting themselves from predators or any other harmful effects to
them (Singh, 2006).

8.4 LIST OF MEDICINAL DESERT PLANTS

The plants known to thrive in desert region are quite many. There numbers
keep on increasing with each passing day since scientists are still out there
in the desert trying to study more about them and the new species they keep
on coming across depending on the desert region they are in. Still the new
discoveries are because of the fact each desert, in all the different parts of
the world does have its own unique desert plant species which is different
from the other. Most people believe that all desert are the same but the new
study of desert plants has proved that, each desert, does have its own unique
characteristics which are totally different from the characteristics of the
other desert regions.
Pleurisy-root or The Butterfly Weed: The scientific name of The
Butterfly weed is the Asclepias tuberosa.
The name genus name of the butterfly weed, the Asclepias was used
for the plant as an honor or a way of remembering the Greek herbalist,
Asklepios who praised himself to the public by saying that he had the ability
of raising the dead. The stories have it that the herbalists drew the attention
of the Greek gods, more so the Hades, who was the god of the dead and had
Zeus torch the herbalist with a lightning bolt. Furthermore, the herbalist had
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 199

previously pleased the gods with his unique ability of curing some complex
ailments back then hence the stories have it that god Hades put the herbalists
in the sky at night and made him to be more of a comfort place where the
Greek people could look up to for constellation.
The Butterfly Weed plant belongs to the milkweed family, Ascplediaceae.
The roots of this plant in oases regions in the desert since they have to absorb
quite high amounts of water for the survival of the plant. All Pleurisy-root
plants are known to many people because of their beautiful orange flowers
which are very attractive even from a distance. Most desert insects are
known to spend most of their time on butterfly weed plant because the
orange flowers are quite attractive to them and they do have some sweet
nectar fluids on which the insects feed on. Butterflies are known to be the
most commonly attracted insects to the butterfly weed plant flowers hence
the name butterfly weed plant. This is because the flowers of this plant are
designed in such a way that it is quite easy for the insect plant to gain access
to the nectary location of the flower because of the unique structure of a
butterfly.
The temperatures in deserts are known to have a wide range of
temperature; that is, the nights tend to be extremely cold and the days tend
to be extremely hot. These temperature variations does expose the desert
residents to some serious ailments, more so the cold temperatures at night.
The roots of the butterfly plant are dried and added to beverages, more so
the beverages made of some indigenous components such as the likes of tea
among others. The dried roots can either be boiled during the preparation
of such beverages or they can be crashed and added to the beverages.
Butterfly weed plant roots are used in the treatment of winter illnesses; that
is, illnesses caused due to the extreme low temperatures in the morning or
the winter seasons in deserts which tend to be quite extreme. The roots can
also be helpful in the treatment of lung ailments.
Wild Licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota): The Wild Licorice, scientifically
known as the Glycyrrhiza lepidota is a desert plant of the Kingdom Plantae
family, the Leguminosae which is also known as the Fabaceae. The genus
name Glycyrrhiza is said to have been derived from a Greek word which
meant sweet roots. This is metaphorical in that the roots of the plant are the
most sought after part of the plant, for as far as we know, the roots are the
only parts of the plant known to have a specific medicinal value. The species
name Lepidota is said to have the meaning of scarce which is metaphorical
200 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

to the fact that the leaves of the plant have some unique brown spots on
them, a characteristic which is unique among all the studied desert plants.
It is commonly known to many for its unique ability to grow in quite
small groups which tend to be close to each other, forming a more like a
densely surrounding of wild licorices. The roots of this desert plant are
unique from other plant roots in that they grow up the ground offering the
plant more support upwards since most desert soils are known to be weak
and with minimal ability to support a plant firmly in the ground. This growth
mechanism of the wild licorice does not mean that there are no roots that
grow downwards. The fact is that there are but a few roots which grow
downs to at least offer some minimal support with the ground up roots
offering a large percentage of support to the plant.
The ground up roots are easily accessed which is an added advantage
in that, in times of obtaining the roots for some medicinal purposes, only
a small portion of them are obtained leaving the plant firmly standing and
thriving normally. Roots of the wild licorice plants can be added to beverages
such as the likes of tea. A main medicinal benefit has not been discovered
yet but it is known that the roots do support the immune system boosting it
to function perfectly.
Wild licorice can also be used commercially in that it can be used in the
manufacture of products such as the likes of lozenges, syrups among others
all of which are of medical values in one way or the other. Not only the roots
which are used, but also the other parts of the licorice plant are said to have
some medicinal value.
The plant is quite for its height is estimated to be approximately four feet
tall. They produce flowers which are white in color and sometimes green
in color depending on the climatic characteristic of the desert they are in.
The flowers end up producing seedpods which are covered in hooked spines
for protection of the black seeds in them from the many desert predators.
As stated earlier, almost all the parts of the plant do have some medicinal
benefit only that the specific value is yet to be determined by scientists.
Mormon Tea (Ephedra viridis): Mormon tea which is scientifically
known as the Ephedra viridis is a desert plant that got its name the Mormon
Tea from the settlers located in Morton. The settlers are said to have had
the habit of collecting different desert plant stems more so the Mormon
Tea plant stems and use them in brewing some local herbal tea which was
bitter but was loved by many because of the amazing effects it had on its
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 201

consumers. The stems were either crushed and added to the brew or boiled
as a whole or in small pieces and later added to the tea to make it bitter. The
bitterness did please some of the settlers for it was more of a way of calming
their nerves as it reminded them of the hard work they had to do in their
survival in such environments.
The brewed was known to cure urinary tract infections to both males
and females as well as cure colds and nasal congestion.
The Mormon tea plant is said to be somehow related to the Chinese
ephedra plant hence its scientific genus name the ephedra. The Chinese
ephedra plant is said to be used mostly in the extraction of ephedrine fluid
from its leaves or stems or the roots. Mormon tea plant is said to belong to
the plant class of the gymnosperm in that it is a non-flowering plant. The
plant reproduces through the production of cones. Cones of the Morton tea
plant seem to appear as normal plant flowers from a distance, however, from
close proximity they are normal cones. This change in appearance of the
cones is because of their small size. Generally, Morton tea plant is known
to have scale-like leaves which are mainly locate in regions where the short
stems of the plant join together.
Gumweed (Grindelia fastigiata): The Gumweed is a desert plant whose
scientific name is the Grindelia fastigiata. It belongs to the same family
as the sunflower plant known to grow in regions which experience a small
taste of high temperatures which are somehow close to the temperatures
experienced in the desert regions. The plant family is the Asteraceae family.

Figure 8.1: Gumweed (Grindelia fastigiata).

Source: https://www.swcoloradowildflowers.com/Yellow%20Enlarged%20
Photo%20Pages/grindelia.htm
202 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The Gumweed plant is known to contain a chemical component, the

grindelia chemical in almost all of its plant parts hence its scientific genus
name the Grindelia. The genus name, grindelia is assigned to the plant after
the Latvian professor, Sir David Grindelia who helped in the discovery of
the plant and in the study of its importance. Grindelia chemical is known to
most pharmacists for it is a medicinal spasmodic compound which has the
ability of helping the mucous membranes in the treatment of ailments such
as the likes of asthma, chronic bronchitis among other respiratory related
ailments.
The floral part of the Gumweed plants, be it the nectarines, the petals,
basically all of them do have some medicinal values related to the health of
most respiratory organs. The value can be harnessed by either chewing them
in their natural form or they can be processed. While chewing them in their
original form, they are quite sticky hence the name Gumweed.
Gumweed plant is said to thrive well in deserts because of the sandy
soils. The sandy soil needs to be quite disturbed and in deserts we have sandy
soils that have been disturbed either by the desert winds or the movement of
desert animals such as the likes of camels among others.
Most Gumweed plants which are in deserts are known to thrive
tremendously during the summer seasons of the deserts for the temperatures
are known to be extremely high in such periods.
Generally, there are several species of the Gumweed plant; some of
them are said to be similar to the sunflower plant in terms of their structural
characteristics in that they have a strap-like ray flower and other lack the
strap-like ray flower.
Prickly Pear Cactus: The Prickly Pear Cactus plant also known as the
Tuna in Spanish is similar to the prickly pear plant, also referred to the
Nopal or the nopalitos in Spanish. Both of them are desert plants that caught
the attention of the public because of the benefits reaped from them. They
are known to be the source of some delicious edible food to the human race
which has medicinal value to them. The food is known to contain several
vitamins and minerals which boost the immune system of human beings.
The original parts of the plants such as their fruits, leaves, roots and
stems are being used in the manufacture of sweet fluids that have some
medicinal properties. Most processing industries are encouraged to ensure
that the end products; that is the juices are a hundred percent pure.
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 203

Most of the juices are known to help in the treatment of diabetes by

slowly reducing the effects diabetic patients suffer from and later healing
them completely of their diabetes. Apart from the use of prickly pear plant
in the manufacture of juices; the plant can also be used in the manufacture
of other beverages such as prickly pear tea; manufacture of prickly pear
jelly which boosts the health of the human skin; manufacture of prickly pear
honey; manufacture of prickly pear marmalade; manufacture of prickly pear
trail mix among others all of which serve the same medicinal purposes as the
juices and the delicious foods prepared from the plant parts.
Mesquite Tree: Mesquite tree is a desert plant which has been thoroughly
studied by several botanists all of which have come up with excellent results
showing the amazing benefits, more so medicinal benefits which can be
ripped from the use of different mesquite tree plant parts.

Figure 8.2: Mesquite Tree.

Source: https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/trees/mesquite/mes-
quite-tree-propagation.htm
The tree does produce pods that are known as the mesquite pods. Mesquite
pods can be grinded to produce mesquite flour which is known to be sweet
and can be used in the preparation of several meals. The mesquite flour is
known to help in the control of blood sugar levels more so for individuals
known to be diabetic. This control basically functions in a unique way in
that; the sweetness of the flour comes from natural fructose contained in
the pods and since the fructose is natural, it can be processed by the body
without the help of the insulin.
204 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The seeds do contain quite soluble fibers such as the likes of galactomannin
gum which help the body in slow absorption of nutrients from foods hence a
flattened blood sugar curve. The gel like soluble fibers do also help the body
in slow digestion of food hence prevention of the rise in blood sugar levels
due to fast digestion of food.
Aconitum heterophyllum all.ex Royle (Ranunuculaceae): The Aconitum
is a desert plant known to dominate mostly in cold deserts. It is said to be
more of a tuberous medicinal plant in that its roots and a part of its stem
are quite thick in size and are located mostly in the underground level. The
structure of the entire plant differs depending on the height of the plant.
Some of the Aconitum plants are approximately one meter tall. Such a height
makes it perfect for the lower level leaves to have a different structure from
the upper level leaves. The lower level leaves are quite small in size while
the upper level leaves are large in size. The flowers of this plant are quite
unique in that they are greenish-blue in color and the flower veins are purple
in color. The sepals, that is the lower part of a flower holding it into position
on a tree branch, resembles the petals of the flowers in that instead of being
thick it width is close to that of the petals which are known to be thin and
light in terms of weight.
The plant is one hundred percent non-poisonous and it is said to have
numerous medicinal benefits. The roots of the Aconitum contain a non-toxic
compound; the amorphous alkaloids, atisine, dehydroatisine, heteratisine,
hetisine, aconitic acid, tannic acid, pectin and starch. Some of the compounds
are used in the manufacture of medicines. However, since most manufactured
medicines are being said to be poisonous, the roots of this plant are crushed
and added to meals or taken in raw form. Some of the ailments which are
treated by the different parts of this plant include the likes of tonic disease,
diarrhea, aphrodisiac and cough.
Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth) Johnston [Boraginaceae]: The
Arnebia euchroma, scientifically known as the Royle ex Benth is a desert
plant that belongs to the plant family of the Boraginaceae. The plant is
known for its round clustered pale-purple flowers which change their color
depending on different factors such as temperature to blackish –purple. The
leaves of the Arnebia euchroma are quite long and linear in shape. The stem
is known to be short in size for it is visible only from the ground level. The
roots of this plant are purple in color and can be used in their original form
as hair tonic.
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 205

Figure 8.3: Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth) Johnston [Boraginaceae].

Source: http://plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.
org:names:4463-1
Almost all the parts of this plant; be it the leaves, the stem or the roots
are known to be of some medicinal value to the human race. The stems
may be dried and crushed into powder form and used in the manufacture
of toothpastes hence boosting the health of the human teeth. Ailments such
as eye diseases are also treated by products from the different parts of the
Arnebia euchroma plant. Open wounds can be healed by squeezing some
fluid out of the leaves of the Arnebia euchroma plant. For ladies, some
products from the Arnebia euchroma tree can be used in the manufacture of
hair products hence boosting the general health of a ladies hair. Some creams
have also been manufactured from different parts of the Arnebia euchroma
plant and later used in the healing of fire burns among other ailments.
Berberis aristata DC. [Berberidaceae]: The Berberis aristata is a desert
plant which belongs to the plant family of the Berberidaceae. It is huge plant
which is has thorns in all parts. Its flowers are said to be yellow in color. The
flowers produce fruits that change color as they mature. Young fruits are
known to be grey white in color and once they mature, that is once they are
ripe they change their color to blue.
Since the plant has been ruled out to be a medicinal plant, almost all
of its parts are known to have some medicinal benefits. However, the most
used part for medicinal parts are the root bark part of the plant and extract
from the stems.
206 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The extract from the roots barks are used in the manufacture of
medicines known to cure skin diseases. However, the extracts can be used
in their original form as they are applied to the skin to cure its defects. Other
products from the plant can be used to cure ailments such as the likes of
diarrhoea, menorrhagia, jaundice and different infections of the eye.
The root barks can also be used in the preparation of concoctions which
are known to be of great importance more so in the cleaning of unhealthy
ulcers in the body of a human being. Ripe fruits of this plant are quite healthy
more so to kids for they can be used in preparation of mild laxative which is
known to boost the immunity of children.
Berberis aristata does contain its natural salts more so in the leaf parts.
The salts can be consumed in their natural form and used to heal ailments
such as malarial infections, dyspepsia, enlargement of the spleen, vomiting
during pregnancy periods and intestinal catarrh.
Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Engl. [Saxifragaceae]: The
Bergenia stracheyi plant is a desert plant whose scientific name is Hook.f.
& Thoms named after the scientist who discovered it and it belongs to the
plant family of the Saxifragaceae. It is said to be straight with strong and
thick roots creeping above the ground level. Its leaves are quite long with
pink colored edges. The flowers are white or lilac in color.

Figure 8.4: Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Engl. [Saxifragaceae].

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/efloraofindia/species/m---z/s/saxifraga-
ceae/bergenia/bergenia-pacumbis
The parts of the Bergenia stracheyi plant which are known to have
medicinal value are mostly the roots and the stem part of the plant. The
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 207

roots are bitter and are mostly used in treatment of ailments such as fever,
boils, opthalmia among other illnesses. The extract from the stem is used in
healing wounds.
Generally, all parts of the plant are known to contain high contents of
different mineral contents all of which are known to boost the immunity of a
human being. For example, the leaves maybe dried and crushed into powder
and later added into beverages or meals or they can be consumed in their
original form. Most of the immunity boosting pills are manufactured from
the Bergenia stracheyi plant.
Betula utilis D. Don. [Betulaceae]: Betula utilis is a desert plant that
belongs to the plant family of the Betulaceae. It is known to be a small tree
of approximately ten meters tall. The stem of the plant is white in color and
it has a thin layer. Its leaves are oval in shape and quite small in size.
Almost all parts of the plant do have some medicinal benefits. Some of
the ailments treated by the raw materials from the plant include the likes of
convulsions, bronchitis; that is both the chronic and the acute bronchitis,
diseases of the blood and the ear, leprosy among other ailments. The sap
from the stem of the plant is known to be a good product in healing open
wounds more the poisoned open wounds. Additionally, the stem is also used
in preparation of a decoction which is effective in washing the otorrhoea,
healing anaemia, cough, managing obesity, healing urinogenital infections,
bysteria, toxemia among other infections.
Corydalis govaniana Wall. [Fumariaceae]: The Corydalis govaniana
is a desert plant mostly found in the cold deserts and it belongs to the
Fumariaceae plant family. It is a straight plant whose high is approximately
thirty centimeters. Its leaves are long in size with yellow flowers.
The roots are the most used part of the plant for they are known to contain
most of the medicinal benefits. They are considered to be tonic in nature,
that is, the roots. The roots produce a yellow sap when squeezed which is
later used in its original form or processed so as to cure ailments such as eye
diseases, syphilis infections, scrofulous infections and cutaneous infections.
The other parts of the plant do have some medicinal benefits only that the
specific value is yet to be defined.
208 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo [Orchidaceae]: The Dactylorhiza

hatagirea is a desert plant known to grow close to the oases areas in the
desert for it is more of a terrestrial plant. It is tuberous in nature in that part
of its stem grows underground and both the stem and the root are quite thick.
Its leaves are of the type oblong-lanceolate and it has yellow flowers. The
flowers are yellow so as to make them conspicuous and attract more insects
which help in the pollination of the flower for reproduction purposes.
The roots of this plant can be used as food by desert communities and
are known to be quite nutritious. Apart from the use of roots as food, root
sap can also be harnessed from the roots and used to form a mucilage jelly
which is useful in the treatment of ailments such as the likes of diarrhoea,
dysentery and chronic fever. The roots can also be used in the preparation of
a decoction which is known to boost the strength of women after delivery.
Generally, the roots contain components such as the likes of starch,
mucilage, sugar, alumen, a small percentage of volatile oils and ash
components which are made up of both the potassium and lime mineral salts
among other components. All this components, make the root to be the most
preferred plant part for medicinal use. However, this does not mean that the
other parts of the plant are valueless, actually, almost all parts of the plant
are known to contain some medicinal benefits only that the specific values
are yet to be defined. The starch from the rots is obtained by drying the roots
and crushing the dried root under water so as to squeeze the starch fluids out
of the root.
Ephedra gerardiana Wall ex Stapf. [Gnetaceae]: The Ephedra
gerardiana is known to be low rigid tufted desert plant of approximately
sixty centimeters in terms of height and it belongs to the plant family of
the Gnetaceae. It is known to grow mostly in cold deserts which receive
low amounts of rainfall and experience extremely low temperatures. The
plant does have clustered branches which all grow from one woody base
branch. The plant reproduces through cones meaning it belongs to the
gymnospermae class which is known to be composed of the non-flowering
plants. Its cones are composed of both the male cones which are ovate in
shape and the female cones which are solitary.
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 209

Figure 8.5: Ephedra gerardiana Wall ex Stapf.

Source: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.
org:names:328160-2
The small branches of the plant are dried and used in treatment of
ailments such as asthma, hay fever of the allergic reaction. The roots and
stems can also be used in the preparation of a decoction which is known to
treat rheumatism. Different parts of the plant can be combined and used in
the formation of a nasal spray, commonly known to many as the inhaler, and
used in treatment of ailments such as the likes of asthmatic attacks and the
inflammation of mucous membrane.
Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. [Elaegnaceae]: The Hippophae
rhamnoides is a small sized plant in terms of its height with thorny shrubs.
It is similar to the Hippophae salicifolia plant for they have almost the same
structural features with the only difference being the small sized leaves of
the Hippophae rhamnoides, which are also narrow. The leaves of this plant
210 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

are quite rough and rusty in terms of their texture. The fruits produced by
this plant are quite tiny for they are said to be approximately six millimeters
and are either orange or red in color depending on their maturity level. The
young fruits are the ones orange in color and the ripe fruits are the ones red
in color. The Hippophae rhamnoides plants is known to be a desert plant
which dominates mostly in the cold deserts more so in the river banks of the
quite rare rivers found in cold desert or alongside the desert oases.
Since it has been ruled out to be a medicinal desert plant, almost all
parts of the plant do have some medicinal benefits. For example, the ripe
fruits are used in the preparation of a jelly or a syrup which is used in the
treatment of pulmonary complaints in patients, treatment of tumors and in
the sunburn prevention preparation in situations where one is quite sure they
will be exposed to prolonged duration of hot sunlight. The fruit syrup can
also be used in the prevention of the eye region skin wrinkles by applying
it around the eye. Generally, the syrup is mostly used in the manufacture
of various cosmetic products. The fruits can also be consumed in their raw
form for they are sweet and are known to be rich in Vitamin C which boosts
the immune system.
Hyoscyamus niger Linn. [Cannabaceae]: The Hyoscyamus niger linn
plant is a straight and hairy desert plant that is said to be quite tall and
it belongs to the Cannabaceae plant family. Its leaves do differ in shape
depending on the level of the plant in which they have grown; that is,
the basal leaves are ovate in nature with the upper leaves being lobed in
nature. The flowers of the plant do have a unique color, the lurid green color
with purple flower veins. The plant is known to contain several chemical
components such as the likes of anodyne, narcotic and mydriatic.
Just like the other medicinal plants, the Hyoscyamus niger linn plant
does contain medicinal components in almost all of its plant parts. The plant
is generally used in the preparation of products that can be employed as
sedatives more so in nervous infections. Plant parts can also be used in the
manufacture of products such as the toothache. Medicinal products from
the plant can also be used in irritable conditions, treatment of the whooping
cough disease and as a substitute for opium component for they serve almost
the same purpose more so in situation where latter is inadmissible. Plant
parts more so the roots are mostly used in the manufacture of diabetic drugs
for it is quite good in the treatment of diabetes.
Hyssopus officinalis Linn. [Lamiaceae]: The Hyssopus officinalis is a
desert plant known to dominate mostly in the cold deserts. The plant belongs
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 211

to the Lamiaceae plant family. It is known to be straight plant whose height

is approximated to be between thirty to sixty centimeters. Tree branches of
this plant are known to originate on the basal parts of the plant stem; that is,
immediately above the ground for that the separation point of the roots and
the stem. The flowers are blue n color.
The plant has been ruled out to be a medicinal plant, not just by one
botanists, but by several botanists who have made it their quest to study
the desert plants and distinguish which are of medicinal value to the human
race from the poisonous ones. Almost all parts of the Hyssopus plant do
have some medicinal benefits. Leaves from this tree could be used in the
preparation of tea which is famously known to many for its healing effects
for it heals ailments such as the nervous disorders, it boosts the dental health
in human beings, can be used in treating; pulmonary, digestive, uterine and
urinary troubles. Apart from the use of the leaves in preparation of tea, the
sap from the leaves could also be used in the removal of round worms which
are found inside in the human body. The leaves can also be boiled in hot
water and the formed solvent used in the cleansing of open wounds hence
fastening their rate of recovery. The solvent can also be used as a fomentation
for muscular rheumatism and for clearing blackness on the human skin from
previous wounds. Additionally, the solvent can also be used as a gaggling
mixture to help in healing throat inflammations such as the likes of tonsils,
chronic bronchitis, and bronchial asthma.
Apart from medicinal use, extract from either the roots or the stems or
even the leaves of the Hyssopus officinalis Linn plant can also be used in the
manufacture of other products such as perfumes hence giving them a spicy
odor due to the volatile spicy oil found in the root sap.
Juniperus communis Linn. [Cupressaceae]: The Juniperus communis
linn plant is a desert plant of the family of the Cupressaceae plant family. It
is known to dominate mostly in desert plants. The leaves of the Juniperus
plant are said to be scarcely distributed in the plant branch. Its flowers are
blue-black in color and produce seed pods that have approximately one to
three seeds in them. The seeds are quite helpful for they can be planted and
help in more production of the Juniperus communis linn plant.
The plant does several medicinal benefits that are harnessed from the
different parts of the plants. For example, extracts from the plant are being
used in the treatment of asthma, stomatitis, hemicrania, chronic bronchitis,
disease of the liver and spleen among others since the plant does contain the
aphrodisiac and styptic chemical compounds in their natural form almost
212 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

in all its organs. Extract from the plant have also been used in by medics to
help in mucous discharge from patients suffering from illnesses such as the
likes of gonorrhea, leucorrhoea and some cutaneous diseases.
Jurinea dolominaea Boiss [Asteraceae]: Jurinea dolominaea Boiss is a
desert plant that has a plant life span of only two years. It has been classified
as part of the Asteraceae plant family. The flowers of this plant are known to
be purple in color and quite long in terms of size for they are approximated
to be four to five centimeters long and are quite hairy. The leaves are said
to have a lobe shape and a quite hairy with white wool-like hairs covering
their surfaces.
The main part of the plant which has made it to qualify in the list of
medicinal plants is its roots. The roots of this plant are used for several
medicinal purposes. For example; they are used in the treatment of fever
mostly to new born babies immediately after childbirth. Still, the roots can
be crashed and the extract applied on the human skin to heal skin eruptions.
Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson [Lamiaceae]: The Mentha longifolia
desert plant of the Lamiaceae plant family is a straight plant that is mostly
known to many for its sweet aroma. Its height is approximately between
thirty to ninety centimeters high. The leaves are ovate in shape, however,
they are more of a mixture of ovate leaves and the lanceolate leaves. The
plant is dominant in cold deserts.
Since it has been ruled out to be part of the medicinal plants, almost
all organs of it as a plant do have some medicinal value. The leaves can be
used in treatment of rheumatic pain in human beings. A concoction from any
part of the plant organs is used in treatment of ailments such as the likes of
fever, headache and heat apoplexy. As stated earlier, the Mentha longifolia
plant is an aromatic plants hence the sweet smelling peppermint oil from its
leaves are used in the manufacture of products such as the likes of flavoring
confectionery, flavoring powder among other products.
Origanum vulgare Linn. [Lamiaceae]: Origanum vulgare linn plant is
a straight desert plant of approximately thirty to sixty centimeters high. Its
leaves are ovate and quite hairy. The flowers of this plant are known to be
polygamous in nature with their calyx being bell-shaped in nature and their
corolla being either white or pink in color depending on their maturity level.
The plant is quite dominant in cold desert, however, it can also be found in
hot desert but in rare numbers.
The plant does contain some special oil almost in all of its plant organs.
The plant oil is known to contain some healing compounds such as the
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 213

carminative, stomachic, diuretic and the emmenagogue. This property makes

it a quite useful medicinal plants for it is able to heal ailments such as the
likes of diarrhoea, chronic rheumatism, toothache pains, cough, bronchitis
and earaches. The oil can also be extracted and used for bathing for it heals
body wounds, and does also stimulate the growth of hair hence its extensive
use in soap industries and cosmetic industries so as to act as a raw material
in the manufacture of soaps and hair oils respectively. The sap from the
leaves of the Origanum vulgare linn plant is known to help in the treatment
of fire burns, boils, cuts and wounds.
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth [Scrophulariaceae]: The
picrorhiza tree is a small desert medicinal plant of the plant family of the
Scrophulariaceae. It has blue flowers whose corolla is quite tiny. The leaves
are a bit longer for their height ranges from five to fifteen centimeters. Just
like other medicinal plants, the plant is known to treat several ailments.

Figure 8.6: Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth [Scrophulariaceae].

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/efloraofindia/species/m---z/p/plantagina-
ceae/picrorhiza-kurroa/picrorhiza-kurroa
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth plant acts as an athematic remedy.
It also acts as an appetite boosting remedy; it purifies blood; reduces blood
pressure; acts as a cardiac expectorant, a febrifuge; and it is useful in the
treatment of ailments such as asthmatic attacks, cold, cough, bile trouble,
jaundice, leprosy, constipation and stomach trouble among other sicknesses.
Almost all organs of the plant are used for they are known to contain useful
remedies in them. Extracts from the plant more so the root part are known
to cure rheumatism.
Prunella vulgaris Linn. [Lamiaceae]: Prunella vulgaris linn is a straight
desert plant commonly known to many for it is hairy. The roots of this plant
214 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

are known for their structure of crawling above the ground level which is the
same place where the stems originate from. The leaves are ovate in shape
and are said to be toothed because of the tiny hooks covering their surface.
The flowers are bisexual in that, both the female and the male parts are
found on the same flower. The calyx or the sepal of the flowers are purple
in color with the corolla changing its color depending on the maturity of the
flower from violet at young stage to purple-violet at maturity level.
The plant is a medicinal plant hence it has compounds in it which are of
great benefit to the human body. Prunella vulgaris linn plant is antiseptic in
nature, has carminative compounds in it, it is antispasmodic and a stimulant.
Because of its properties, it can be used in the treatment of body fever,
coughs, diarrhoea, relax the throat, heal ulcerated mouth and in the treatment
of internal bleeding piles. Syrups can be extracted from its organs, be it the
stems or the roots and used in the treatment of internal wounds or for curing
headaches.
Rheum austral D. Don [Polygonaceae]: The Rheum austral is a desert
plant that is known to last for two years in its life time because of the
diverse conditions it has to endure by growing in deserts, more so in cold
deserts for it is dominant in cold deserts. It belongs to the plant family of the
Polygonaceae which consists of plant species known for their ability to last
for only two years. Its stem is thick and green-brown in color. The leaves
have a round shape. Its flowers are reddish-purple in color.

Figure 8.7: Rheum austral D. Don [Polygonaceae].

Source: https://photos.v-d-brink.eu/Flora-and-Fauna/Asia/Pakistan-new/i-
ggJdgQZ
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 215

Since it is a medicinal plant, most of its organs are known to contain

some medicinal value. The roots have some useful medicinal properties
since they are known to be purgative, astringent, tonic and aperients. Roots
are uprooted, dried and crashed to be used in cleansing or whitening of the
human teeth. The powdered roots can also be sprinkled on open wounds
for quick healing. Individuals suffering from stomach problems could be
advised to chew the roots for healing. Ailments such as muscular swellings,
tonsils and mumps can be treated by extract obtained from the roots of the
Rheum astral plant.
Most manufacturing industries, more so the pharmaceuticals are
obtaining raw materials from the Rheum astral D. Don plant to help in the
manufacture of drugs such as anti-inflammatory creams for the plant is
known to contain some properties of healing swells.
Rhododendron campanulatum Linn. [Ericaceae]: Rhododendron
campanulatum Linn plant is a desert plant belonging to the plant family of
the Ericaceae. It is mostly known to many since it a small plant whose height
ranges from ten to fifteen centimeters with ovate shaped leaves. Its flowers
are said to be pinkish-purple in color and their corolla is bell-shaped.

Figure 8.8: Rhododendron campanulatum Linn. [Ericaceae].

Source: https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/rhododendron-petrocharis/
The plant has been ruled out to be a medicinal plant. Its leaves are
known to contain some medicinal properties such as andromedotoxin and
pharmacological properties which make them to be used in the treatment
of ailments such as the likes of chronic rheumatism, syphilis, sciatia,
216 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

hemicranias, and cold. The flowers are known to produce aromatic oil once
crushed. The aromatic oil is used in the manufacture of perfumes among
other flavoring products.
Tagetes minuta Linn. [Asteraceae]: Tagetes minuta Linn plant is a desert
plant that belongs to the family of the Asteraceae. It is commonly known
for its unique property of being aromatic; that is produce some sweet scent
twice in a year. Its leaves are quite long for their height ranges from seven
to fifteen centimeters and they are lanceolate in shape. The flowers are also
unique in that the top part of their corolla is pale yellow in color and the
bottom part, close to the sepal part is black in color.

Figure 8.9: Tagetes minuta Linn. [Asteraceae].

Source: https://www.medicinalplantsarchive.us/medicinal-uses/tagetes-minu-
ta-linn.html
Since the plant is a medicinal plant, most of its organs are known to
contain some medicinal benefits. Extracts from the plants stem part are
said to contain some ethanol properties making them suitable for serving
as anti-viral compounds in the treatment of the Ranikhet virus. The flowers
are crashed and their extract used in treatment of asthmatic infections,
aperients, diuretic and diaphoretic infections. Generally, the entire plant
contains volatile oils which can be used as tranquilizers, hypotensives and
antiflammatories. Apart from the use of this plant for medicinal purposes,
the plant can also be used in manufacture of products such as perfumes since
it aromatic in nature.
 Medicinal Plants Used by Desert Habitants 217

Taraxacum officinale Wigg. [Asteraceae]: The Taraxacum officinale

Wigg is a desert plant know to have a lifespan of a maximum of two years.
It belongs to the plant family of the Asteraceae. Its leaves are lobed and are
known to point downwards most of the time. The flowers are tiny for there
are approximately one-centimeter-long and have yellow top edges with the
rest of the corolla being white in color and quite hairy.

Figure 8.10: Taraxacum officinale Wigg. [Asteraceae].

Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Taraxacum_officinale
The roots are known to be of great medicinal benefits for once dried and
crashed, they can be used in boosting human appetite and curing stomach
upsets. Other extracts from the plant can be used in treatments of chronic
disorders of the kidney and liver by promoting the secretion of bile juice
from the gall bladder. The plant can also be helpful in the treatment of
gallstones, jaundice, and atonic dyspepsia with constipation, rheumatism,
cholecystits and obligurea among other ailments. The roots of the plant are
known to produce a sap that is rich in insulin content and can be used in
adding vitamin C in the human body.
Thymus linearis Benth. [Lamiaceae]: Thymus linearis Benth is hairy
and aromatic desert medicinal plant belonging to the plant family of the
Lamiaceae. Its leaves are oblong-ovate and are dotted on both sides of the
leaf. The flowers are quite polygamous and either purple or white in color
depending on the sex of the flower.
218 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 8.11: Thymus linearis Benth. [Lamiaceae].

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/efloraofindia/species/a---l/l/lamiaceae/
thymus/thymus-linearis
The plant does contain some special chemical components such as the
likes of being antiseptic, expectorant, carminative, anthelmintic and some
stimulating properties. All of this properties help it in serving different
medicinal purposes. For example, the leaves and the floral parts can be
crashed and the extract used in treatment of whooping cough, epilepsy,
in suppression of urine and menstrual catarrh among other ailments. The
leaf sap can also be applied leaves and used in treatment of itch and skin
eruptions. The seeds from the Thymus linearis Benth plant can be crashed
and used in treatment of stomach problems for they are said to be antifebrile
and anthelmintic, which are properties that make suitable for use in stomach
problems. The extract from leaves and the floral parts more so the calyx and
the corolla floral parts are said to contain some volatile oil which can be
quite useful in manufacture of other products such as perfumes since the oil
has a sweet scent.
In conclusion, there are thousands of plant species which are considered
to be of medicinal value. Some have been studied and others are yet to be
studied are yet to be studied either due to distraction of their habitats or lack
of enough personnel to study them. It is our responsibility as the human
race to conserve the environment for by doing so we will be protecting the
medicinal plants which are of great benefit to us. Young people should be
encouraged to venture into environment conservation fields such as being
botanists to help in discovering the million medicinal benefits we can
harness from medicinal plants.
9
Challenges and Future Prospects
of Medicinal Plants

CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 220
9.2 Medicinal Plants Future In The Pharmaceutical Industry .................. 221
9.3 Medicinal Plants Future In The Food Industry .................................. 230
9.4 Challenges For Medicinal Plant Usage ............................................ 242
220 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants play a vital role in the advancement of human culture. They
are a resource for traditional medicines, and many contemporary medicines
are made indirectly from medicinal plants. World Health Organization
(WHO) has confirmed that herbs can meet the health requirements of around
80% of the globe’s population, particularly for millions of individuals in the
expansive rural parts of developing countries. At the same time, consumers
in developed regions have become disillusion by modern medical care and
are looking for alternative solutions.

Figure 9.1: Plants are increasingly being cultivated for medicinal reasons.

Source: https://medium.com/@hmkrishna/medicinal-plants-cultivation-and-
marketing-in-2020-89ff20a99828
Today, plants are extensively used as medicinal flora in food and
pharmacological industries. People in most countries (especially rural areas)
grow them frequently. They rely on herbs to treat many ailments, including
diseases related to inflammation such as rheumatism, swollen muscle, insect
bites, and ache. Similarly, in modern medicine, plant extracts have proved
that they effectively have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiseptic and
antifungal elements. In this chapter, the goal is to review the past, present
and future benefits of medicinal plants used as biologically active natural
compounds in traditional and contemporary medical practice.
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 221

9.2 MEDICINAL PLANTS FUTURE IN THE

PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
In addition to the excitement about human genome science, soon, we
are likely to begin to see the appearance of a new type of prescription
medicine that contains a complex blend of plant extracts. As technology
progresses, the pharmaceutical sector is increasingly concerned about the
human genome, which is the source of various unresolved problems related
to disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Another form of life that
is simple to forget is a great contribution to our present understanding of
medicine including many practical therapies (Singh, 2006).
Plants are a rich natural source of possible new medicines, and when
pharmaceutical companies seek to achieve the best balanced R&D portfolio,
they should keep this potential in mind as the goal of new or extra funding.
When assessing the possible risks and advantages associated with these
investments, some understanding of plants medicinal aspects should be
helpful in decision-making.
It is believed that 25-50% of global prescriptions are for prescriptions
based on plant components. The dependence on plants isn’t a totally new
development. It has long been understood that they have medicinal elements.
As far back as 2800 BC, humans were discovering various plant remedies.
For example, in ancient Egypt, people munched on willow barks to treat
headaches and fever.
Nevertheless, it was only after individuals were able to examine the
compounds in the crop that natural medicine really played its medicinal
role. Many of the most renowned drugs originate from plants. Aspirin
originated from the willow plant, and antiarrhythmic medications are based
on ingredients found in turf gloves. Quinine used for treating malaria is
derived from the cinchona tree’s bark, and this list constantly increases
(Singh, 2006).

9.2.1 How Plant Medicines Work

Not all parts of plants have medicinal value, but specific chemical substances
in plants contain beneficial effects. Chemicals extracted from plants for usage
in medicine are known as active compounds. Their role in the body appears
similar to other medications, mainly used for specific parts and processes
222 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

within the body. But exactly why do plants produce these compounds which
are helpful to humans? These compounds can do many things in plants, such
as protecting it from natural enemies or playing a role in plant life. They are
very useful within the human body (Bill Church, 2006).
Now, searching for active ingredients has become an aspect of the
research conducted by large pharmaceutical businesses. They refer to it
as bioprospecting, meaning to find composites with medicinal properties
in order to turn them into commodities. Pharmaceutical companies have
invested a lot of money in finding new miracle drugs. Currently, only 20
percent of the plants worldwide have passed the therapeutic value test.
Finding out whether plants contain useful compounds is a laborious process
that involves harvesting large amounts of plant matter.
First, very few plants have multiple active compounds. They do have
some special chemicals however, so they’re unlikely to be functional in
completely different environments (such as the human body). Another
wrench in the work is that you cannot judge plant compounds by their cover.
When used to treat diseases in humans, some are completely unexpected.
You cannot assume that it shall play the same role in the plant like the
human body. This sometimes makes it hard to find a product that’s worth
selling. Together with the projected 12 years needed to bring the drug to
the marketplace, it seems a far fetch that plant prospecting can generate
substantial profits in the short term (Bill Church, 2006).

9.2.2 Contribution to Medicine Today

Before the development of synthetic chemistry, or discovery of antibacterial
agents during the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, plants were
the main source of medicine. About 250,000-300,000 species continue to
progress and adapt to various environmental conditions, plus are protected
from microbes and natural enemies. In contrast, whether by accident or by
design, human species seem to have stabilized their genetic code (El-Shemy,
2017).
Today, more than 20 percent of the ethical input of pharmaceutical
businesses comes from plant-derived medicines. Among them are original
natural products, others are artificial equivalents or derivatives, aimed at
improving efficacy or reducing related side effects. Another interesting area
in the Western World is herbal medicine. In many continental European
countries, herbal medicine has proved to be very popular. Many of these
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 223

products are licensed for use as medicines. In the United Kingdom and the
United States, herbal medicines, nutritious foods or functional foods are
increasing in popularity day by day.
Many plants are nowadays used as the basis of these traditional medical
practices. Although some people in the West are skeptical of their therapeutic
value, increasingly more beneficial impacts are getting proven. Many new
firms have begun to concentrate on plant-derived drugs with multiple
products, some of which are extracted from traditional drugs and have been
studied in clinical tests. The gathered evidence stems from hundreds of years
of use in traditional medicine, or from understanding of how plant species
have evolved and adjusted to their environment, which can greatly reduce
the period needed to identify nominee plants. For years, practitioners of
traditional medicine have prescribed thousands of plant-derived products to
patients. Although usually anecdotes, they still provide evidence of possible
efficacy and lack of candid toxicity (El-Shemy, 2017).
In today’s advanced communications, information technology, and the
improvement of global education and welfare standards, these data have
become increasingly accessible. Researchers and clinicians in Asia, many
of whom have been educated in the West, have been applying Western
clinical investigations and processes to traditional products while publishing
their outcomes in renowned, peer-reviewed journals. Additional preclinical
and clinical studies have been printed in original language journals, but
can be easily obtained from databases such as Medline. Among the newer
businesses involved in botanical medicine have dedicated internal staff
and have established contacts with companies, specialists and academic
establishments in the nations used for sourcing raw materials. All these
approaches can help narrow the search for possibly effective medicinal
plants.
The needs and expectations of users and patients in the Western world,
who are increasingly knowledgeable, health-conscious and environmentally-
conscious, are putting added pressure on supervisors, clinicians and
politicians. An example of a recent impact is that people have to recognize
the medicinal quality of cannabis plants. Although the mental effects of
cannabis are recognized and its main component 9-tetrahydrocannabinol has
a therapeutic effect in relieving nausea and gagging caused by chemotherapy,
for other illnesses (such as multiple sclerosis), although the attractiveness is
mainly its anecdotal properties, but there’s evidence that it really works as a
medicinal plant (El-Shemy, 2017).
224 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Just recently, the identification of endocannabinoid receptors in humans

and animals has opened up new research prospects for cannabinoid receptor
receivers and antagonists. Some compounds synthesized by industries
previously refine searches for particular target candidates. Although the
stigma of abuse has nothing to do with contemporary ethnic medicine, the
so-called well-informed West sometimes applies some form of deception.
However, ii shouldn’t be lost that a large part of the existing understanding
of medicine depends on the application of plant-based substances such
as opium, atropine, ephedrine and curare in medicine. Greater credence
nowadays is being provided to the influence of herbs such as Saw Palmetto,
Gingko biloba and St John’s Wort.
In some of the most popular botanical medicines at present, many of
these active ingredients are increasingly used, usually due to interaction
with prescription medications that lead to higher incidents of adverse events
in some people. Clinical understanding of the potential of these kinds of
interactions has prompted the recent publication of studies, prompting
regulators to issue guidelines for the use of certain products. Although this
may be negative for herbal products, it does indicate that some herbs can
generate substantial pharmacological impacts, and support the growing
opinion that their use needs enhanced regulatory effects.
In the 1990s, some futurists including Dr. George Poste and recent
pharmaceutical scientists have predicted that among the key advances in the
coming decades shall be the personalization of therapies. This suggestion
is largely related to the advancement of genomics. Nevertheless, for
several hundred years, some traditional cultures have been curing patients
individually. Some well-known examples of applying plant-based medicines
come from Chinese medicine and Indian-Ayuverdic treatment. Thousands
of herbs are associated with positive effects, often provided by practitioners
in various combinations designed for each patient’s overall health.
Recently, academic researchers have used the methods accepted by
Western culture to study the pharmacological activity of many broadly
used herbs. For instance, many herbal plants that can be used for treating
prostate hypertrophy in China are currently being screened for activity in
testosterone-induced hyperplasia mice, which is a classic experiment for
alpha-reductase inhibition. Compared with finasteride, the compounds of
the plant known as Serenoa repens show more effective side-effects (Panda,
2004).
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 225

This has prompted more and more attention to the use and development
of herbal medicine as a potential new medicine in Western civilization. An
important illustration of this is usage of the Chinese herbal medicine mixture
developed by Phytopharm Plc for treating eczema due to the notice that
patients getting TCM treatment in London showed unexpectedly significant
signs of progress. R&D plans for developing new drugs through de novo
synthesis usually take roughly 20 years: setting goals; synthesizing and
screening potential leads; selecting the best drugs and further defining their
pharmacology and safety.
Optimistically, a few candidates can build into development. If the
clinical efficiency and safety have been approved by the product license,
there will be a duration of product monopoly. The investment return will
be associated to the efficacy of the business’s patent policy and product
lifecycle management. Technological advancements have been developed
to lessen the time to detect new drug candidates. For instance, high-
throughput transmission, combinatorial chemistry, and the latest genomics
and proteomics. To date, there is limited evidence of increased chances of
success, but this does not mean that these major investments will not be
realized in the near future (Panda, 2004).

9.2.3 Future Prospects of Herbal Medicine in Research

and Development (R&D)

Figure 9.2: The future looks promising for plants as new uses are constantly
being found.

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/8/9/341
226 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

As potential advancement in this area is sometimes hindered by patents,

herbal medicines shall most likely always be a niche market. Even though
plants have a large amount of interesting active compounds, for instance,
they can fight a variety of drug-resistant microbes or infectious diseases, but
for the simple reason that the industry isn’t much interested in the economy,
most plant-based drugs may not obtain market approval. For this many
innovations have been lost. So much so that scientists publish academic
papers on the benefits of medicinal plants, but their results have still not
been transformed into new drugs (Kiarash, Bilal, & Mesut, 2012).
However, there are some consumers who want to utilize herbs. Traditional
medicine manufacturers have a good market. However, innovation is still
quite rare. These organizations typically revert to what they have learned from
traditional Chinese medicine and traditional European medicine. It covers
thousands of plants. Plus there is much more to continue. Nevertheless, in
terms of plant biodiversity-we are talking about more than 350,000 plants-
but there’s still much untapped potential.

9.2.4 The Potential for Medicinal Plants is Great

There are some medical problems, like multi-drug resistant bacteria, which
continue rising every years. In Europe, about 25,000 people die each year
from sepsis, which is caused by microbes that are unaffected by most regular
antibiotics, and this number will continue to increase. Bacteria are resistant
to antibiotics for many reasons, such as improper use of antibiotics (such
as, in animal breeding) and inadequate treatment duration. Drug research is
facing the problem of discovering active ingredients which are also effectual
against a variety of resistant bacteria (Jamshidi-Kia, Lorigooini, & Amini-
Khoei, 2018).
Scientists are studying whether there are interesting antibacterial
agents in plants. The answer is yes, many of which have same effects as
microbial antibiotics. When the isolated herbal components (secondary
metabolites, antibacterial peptides (AMPs)) are merged with other natural
elements or antibiotics, it is possible to fight almost all bacteria with multi-
drug resistance. Researchers are searching for a synergistic combination of
substances. Combining an antibacterial substance with another plant-based
substance with different goals can greatly improve its effectiveness.
However, scientists still have difficulty finding pharmaceutical
manufacturers to develop and register combinations with herbal mixtures or
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 227

extracts, mostly for financial causes. These compounds are generally known
active ingredients, and even for new and exciting indications, it is difficult to
apply for a patent. Nevertheless, given the problem’s urgency, it is believed
that world governments shall at some phase understand that municipal
research institutions will have to develop economically less viable but active
ingredients because of their great medical needs (Jamshidi-Kia, Lorigooini,
& Amini-Khoei, 2018).

9.2.5 Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants

Using natural products for drug discovery is a daunting task for attracting new
potential customers. It describes biologically active compounds extracted
from natural resources, their phytochemical analysis, classification and
pharmacological studies. It emphasizes on the attainment of these resources
through the process of discovering and determining new and effective
pharmaceutical compounds beneficial for human resources.
For many years, natural ingredients have served as a basis of therapeutic
agents plus have shown valuable uses. Only the discovery of natural product
medicines plays a crucial role in developing research evidence for these
organic resources. Studies in drug discovery require the development of
robust and sustainable lead molecules, through structural identification to
promote candidate drugs from possible screening hits (Daniel, 2006).
The expansion of new technologies has completely changed the
screening of organic products when new drugs are discovered. Using these
technologies gives people the opportunity to use software and databases to
conduct research on screening new molecules to create. Organic products
being the primary resource for drug discovery. Ultimately this leads to
detection of the lead structure. Influential new technologies are transforming
the discovery of natural herbs.
Currently, research on discovering drugs from medicinal plants involves
a multi-faceted approach that combines plants, phytochemistry, biology, and
molecular technology. The discovery of medicinal plant drugs continues to
provide important essential clues to overcome different pharmacological
goals such as treatment for cancer, Alzheimer’s syndrome, malaria and
body ache. Different natural product medicines of plant origins have either
newly been presented in the US market, such as, galantamine, nitinibone,
artemether and tiotropium, and are presently participating in late-stage
clinical trials (Daniel, 2006).
228 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Being part of the National Collaborative Drug Discovery Group or

(NCDDG) research project, many compounds with potential anti-cancerous
properties from tropical rainforest plant types have been detected. Scientists
have also isolated different compounds, mostly from palatable plant species
and plants applied as dietary supplements. These components can be
applied as chemo-preventive agents. Even though the discovery of drugs
from medicinal plants is still an important source of clues for new drugs,
they still encounter many challenges, such as the obtaining of plant matter,
the selection and implementing of proper high-throughput transmission
bioassays, and the amplification of active compounds.

9.2.6 Plant-based Drugs Available in Marketplace:

Anti-Inflammatory
Himalaya Boswellia: Himalayan herbs are herbal products developed from
Boswellia, and are pure herbal extracts. The biologically active molecular
component of Shallaki and Boswellia serrata gum resin is Boswellic acid.
Pyrazoline exists as a primary molecule in boswellic acid. The compound
works by supporting the body’s innate immune response, preventing swelling
and encouraging development of healthy joints and muscles. Boswellia is an
organic and safe joint health herb because it cares for it gently. The plant is
an effective promoter of healthy cholesterol as well as triglyceride levels,
plus has a wide range of health and immunomodulatory effects.
Ginger: Since a long time ago, herbalists have greatly appreciated ginger
for its capacity to strengthen the immune system. It’s believed that ginger
gets used in daily life because ginger plays a significant role in regulating
body temperature. It can break down the toxins in the body and help clear the
toxins accumulated in the body. Cleaning the lymphatic system (the sewage
system of the human body) is also a well-known attribute. Ginger prevents
the buildup of toxins, so it can protect the human body from viruses, fungi
and bacteria. The medicinal plant ginger furthermore shows many bodily
benefits. It is especially applied as a natural medicine to relieve nausea and
pain, anti-inflammatory effects and inhibit diabetes.
Licorice: Licorice has become more and more noticeable as a treatment,
and mentioned in various studies on the treatment and inhibition of diseases
such as flu, hepatitis C and HIV. Through a study, it was confirmed that
the triterpenoids in licorice root have antiviral activity. It pointed out that
licorice has the functions of anti-oxidation, scavenging free radicals and
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 229

stimulating immunity. The basic benefits of licorice also comprise of pain

relief.
Oregano: The benefits of oregano oil gradually increase with more
discoveries, they are superior to certain antibiotics, and have no harmful
impacts on health, plus may be used in daily life. Thymol and Carvacrol are
biologically active molecules that have been separated and studied, and are
alleged to have great properties and uses. Oregano acts on viral infections,
including tumors, parasites, allergies, and pathogenic inflammation.

9.2.7 The Future Path of Herbal Discovery

In the present era, in various developed countries, research institutions,
universities and pharmaceutical laboratories and their clinics are increasing
demand for scientific inquiry on medicinal plants, especially those that grow
within an hour. Research is largely geared towards two directions: first, based
on the priority understanding of the survey as well as the literature, people
have long known and used its biological properties to treat diseases. The
second stage of basic research prompted the discovery of novel medicinal
plants with fresh biologically active molecules, fresh biological activities
and novel drugs from remote areas of the world (Daniel, 2006).
The medicines of Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha require scientific inquiry
of each traditional medicine, and methods for testing and verification
should be proposed. Many state and private companies, such as the New
Delhi CSIR, have already participated in this application and have verified
about thousands of formulas for different activities. It’s a popular trend
which also plays a crucial role in linking traditional systems with modern
knowledge to improve health. WHO emphasizes the importance of ensuring
the quality management of herbs, and herbal preparations through the use of
contemporary techniques.
Many countries/regions nowadays have their unique herbal
pharmacopeias, and they will modify new monographs and processes
occasionally to preserve the quality of their herbal products and benefit
ordinary people. Examples of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia in India
include many primary quality parameters, isolation techniques, separation
methods, and spectral identification of more than one hundred common
herbs (Pozharitskaya et al, 2015).
230 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

9.3 MEDICINAL PLANTS FUTURE IN THE FOOD

INDUSTRY
Since the start of human civilization, many medicinal crops have been
utilized in traditional medical systems to preserve health and cure illnesses.
As plants produce large quantities of antioxidants, they can signify a source
of new composites with favorable antioxidant activity. The role of this task
is to introduce the prospective of spices and herbs in the improvement of
functional foods. Medicinal crops have shown many health benefits, like
antioxidant activity, anti-inflammation, anti-microbial, anti-mutagenic, anti-
cancerous potential, digestive stimulation and hypolipidemic activity. Spices
have for years been used to improve food taste and provide health benefits,
it’s also used for food preservation especially in developing countries.
At the same time, since flavonoids are powerful compounds with known
properties, including free antioxidant activity, flavonoids are polyphenolic
compounds worldwide. According to reports, antioxidants have free radical
scavenging properties, inhibit hydrolysis and oxidation to prevent oxidative
destruction triggered by free radicals. Studies have shown that medicinal
plants with good antioxidant potential make the best supplement for diseases
related to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is defined as “the difference
between antioxidants and oxidants, which favors oxidants that may cause
damage.” This is considered to be the reason for human aging and various
diseases (Pozharitskaya et al, 2015).

9.3.1 Antioxidants Potential Plants

Certain synthetic antioxidants used for processed foods have side effects
and are carcinogenic. Therefore, there’s need for more effectual, less toxic
and lower cost antioxidants. It may be beneficial to substitute natural
antioxidants for synthetics (due to their impact on human health). Medicinal
plants seem to have these required comparative advantages, so interest in
plant natural antioxidants is growing.
Numerous herbs and spices today have been mentioned to have
antioxidant effects, including thyme, nutmeg, turmeric, rosemary, sage,
white pepper, Indian medicinal plants, chilli, ginger and various Chinese
herbal extracts. Medicinal plant components are typically rich in phenolic
composites, such as butyl phenyl ether, flavonoids, phenolic acid, lignans,
tannin, coumarin and lignin. These composites have a variety of biological
effects, including antioxidant properties. Natural antioxidants, whether in
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 231

form of the original extract or its chemical composition, are very effectual
in preventing the damaging impacts that come about from oxidative stress.
General advise to consumers is to improve the consumption of foods
that contain antioxidant elements; phenolic compounds (example, quinones,
coumarins, lignans, phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbene, tannins), nitrogen
composites (amines, alkaloids, betaines), terpenoids, vitamins (including
carotenoids) because of their renowned health effects. Several spices
and herbs have been found to impart antioxidant elements to food. The
advancement of science and technologies has allowed the functional food
marketplace to develop in recent years. Therefore, the emergence of food
and nutrition fields continue developing. Generally, functional foods are
described as “foods which provide higher benefits other than basic nutrition”
(Bill Church, 2006).
This is a comparatively new field in the field of nutritional science
research, but it has broad prospects. The creation of products that are
beneficial to health is an emergent trend, reflecting the increasing approval
of the function of diet in decreasing the risk of terminal illnesses. In recent
years, the food industry has been increasingly interested in integrating
ingredients with health benefits. Among these components, spices are
recognized for their flavor and coloring potential. In the study of 26 common
flavor extracts, the scientists found that phenolic components in the flavor
considerably improved its antioxidant properties.(Yashin et al., 2017)
Spices are equally known to have an important part in the stabilization of
lipid peroxidation, and to impede various kinds of oxidizing enzymes. Most
of them are recognized for being associated with various health benefits,
like anti-inflammation, antibacterial, antioxidant, antimutagenic and
hypolipidemic processes. Research has also revealed that the consumption
of herbal medicine can greatly promote the overall ingestion of plant
antioxidants. Edible herbs are usually defined as the leaves of plants used
for cooking, however any other component of the plant (typically dried) can
as well be a spice. These spices can be bark (cinnamon), buds (cloves), roots
(ginger), aromatic seeds (cumin), berries (pepper), or even floral stigmas
(saffron) (Bill Church, 2006).
Although there’s plenty of evidence that a healthy diet with reduced
fat and refined sugar or rich in fruits and veggies can diminish the risk of
coronary disease and common cancers, there’s little evidence of the impacts
of the addition of spices. Red meat prepared at high temperature also benefits
232 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

from the effects of the spices. In particular, antioxidant-rich spices are useful
when cooking meat products to reduce the formation of lipid peroxidation
which affects quality.
Applying nutritional understanding about herbs and spices for public
health policies and dietary practices is a must. When antioxidants are present
in food, they play many important functions in cells and have numerous
benefits. We may say that certain medicinal plants are potential sources
of antioxidants. Spices must be considered as supplementary seasonings,
which can significantly increase the content of phenol and antioxidants.
Herbs and medicinal crops are valuable resources of natural products, plus
can potentially be used for the protection and conservation of some foods.
Moreover, the use of spices and herbs can encourage people to choose new
foods, thereby encouraging diversity in food intake and supporting diversity
in nutrition. Certainly, some medicinal plants feature the excellent potential
for development of practical foods that are rich in antioxidants (El-Shemy,
2017).

9.3.2 Nutritional Benefits of Popular Medicinal Plants

Figure 9.3: Medicinal plants can be grown at home for nutrition supplementa-
tion.

Source: https://www.permaculturenews.org/2011/04/13/lessons-from-an-ur-
ban-back-yard-food-forest-experiment/
The pharmaceutical and nutritional research have recently seen the
vigorous expansion of scientific literature on edible plants because of their
multiple health benefits and possible clinical applications. Now, health
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 233

professionals realize that the synergistic effect of drug treatment and

nutrition may bring the best results in fighting disease. Due to the presence
of pharmacologically active compounds, the preventive benefits of edible
plants are being studied as possible new medications.
Although the accessibility of scientific data is growing rapidly, there’s
still a lack of updated data compilations, and there are still concerns in
the literature about the reasons for these health foods. This article section
attempts to summarize the nutritional value, phytochemical structure and
traditional uses to treat chronic non-infectious and infectious illnesses. The
included edible plants are based on such criteria: they have nutritional value
and are usually eaten as fruits or vegetables as ordinary food in the daily diet,
but also have other parts commonly used in folk medicine. Nonetheless, the
potential challenge of adding these medicinal foods to the diet to provide
potential opportunities for prospective drug development cannot be ignored.
With the prevalence of chronic ailments and related pathological
problems, health has become a major factor of scientific research in finding
new foods and strategies to deal with such public health burdens. The last
few years have seen major challenges in traditional nutrition and medicine
concepts. In fact, the classic concept of “ample nutrition”, that is, the diet
that offers a sufficient amount of nutrition to meet specific organic needs,
has gradually been substituted by the model of “optimal nutrition”. The
model describes food ingredients as having the prospective to promote good
health, increase overall health, and decrease the risk of some diseases (El-
Shemy, 2017).
Therefore, while trying to reveal the various mechanisms through which
food protects the human body, health specialists have discovered that there
are a large number of biologically active compounds called phytochemicals.
It’s the driving force behind the concept of “functional food”. “Functional
food” is further expressed in various terms, such as “medicinal food”,
“vitamin food” or “pharma food”. Medicinal edible plants can be described
as plants whose edible parts are recognized as beneficial in traditional
medicine, ethnographic medicine or biomedicine.
From research, a holistic concept of medicinal food can be obtained,
that is, food that’s not designed to satisfy hunger, only basic trace elements
and micronutrients are provided to the human body, and biologically active
ingredients are also provided to it, which helps reduce nutrition-related
illnesses and guarantee physical and mental wellbeing. On the contrary,
nutritional supplements are described as “foods or partial foods that offer
234 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

medical or health advantages, including disease prevention and treatment.”

The key difference is that health foods can be taken as pills, capsules
and tablets in a non-food matrix, while practical or medicinal foods are
considered part of regular foods.
The intake and form of medicinal foods must be expected for dietary
reasons. Functional food was first introduced in Japan during the early 1980s,
and is known as Food for Special Health Usage (FOSHU). So far, there is
no true unified definition of functional food. Nevertheless, the EU project
“Functional Food Science in Europe” (FUFOSE) puts forward the following
statement: “If it is satisfactorily proven that a food beneficially affects one or
multiple target functions within the human body, past the appropriate scope,
then the food may be regarded as a functional food. The nutritional effect
improves the overall physical condition or/and reduces the risk of disease.”
On the contrary, drugs or medicines are specially designed and
developed for the treatment, cure or prevention of diseases. Under normal
circumstances, this does not form any part of our makeup. Moreover, the
drug has higher potency and biological activity than phytochemicals usually
ingested in small amounts in the diet, and exerts physiological impacts
only after long-term usage. Therefore, it may be considered to be a balance
between medicinal foods and the traditional foods and medicines, called
“pharma nutrition interface” (El-Shemy, 2017).

9.3.3 Resurgence of Food Plants As Therapeutic Products

As early as the Middle Stone Age, there have been records of using plants
for treatment. Since then, the overall value of this particular treatment has
been sustained by traditional medical systems (such as Ayurveda, Unani
and Chinese medicine). According to the definition of the World Health
Organization (WHO), “traditional medicine refers to the sum of knowledge,
abilities and practices founded on the theories, belief systems and experiences
inherent in different cultures. These are used to maintain health and prevent
and diagnose diseases, and improve or treat physical or mental ailments
(Ozturk & Hakeem, 2018).
For generations, knowledge on botanical medicines and superb skills
in preparing medicines have made humans aware of the preventive benefits
of certain plants, and depend on their traditional herbal medicine to meet
healthcare needs. Crops are mostly administered in their crude form, such
as infusion (herbal tea), alcoholic extract, boiling extract and syrup (herbal
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 235

extract made from syrup or honey), or used externally as plaster, ointment

and essential oil. In the earliest complete record, Egyptian hieroglyphics
emphasized the use of more than 700 plants or herbs as supplements. Papyrus
Ebers notes that among the herbs still in use currently is the Aloe vera L.
There is a strong link between foods and pharmacology to maintain health
and treat various diseases. Indeed, Hippocrates in 500 BC said: ‘Let food be
your medicine, let medicine be your food.’ A statement that highlights the
numerous medicinal benefits of foods.
For instance, spices commonly used as flavoring agents or flavor
enhancers in foods are defined as “body metabolism influencers”. Turmeric
(Curcuma) is traditionally applied in Indian cooking, and its curcumin active
ingredient is believed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammation and anti-cancer
properties. It is believed that this is mediated by inhibition of different cell
signaling pathways, enzyme inhibition (such as glutathione S-transferase and
cyclooxygenase), immune regulation, and impacts on angiogenesis or cell to
cell adhesion. Garlic, which can be taken raw or cooked, has considerable
amounts of allicin compound. It has been proven to have the effect of
lowering LDL cholesterol, while increasing HDL content, antihypertensive
effect, and improving blood circulation. Peppermint meanwhile has long
been applied to treat digestive challenges, such as bloating, abdominal
distension, and challenges in evacuation, which is due to its muscle relaxing
effect, whereas thyme and sage are used to treat gastrointestinal problems.
The plant can treat spastic gastrointestinal discomfort, bronchitis, laryngitis,
cough, and tonsillitis (Ozturk & Hakeem, 2018).
Custard Apple (Sugar Apple): Annona squamosa, also called custard
apple or sugar apple, is a sizeable tropical tree native to South America,
but distributed in India and many other tropical nations. The mature pulp
contains around 90 grams of calories, of which sugar content is 14%, amino
acid lysine (54 to 69mg), and also contains ascorbic acid and carotene. The
different chemical components derived from the leaves, roots and stems
of the plant are; isocorydine, aporphine, anonaine, glaucine, coryeline and
norcorydine.
Usually, custard apple is applied as an antitumor agent, antidiabetic
treatment, antioxidant, antilipidic and antiinflammatory agent, and its
characteristics may be because of the presence of cyclic peptides. To fight
heart failure or irregular heartbeat, infuse 2 fresh leaves in a liter of water (1
cup after a meal). The infusion is also effectual for proper digestion, including
antispasmodic activity. Its seeds are also mentioned to have antiparasitic
236 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

properties (anti-lice), apart from showing potential for combating kidney

failure.
Breadfruit: Artocarpus altilis, also called the breadfruit, is a pan-
tropical tree widely dispersed in Southeast Asia and many Pacific islands. It
is the main food crop of Oceania and the key constituent of the traditional
agroforestry system. The nutrients of breadfruit vary by variety. Fresh fruits
contain about 22.8 to 77.3 grams of carbohydrates (68 percent of which
is starch), calcium (15 to 31mg), potassium (352 mg), phosphorus (35 to
80mg), and niacin (1 to 2 mg). It is projected that 2 cups or (500 micrograms)
of breadfruit cooked at lunch or dinner provides around 25 micrograms of
fiber, while similar quantities of white rice only provide 6.8 micrograms.
Breadfruit is a good source of prenylrich phenolic compounds (such
as flavonoids). For example, artocarpin isolated from A. altilis heartwood
extract has a strong α-reductase inhibiting impact and superoxide anion
scavenging activity. Ingredients found in the fruit can effectively treat
rheumatic and muscle ache, and the decoction has been proved to be an
effective antidote, which can inhibit the effects of consuming poisonous
fish. Indigenous people in Indonesia and the Pacific Islands use pulp as a
liver supplement to fight hypertension and liver cirrhosis.
Jackfruit: The Artocarpus heterophyllus or jackfruit is a tropical tree
that’s native to the Indian Western Ghats and Malaysia. It’s also found
in Eastern and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, the Caribbean and various
Pacific islands. Based on the kind of jackfruit, some nutrients found within
this fruit include; protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium,
phosphorus and potassium. Studies show that nearly all components of a
jackfruit tree can be used in preparation of different Ayurvedic and Unani
remedies, and the consumption of mature fruits can prevent the formation of
excessive bile, promote new tissue growth, strengthen the body and enhance
vitality. (Ranasinghe et al., 2019)
The water extract of the mature jackfruit leaves of is commonly used
in traditional medicine in India and Sri Lanka to treat diabetes. Root can
be used to treat various skin ailments, asthma and diarrhea. The ashes
from burning the bark are thought to cure abscesses and ear conditions.
Infusion of mature bark and leaves should be effective in treating gallstones,
diabetes, and alleviating asthma. Jackfruit is found in China’s medical
systems to overcome alcohol’s effects. Based on the type, jackfruit has been
found to be rich in carotenoids, sterols, tannins, artocarpesin, artocarpetin,
norartocarpetin and other important compounds.
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 237

In particular, by inhibiting the production of prostaglandin E2 and nitric

oxide in macrophages, it was specifically found that Artocarpesin can reduce
obesity-related inflammation. The compound has the capacity to reduce cell
viability in a dose-dependent way, causing cell morphological changes and
inducing apoptosis of T47-D breast cancer cells. According to research,
Artopcarpin and Gemichalcones A. have moderate inhibitory functions on
the production of H460 and of PC-3 cell lines.
Jambolan: The Eugenia jambolana plant, widely known as the black
plum, jamun or jambolan is a tropical crop that’s native to India and produces
rectangular or oval fruits (berries) every year. Ripe fruits contain about 60
Kcal of energy, pantothenic acid (0.16 mg), water (83.13 g), vitamin C (14.3
mg), vitamin A (3 IU), phosphorus (17 mg), calcium (19 mg), potassium
(79 mg), magnesium (15 mg), iron (16.2 mg) and sodium (14 mg). The
glycosides present in Jambolan seeds are thought to have anti-diabetic
effects. It’s also mentioned to be a good source of ellagitannins, such as
corilagin, 1-galloyl glucose, ellagic acid and gallic acid.
The preparation of a decoction of 5 grams of ground jambolan seeds in
15 ml of water can prevent diabetes and is taken 3 times a day. Bark and
guava bark (Psidium guajava) may be infused together for prevention of
dysentery and diarrhea. According to Unani’s medical system, these fruits
are commonly used as liver supplements to enrich the blood and reinforce
teeth and gums. For India, the juice extracted from leaves is churned with
milk and consumed orally twice per day, after three months of consumption
your diabetes will be kept in check.
Taking fresh fruit can relieve stomach pain, colic, and other digestive
disorders. Mix the juice of the stem bark with butter milk then take it orally
before bed every day to treat constipation. It is said that the same formula
can prevent the excretion of blood in stool for those with stomach ulcers,
especially when consumed on empty stomach each morning. The juice in the
bark is also provided to women having a history of recurrent miscarriages.
Pitanga Fruit (Cayenne Cherry): Eugenia uniflora, or pitanga fruit
is a tropical environment fruit-bearing plant that’s native to Surinam, and
extensively distributed all through Brazil. Its ripe fruit has about phosphorus
(11 mg), carotene (1200–2000 IU), calcium (9 mg) and ascorbic acid (20 to
30 mg). Prepare to infuse young leaves or shoots and lemon grass leaves
(Cymbopogon citratus) to fight the flu and relieve headaches. Infusion is
also effective for diarrhea and bleeding gums.
238 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

In Nigeria, water decoction is mixed with guava and neem to inhibit

infant fever and abdominal discomfort. All over Brazil, ripe fruits are used
as diuretics, anti-rheumatic drugs, fever medicines and anti-inflammatory
medication, including a healing agent for abdominal illnesses. In Paraguay,
the solution is typically used to lower blood cholesterol levels and control
blood pressure.
Bottle Gourd: Lagenaria siceraria, also known as Bottle Gourd or
Molina, is a bell-like fruit whose aerial portions are taken as vegetables. The
fruit has a low energy level (14 Kcal) and reduced fat content (0.02grams),
however the vitamin C (10mg), and water (96%) are moderate. The iron
matter of the Molina after peeling is 11.87mg. It’s also a great source of
phosphorus (240mg), magnesium (162mg) and potassium (3320mg).
This product is rich in heart glycosides, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids and
saponins.
The bottle gourd fruit contains decent amounts of choline-lipotrophic
elements, which are known as important for treating mental disorders. Based
on scientific reports, it also has triterpenoid cucurbitacin compounds G, B,
D, H and 22-deoxycucurbitacins. You can prepare a soup of tender fruit or
inject sprouts to fight diabetes and high blood pressure (2-3 cups a day), and
the soup of bottle gourd seeds can effectively clean the digestive system and
prevent constipation.
The fruit’s peel when consumed for 3 days at a frequency of 1 cup can
treat diabetes. The fruit pulp is considered to have a calming effect, diuretic
and anti-biliary properties, and can effectively fight cough, asthma, fever and
other bronchial diseases. The decoction of bottle gourd leaves may be used
to inhibit jaundice, whereas young fruits’ skin decoction can be consumed
to prevent uremia, inflammation and diabetes.
Bitter Melon: Bitter melon (Morordica charantia), also known as
karela, is a valuable vegetable worldwide and has been widely used in folk
remedy as an anti-diabetic drug. Momordica charantia grows in tropical
zones of Asia, East Africa, the Amazon, Caribbean and South America. The
energy value of fruit (per 100 micrograms) is 60 microcalories, containing
approximately 23 micrograms of calcium, 171 micrograms of potassium, 2.4
micrograms of sodium, 119.92 micrograms of magnesium, 5.97 micrograms
of iron, 38 micrograms of phosphorus, 96 micrograms of vitamin C and
126 micrograms of beta -carotene. Based on the variety from wild type to
hybrid green or white, the reducing sugar level of bitter melon is negligible,
and the total protein is 1.17% to 2.4%. Other phytochemicals found in this
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 239

plant include momorcharins, momordicilin, momordicinin, momordolol,

charantin, cryptoxanthin, cucurbitacins, diosgenin, elaeostearic acids,
galacturonic acids, and multiflorenol.
In India, it is used for birth control, eczema, fat loss, constipation,
diabetes, food, hydrophobia, hyperglycemia, fever, gout, hemorrhoids,
increased milk flow, kidney stones, leprosy, pneumonia, psoriasis, intestinal
parasites, jaundice, rheumatism and leucorrhea. Simply add bitter melon
leaves and two water cups to make soup. Traditionally, those with diabetes
must drink a third of a cup every day to efficiently manage blood sugar
levels. Indeed, various scientific studies have confirmed that fresh bitter
melon juice can reduce blood sugar levels while keeping insulin levels
under control.
Peptide-p is among the few widely studied active elements in balsam
pear. Several possible modes of the hypoglycemic effect of M. charantia
have been proposed. These measures include glucose utilization stimulation
in the adjacent and skeletal muscles, inhibition of abdominal glucose
uptake, adipocyte differentiation inhibition, prevention of vital glycogen
xenoenzymes, stimulating key enzymes found in the hexose mono-phosphate
pathway, and regeneration and conservation of islet β tissues and their roles.
Drumstick Tree: Moringa Oleifera, commonly known as Horseradish
Tree or the Drumstick Tree, is a pan-tropical plant that’s native to the
Himalayas of India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The Unani and
Ayurvedic medicinal systems have for years been using the drug. Various
parts of this plant, such as flowers, leaves and pods are edible, and commonly
used as nutritious vegetables, plus even to combat malnutrition. Moringa is
even promoted as “natural nutrition in tropical regions”. For folk medicine,
the leaves are commonly used as laxatives, plasters for treating sores, and
rubbed on the temples to cause sore throats, bronchitis, headaches, fever,
and ear and eye infections.
According to research, the plant’s leaf juice can control glucose ratios
and can be applied locally to ease gland swelling. You may also pour the
root juice bark into the ear for relief against pain. In Philippines, it’s called
“the mother’s best friend” because of its capacity to increase breast milk
production, and is usually endorsed for anemia. Based on reports, Moringa
leaves “ounce-to-ounce” contain more beta-carotene than carrots, higher
calcium level than milk, higher iron than spinach, plus more potassium
compared to bananas.
240 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Concerning the medicinal significance of Camellia oleifera leaves,

because of the presence of certain ingredients like benzyl isothiocyanate,
mustard oleyl benzyl ester, nicotinicin, psyllium, moringa may show blood
pressure lowering effects in consumers. Niacinamide is similarly believed
to have chemical properties that relax the bronchiole, an attribute that’s
useful for treating respiratory illnesses. Regarding the medicinal properties
of its leaves, due to the presence of specific ingredients such as benzyl
isothiocyanate, nicotinicin, benzyl isothiocyanate, psyllium, and benzyl
isothiocyanate. The isolated composites (like niacin and nicotinamide)
might show blood pressure reducing effects in users.
Pomegranate: Punica granatum, widely known as pomegranate,
grenades (France) and Granada (Spain), is native from Iran to northern
India. Since ancient times, it has been cultivated and naturalized throughout
the Mediterranean area and has been used in various medical systems for
various diseases. In the Ayurvedic medical system, nearly all parts (flowers,
seeds, fruits, leaves and bark) have been applied for treatment. For example,
it’s been applied as an antiparasitic and blood-enriching medicine to prevent
aphthous ulcers, diarrhea and ulcers. Furthermore, in the Unani medicinal
system, it’s also applied for managing diabetes. It’s further been stated that a
decoction primed in the percentage of 1:5 with water and bark is suggested
for fighting intestinal worms.
Decoction of bark, cinnamon and clove (lilac) is used for diarrhea.
Pomegranate is called “the pharmacy itself”. The approximate nutritional
value of pomegranate fruit per 100 micrograms is as follows: water
(77.93 micrograms), protein (1.67 micrograms), carbohydrates (18.70
micrograms), total lipid (1.17 micrograms), fiber (4 micrograms), calcium
(10 micrograms), Iron (0.3 mcg), magnesium (12 mcg) and phosphorus (36
mcg). Pomegranate aril juice furthermore can provide about 16 percent of
an grownup’s daily vitamin C needs per 100 mL, and is a great source of
potassium and vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid).
Phytochemical separation and identification revealed various functional
components in different parts of the medicinal plant. Pomegranate leaf
extract contains tannins, such as punicalin, gallic acid, ellagic acid and
pedunculagin. The flower comprises of ursolic acid, triterpenes such as
oleanolic acid, sorbic acid and asiatic acid. Pomegranate seeds are rich
sources of conjugated lipids (such as linoleic and linolenic acids), and other
lipids (like punicic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and phytosterols). Its
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 241

juice is known to contain lots of antioxidants for polyphenols, tannins, lipoic

acid, anthocyanins and coenzyme Q10.
Black Nightshade: Solanum is usually grown as a weed on wet land and
is semi-cultivated in some countries in Indonesia and Africa. It’s mostly used
as a vegetable. The energy value of the leaves is 38 of Kcal, calcium (99 to
442 mg), phosphorus (75 mg), iron (1 to 4.2 mg) and ascorbic acid (20 mg),
but the oxalic acid content is also very high (about 58–90 mg) . It’s been
discovered that Solanum or Black Nightshade comprises of sugar alkaloids,
like solanine, saponins and glycoproteins, which exhibit antitumor activity.
In Southern India, fresh leaves boiled with onion bulbs or cumin seeds
are used to treat stomach pains. In the case of low blood pressure, anemia
and improved vision, it is also recommended to cook the leaves. The fresh
leaf juice is mixed with honey for painful lesions on the buccal mucosa.
Juice can also be used for burns. Boil a small amount of leaves in 1 liter of
water and then use it to reduce fever.
The leaves are commonly applied as a plaster for rheumatic or gouty
joints. The leaves are furthermore used for edema, nausea and nerve diseases.
Plant decoction inhibits central nervous system and spinal cord reflexes.
The entire plant is applied as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, expectorant,
digestive, cardiotonic and laxative for treating swelling, coughs, and asthma.
This plant is also good at treating hemorrhoids, eye disease, kidney disease,
and fatigue.
Leaf decoction may be taken once per day on empty stomach for 1 week
or so to control stomach ulcers. The moisture extract of this plant shows
protection against carbon tetrachloride-induced terminal liver damage in
some users, besides this liver protection might be because of its management
of detoxification enzymes including its impacts as antioxidant and free-
radical scavengers. The plant water extract has anti-proliferative activity, as
evidenced by the growth reduction of cervical cancer. The anti-proliferative
effects of solanine against transformed cell lines in vitro is mainly due to
its capacity to promote apoptosis induction by inhibiting the anti-apoptotic
protein Bcl-2.
242 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

9.4 CHALLENGES FOR MEDICINAL PLANT USAGE

Figure 9.4: Medicinal plants are not properly regulated like prescription drugs,
they can also be risky to consume

Source: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-13-1123-9_28

9.4.1 Quality, Safety and Efficacy isn’t Guaranteed

The main challenge for any pharmaceutical researcher is the general quality,
safety and effectiveness of herbal products. Also, preservation and dose
measurement are areas of concern in developing countries. The labeling
statement and other information about the use of herbs may be very different
from the content in the “bottle”. Some sharp practices have been reported,
such as some traditional medical practitioners adding orthodox drugs
to herbal preparations. Different orthodox drugs can be added to herbal
preparations, but the results of these concoctions are not well understood by
science (Pozharitskaya et al, 2015).
Simply because a plant is natural doesn’t mean that it’s safe, and reliable
evidence usually does not prove that it has a strong healing ability. Unluckily,
many countries don’t have regulatory policies that can successfully protect
their residents from the problems identified. For instance, herbal products
are moderated as dietary supplements in America and are thus not subject
to requirements that should be met before patented drugs enter the market.
There are reports that certain herbs are contaminated, toxic or obstruct
the metabolism of medications used for treating cancer or AIDS, reducing
the enthusiasm of American consumers for herbs. Consequently, in the past
two years, sales of American herbal products have decreased. The public
now wants more authoritative information sources within the U.S, and to
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 243

attain reliable pharmacopoeia or website data about medications they are

using.
Despite many challenges, botanicals still provide clinical and research
prospects, and when considering stricter regulation of these products, they
shouldn’t be ignored. There is no doubt that the therapeutic properties
of many plants hasn’t yet been fully discovered. The recent discovery of
artemisinin (a novel antimalarial drug) in Chinese herbal medicine supports
this view. However, if you want to place botanical medicine in a respected
position in modern health care, you must greatly improve the quality of
data and herbal products themselves, including the supervision of plant
medicines (Pozharitskaya et al, 2015).

9.4.2 Lack of Appropriate Regulation

Another challenge is the legislation that determines the trade and sale of
medicinal or functional food. Each country has its own legislation around
functional food. In the United States, functional foods are managed by the
FDA plus also comprise of dietary supplements. In the European Union,
there’s no legislation on functional food, and there isn’t any legal authority
to define it. For protection of public health, it must be ensured that such
novel foods and functional food components are added to the market along
with nutritional and health declaration guidelines, plus safety assessments
must be conducted through community procedures before any plant-based
product is released into the market (Singh, 2006).
Health-related statements should have a scientific basis and be effective
for foods consumed, or for expected future usage to reach the minimum
effective dose, and be clearly, understandably, and truthfully informed
to consumers. The role of European Food Safety Authority or (EFSA)
is to provide scientific insights into the safety of edible plants and their
biologically active ingredients. EFSA further requires RCT (Randomized
Controlled Tests) to prove that the compound has beneficial physiological
impacts on healthy people.
Nevertheless, a problem that arises is that the RCT may only be useful
when analyzing purified compounds, but then it becomes almost impossible
in the entire food plant, because there are many biologically active
compounds with different physiological targets in the whole food plant.
Moreover, the phytochemical composition is very different in hydrophilicity
and lipophilicity and in various parts of the plant (Singh, 2006).
244 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Therefore, traditional knowledge is still an important characteristic

and must not in the expense of emergent science and technology. For the
functional food safety assessment of the EU, this is still crucial. Especially
in countries without proper regulations, because it tells us which plant parts
are traditionally used, the method of preparation (decoction, infusion, or
alcohol extract) and the specific circumstances of use.

9.4.3 More Research is needed on Their Properties

Although the success of functional foods market and trade is due to various
factors, such as the emergence of research-based collaborative networks
and “industrial marriage”, a joint effort of the pharmaceutical industry
to develop shared resources and skills for the sharing of functional food
products. For food manufacturers, consumer recognition is still the decisive
factor for positive marketplace response. The challenge is that consumers
prefer eating healthily in a low-calorie and nutritive value-added manner
without missing the enjoyment of eating, due to some artificially improved
food texture or quality (Singh, 2006).
Therefore, it is clear that the collaboration between food scientists,
technologists, nutritionists as well as food designers may be crucial
for the development of functional foods, particularly in maintaining
the bio-accessibility and functionality of the added active ingredients.
Presently, efforts are still ongoing to understand the physiological and
behavioral connections between pharmaceutical foods and drugs, their
pharmacodynamics and pharmacnetics. Because of the complex nature
of plant substrates including their bioactive molecules, this still poses
challenges for the scientific community. Little is understood about the
process by which metabolites get absorbed into the human body, complete
their biological goals and are cleared.
There is also a risk of food-drug and nutrient-drug interaction. From a
clinical point of view, it is considered important if the interaction changes
the treatment response. The interaction between food and drugs can lead
to two main clinical impacts: reduced bioavailability of the drug (simple
to cause failure of treatment) or increased bioavailability (increased risk of
negative reactions and may even cause toxicity) (Singh, 2006).
The possibility of patients undergoing biotransformation in the
gastrointestinal system, or through liver metabolism must not be lined out
or ignored. This is essential for evaluating the therapeutic effect of purified
composites. It’s because the active component may not be existent in the
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 245

primary medicinal food, however only produced after metabolic conversion

and absorption. Under this framework, the latest developments in the field
of practical food design and innovation have shown that through keenly
selecting and creating delivery and protection structures like the use of
micro-particles, the bio accessibility of biologically active ingredients can be
enhanced. Microencapsulation refers to the process of packaging functional
ingredients (core) in auxiliary materials (sealant) to form beneficial
microcapsules (2 to 2000 μm).
This encapsulate, which is in form of a shell or matrix, forms the
protective layer around the core, separating it from the surrounding setting
(time, pressure, pH, water activity, enzyme action and physical force)
until its environmental change triggers release. This prevents undesirable
interactions of biologically active substances with other food ingredients or
chemical reactions which may cause the degradation of biologically active
substances, which may adversely affect taste and odor and negatively affect
health.
Researchers have reported the effect of microencapsulated factors on
the overall quality of pomegranate phenolic resin products, and established
that compared with the control group, the adding of micro-encapsulated
pomegranate peel phenolic resin can significantly improve the antioxidant
and α-glucosidase inhibition of concentrated ice cream products. This shows
that more research is needed to fully understand the health impacts of plant
ingredients (Singh, 2006).

9.4.4 Some Medicinal Plants are Toxic as Much as they are

Helpful
A study found that some herbs may cause kidney and liver damage for
some consumers, since they contain toxic compounds or heavy metals, or
have harmful reactions with other drugs. The discovery came from a paper
that was published in the Australian Medical Journal. Scientists led by
University of Adelaide reviewed the findings of 52 herbal and toxicological
treatments. The principal author of the review, Professor of Pathology Roger
Byard, stated that the Therapy Drugs Administration (TDA) must require
independent tests on herbal medicines before they’re placed on the market,
plus when products do not comply with the regulations, some legal action
can be considered (Kiarash, Bilal, & Mesut 2012).
The Australian government is already implementing the results of an
independent evaluation of drug regulation including supplementary and
246 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

alternative products. For manufacturers that make misleading and false

statements, penalties will be imposed. The toxic and negative effects of
using herbs for traditional societies have not frequently been reported, plus
they are regularly mentioned to support their safety. Nevertheless, the lack of
methodical observation means that until recently, serious adverse reactions
(like those caused by certain plant species are known to cause kidney failure
or liver damage.
In Australia, the main users of herbal medicine are women below 35
years old with college education. Pharmacologists mention that many herbal
medicine users don’t inform their physicians that they are consuming the
substance, since they believe it’s natural and therefore harmless. But herbs
can be a rather powerful toxin source. In fact, most products we use as plant-
derived drugs are toxic and can poison users. These toxins can be used in
low concentrations to produce beneficial medical effects.
Some people think that since herbal medicines are extracted from natural
products, they are not medicines, but in fact they are. They may cause harm
to prescription drugs or harmful interactions. There’s also concern that
people would purchase herbal products from abroad, some of which may
be illegally integrated into chemical medicines to improve the efficacy of
herbal products (Kiarash, Bilal, & Mesut, 2012).
A large portion of these products do not conform to government
regulations. In some instances, these ingredients aren’t listed or the
concentration report is incorrect. After around a year of evaluation, 24% of
herbal preparations in Taiwan, for instance, were found to have prescription
drugs. Studies found that other medications found in herbal products are;
antibiotics, psychoactive drugs and steroids.

9.4.5 Poor Market Placement and Lack of Regulation

For the pharmaceutical sector, it makes sense to devote time and cash
developing new drugs simply if the drug application, the compound that
prepares the compound, or the process of preparing the drug is protected
by a patent. Because the cost of drug development is quite high, the
pharmaceutical business is only interested in developing totally new active
pharmaceutical ingredients, because only these ingredients can be patented.
The pharmaceutical sector is generally less interested in medicinal
plants because they don’t have a single, definable and entirely new active
component. Phytopharmaceutical manufacturers are also very aware
of the issue of patent protection and solve this problem by developing
 Challenges and Future Prospects of Medicinal Plants 247

distinct extracts that pass through patent-protected production processes.

They “develop” a unique method to enrich or eliminate substances from
the extract, thereby making the extract special. The invention can then be
secured with patents. These extracts have been tried in clinical trials, are
seeking approval, and like standard drugs, have been approved. Even though
this special manufacturing procedure allows manufacturers to safeguard
their plant-based products, other producers can simply find a way to avoid it
(Pozharitskaya, et al, 2015).
As for regulations, EU law largely covers herbal producers. For example,
if the WHO or other monographs indicate that the plant seeking regulatory
approval is a renowned medicinal plant, and the expert monograph confirms
the efficacy of the plant, only a few small clinical tests are required to obtain
the “good use” marketing authorization for that product. The applicant must
prove the product’s quality, but doesn’t have to perform the all-inclusive
clinical tests that the compound must meet.
A large number of WHO, HMPC and ESCOP monograph collections
mention medicinal plants much more compared to the preparation methods,
with “good use” authorization in the marketplace. The European Union
introduced a European command to simplify the registration of conventional
herbal products. Manufacturers looking for approval for the so-called
THMP or (traditional herbal products) must prove that these items have
been used in the medical field for around 30 years, including roughly 15
years in the European Union. Applicants also need to prove the efficacy of
the herbs seeking approval without any side effects. Therefore, most herbal
producers use THMP. Nevertheless, the disadvantage of this selection is
that the product can’t be patented. The first company to put a THMP-based
item on the market performs all registrations, and all subsequent registered
companies can simply copy the product (Pozharitskaya, et al, 2015).
10
Conservation Strategies for
Ethnomedicinal Plants

CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 250
10.2 Traditional Medicine And Its Use .................................................. 251
10. 3 Threats To Ethnomedicinal Plants .................................................. 255
10.4 Conservation of Medicinal And Aromatic Plants ........................... 261
10.5 Strategies For Conservation. ........................................................... 267
250 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The different cultures from ancient times and the contemporary world have
used plants for medicinal purposes. Currently according to the world health
organization about eighty percent of the global population depend on plant
sources for medicine, especially for their primary healthcare needs. In
traditional medicine, traditional healers depended on the use of compounds
from plants. Research done by the organization has also shown that the use of
plants for medicinal purposes is still rising even among young populations.
Medicinal plants are not only used by populations in developing
countries but also developed countries. For example, in the United States,
a quarter of all prescription medicine from community pharmacies between
1959 and 1980 came from plant components. Other countries that have
taken interests include countries from Asia such as India, Korea, Japan, and
China which are some of the countries commonly cited when it comes to
the use of traditional medicine. The World Health Organization in its report
has noted that in Australia, Europe and North America complementary
and alternative medicine is being utilized parallel to allopathic medicine
especially in the treatment and management of chronic illnesses. Similarly,
the report also showed that 31% of the population in Belgium, 49% of
the population in France and 70 % of the population uses complementary
and alternative medicine at least once. The acceptance and the utilization
of traditional medicine was also revealed to be in high demand and also
marketable. Developed countries like the United States and Canada are
involved in the trade of medicinal plants and a revenue of about five hundred
million annually has been reported by the world health organization. With
these other countries like Australia, China and Mexico have gone further to
foster the integration of traditional medicine into their health care systems
(Hamilton, 2004).
In continents like Africa the use of traditional medicine in the treatment
of diseases is not an uncommon occurrence. Reports by the world health
organization state that a large population of people from Africa rely on the
use of medicinal plants. The use of medicinal plants have been documented
in all African regions but the numbers have changed as people have continued
to embrace contemporary medicine.
The demand for medicinal plants globally is as a result of their benefits
receiving recognition especially due to the fact that most of them have no
side effects, affordability of the products and in some cases it happens that it
is the only source of healthcare in the case of poor populations. Traditionally,
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 251

medicinal plants have had an important position in the socio cultural,

spiritual and medicinal arena for both rural and indigenous community in
countries like India.
Medicinal plants are comprised of almost eight thousand species and
account for about fifty percent of all flowering plants in countries like
India. Medicinal plants can be used for self-help mode. Scientists urge
ethnobotanical prospecting in order to make new discoveries on medicinal
plants. Despite these efforts plant diversity is being lost at an increasing rate
through over exploitation and also through evolutionary replacement. As
much as it is necessary to intensify exploratory efforts in the discovery of
medicinal plants, it is also important to pair or link this with conservation
efforts. This can be done by developing sustainable conservation strategies
for medicinal plants since demand by humans can lead to environmental
havoc and deterioration of biological diversity. There is the need to increase
the involvement of developing countries in exploring medicinal plants and
also their conservation. This move is justified on scientific, economic and
cultural basis (Hamilton, 2004).

10.2 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND ITS USE

We cannot put a price on the value of traditional medicine. Traditional
medicine was created in the course of history and has long been used in the
prevention and treatment of diseases for long periods of time. Traditional
systems of medicine mostly used plant resources and it still remains a major
source of primary healthcare. Approximately forty percent of pharmaceuticals
globally come from plants, algae, fungi and also bacteria and about seventy
percent of all pharmaceutical products originate from plants.
Asian populations are commonly used in case studies when it comes to
the use of medicinal plants and they use such plants for different medicinal
purposes. Plants have been used in it the treatment of simple illnesses such as
common cold to the management of chronic illnesses and also in enhancing
the body’s immunity. India has one of the richest cultures concerning the
use of plants for medicine. Their culture has similarly become relevant to
the contemporary world as it can ensure health security for large numbers of
people to its local and also the global population. There about twenty-five
thousand effective plant based formulations used by traditional communities
and known to the locals all over India and about a thousand formulations
available in the indigenous medical texts (Hamilton, 2004).
252 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

The use of plants for medicinal purposes is therefore a practice that cannot
end whether for indigenous communities or by pharmaceutical companies.
It is therefore important for countries or populations to develop and utilize
traditional medicinal plants. Since it is important in developing health care
services and it creates provisions that cater for national cultures especially
in developing countries. The benefits of traditional medicinal plants can
therefore not be over emphasized. These form of health care services are
easily accessible to local communities, they are also accessible, are easy
to manage and finally they are financially accessible. In the presence of
rich traditional medicinal resources, the efficacy of prevention and disease
treatment can be done using relevant, but in comparison the use of non-
complex technology with few side effects (Leaman, 2011).

10.2.1 Modern Medicine from Nature

Throughout the history of many before major developments in the field
of medicine, botany and medicine were used for practical purposes and
fields that were seen as almost similar. Traditional healers most of the
time were accomplished botanists. It can be said to represent most likely
the oldest profession in the evolution of human culture. Developments in
terms of technology has changed these and people do not only rely on plants
for medicine as some of the medicine is synthetically manufactured by
companies using modern technology and is based on knowledge from fields
such as chemistry.
Plants have served as a means of treatment for many indigenous
communities. Ethnobotany is a field closely related to botany that seeks to
discover plant species.it is essential for the conservation process given that
on a few species have their value investigated. The poor understanding of the
value of plants is all over the tropics and calls for continued ethnobotanical
research and its need should be emphasized. Most of the plant derived
compounds used in modern medicine were discovered through such means.
About 119 pure chemical substances were extracted from higher plants
and are used in medicines globally and about seventy five percent of these
extracts have similar uses as the plants from which they were extracted
(Leaman, 2011).
For example, the periwinkle represents a classic example of relevant
plants used in traditional societies. This plant is a source of more than
seventy five alkaloids and some of which are used in the treatment childhood
leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease and has had a significant rate of success.
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 253

Quinine has also been extracted from the cinchona bark and has been
used for a long time in the treatment of malaria. It was commonly used
by Indians in the seventeenth century who used the crude extracts to treat
malarial fevers. These are only but a few merits of the field of ethnobotany.
There are four different ways in which plants are used by indigenous
communities and are still valuable to contemporary medicine. Plants from
the tropics were used directly as sources of therapeutic compounds for
instance the alkaloid D tubocuranine , which was derived from a liane and
has been commonly used during surgery as a muscle relaxer.
Secondly, they used plants to provide resources as starting points for
more elaborate and complex synthetic compounds. For example saponin,
a compound derived from Dioscorea, was chemically altered and used in
the production of sapogenins which are necessary for the manufacture of
steroidal drugs. Thirdly, tropical Flora was purposely used as a source of
substances that can be used as models for the production of a number of
local anesthesia. Cocaine from the plant Erythroxylum coca, has functioned
as a model for the synthesis of a number of local anesthetics such as propane
(Leaman, 2011).
Finally, plant have also been used as taxonomic markers to discover
new plants compounds. For instance although there isn’t much known about
the chemical compound in the Orchidaceae , plants within this family have
been investigated due to their similarities with plants from the Liliaceae .
From this research it was concluded that not only were they rich in alkaloids
but their alkaloids also expressed some uniqueness and would be extremely
important in the future of medicine. Such natural resources require urgent
attention which falls in line with the current needs of modern medicine. It is
necessary to make considerations with regards to the importance of medicinal
plants especially for developing nations. A lot of these nations rely on plant
resources for medicine and in most cases they are unable to spend a lot of
money when it comes to the exportation of modern medicine. In some cases,
they rely on the goodwill of developed countries when it comes to accessing
such medicine as some of them are expensive. The benefit of traditional
medicine is their local availability and are accepted by local communities.
An ideal situation would be to develop local pharmaceutical industries
which will foster the creation of jobs, reduce the costs of importation,
generate income, encourage the documenting of traditional ethnobotanical
lore and this should be based on conservation and the sustainable use of
plant resources or diversity (Leaman, 2011).
254 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

Figure 10.1. A table showing different threatened plant species in India.

Source: http://www.rroij.com/open-access/biodiversity-and-strategies-
for-conservation-of-rare-endangered-and-threatened-medicinal-plants-.
php?aid=34256

Figure 10.2. Major plant drugs with no synthetic substitutes.

Source: http://www.rroij.com/open-access/biodiversity-and-strategies-
for-conservation-of-rare-endangered-and-threatened-medicinal-plants-.
php?aid=34256
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 255

10. 3 THREATS TO ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS

10.3.1 Overexploitation
Over extraction of medicinal plants has threatened the future of several
species. Such exploitation may be due two reasons, one is increased market
demand and the other is increased subsistence use owing to population. This
goes on to impact access to traditional medicine and also acts as a threat to
commercially valuable wild species.
Medicinal plants found within developing countries are extracted from
the wild. About 15,000 of plant species used for medicinal purposes come
from the wild. There is a threat to such plants since they are used in a
manner that is not unsustainable. This threat can be much more serious if
the extraction is for plant parts such as the tubers, roots, bulbs or harvesting
of whole plant parts. Traditionally, in some cases plant parts such as tubers,
roots, bulbs were left to ensure maintain the plant species due to market
pressure and migration control over forests or other natural habitats is broken
making open access or non-existent collection is threatening the survival of
many the survival of many species of plants that are used in both traditional
and modern medicine (Leaman, 2011).
Over exploitation of some of the species for its latex, has led to a decrease
in the population of bees and other insect populations which function as
pollinators and therefore are important in the reproduction of plants and will
therefore affect their regeneration.

10.3.2 Lack of Incentives

Poverty, limited cultivable land and lack of alternatives together with the
need for longer term investment and difficult marketing discourages the
locals from medicinal plant cultivation. Difficulty in accessing and lack of
primary processing units in the transportation cost of medicinal plants is
high, this leaves very little profit margin for those involved in the cultivation
of medicinal plants. Promoting cultivation, processing and utilization of
medicinal plants could be encouraged by providing capital, soft loans and
grants.
The government can also take part in the development of infrastructure
and cooperatives in areas inhabited by indigenous communities. They can
also facilitate the provision of training on the assessment of resources, their
farming, sustainable harvest techniques, processing, storage, manufacture
256 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

and marketing will be useful. This will contribute in conservation of

medicinal plants by utilizing them in a manner that is sustainable. It can
also prevent people from over exploiting, collecting, processing, storing or
transporting wastage and marketing knowledge and improving the quality
of products which will assist in making use of resources in the best possible
way (Hamilton, 2004).
Governments can also make use of resources within their reach to assist
in the establishment of herbariums or encourage private institutions and
organizations to do so. Such facilities or areas can help protects endangered
plant species. When these plant species are protected, knowledge can be
obtained for use in healthcare and this can also be used in teaching. Another
reason that leads to the decline in the use of herbal medicine is with the
change in generation and also that the practice is not profitable which is a
disincentive to young people. The loss of interest by young individuals has
reduced the number of visits to traditional herbalists.

10.3.3 Effect of Climate Change

The change in climate affects all plants including medicinal plants. A
number of plant species that can be utilized for medicinal purposes are yet
to be discovered and still exist in the wild. It is estimated by scientists that
by the year 2100 there will a further increase in temperature largely due
anthropogenic activities. This will have a severe impact on the existing
biodiversity which is already experiencing losses. This will also alter the
lifecycle and development of plants. The medicinal plants sector faces
economic and ecological challenges. Some of these challenges including
changes in geographical limits, plant yields and similarly their cultivation
or production and others. Elevated carbon di oxide levels will affect plant
production and plant quality. For example, elevated CO2 levels were linked
with an increase in the weight of and shoots of spearmint and thyme. Changes
in climate were also linked with an increase in the production of secondary
metabolites this is as a result of the stress created through climate change. In
such cases the growth is usually inhibited compared to photosynthesis and
the carbon fixation that does not go to growth is utilized in the production of
secondary metabolites (Hamilton, 2004).
Different plant species have different responses when it comes to
changes in climate change and so will medicinal species. There are certain
plant species that will stay in the same place while others go on adapt new
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 257

climatic environments based on how they will be selected. There are plant
species that move to higher latitudes. There also plant species that have
symbiotic relationships, if they are no longer present in the same location
then there is a probability of the two species becoming extinct.
Occurrence of pest and diseases has been associated with climate change
especially global warming. Changes that occur making the atmosphere and
environments warmer are likely to attract pests and diseases which thrive in
such environments and in some cases this was not so in the past. This can
put pressure to fragile ecosystems and environments inhabited by medicinal
plants. Habit specific and conservative species with specific requirements
for their growth and development are usually threatened by extinction in
such cases and also if their growth and regeneration period is long.
Research has also shown that a change ranges of specific plant
species have an increased probability in changes related to the community
composition and this leads to loss, dispersal or migration of plant species.
Evidence also shows temperature rises have led to the migration of plant
species that survive in cold environments until there are no longer able to
since the temperature changes are continuous. Climate change is continuous
and as time goes environments will only be able to plants that can expand
and adjust their ranges to survive in different environments than those
they are used to. This are characteristics of plant species that are mostly
considered to be invasive. The increase of temperatures has led to species
shifting and migrating to areas with higher latitudes. The richness of species
has also declined from the lowest to the highest species but the average
population was observed to remain the same. Plants in alpine have also
experienced upward movement and most cases these plants move upwards
until there can no longer find habitable areas and at this point they are likely
to become extinct. For instance, the over exploitation of traditional plants
such as Machilus macarantha has led to a reduction in their numbers and
threatens the extinction in the western ghats which is known for its diversity
(Kasagana & Karumuri, 2011)

10.3.4 Lack of Information and Awareness

Lack of information especially when it comes to medicinal plants that exist
in the wild, impact of pressure on the status of wild medicinal plants, trends
in transmitting traditional knowledge, information about herbal market
and changes is climatic patterns that deter conservation efforts. In order to
258 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

ensure harvesting is done in a manner that is sustainable and it is important

to first gather information on how this will be done. There is also lack of
information on the yield rate and also how first they grow when it comes
to medicinal plants. In third world countries, permits for harvesting are
usually given without information on where the resources come from and
there is also lack of supervision during seasons of harvesting. Such practices
threaten the existence of medicinal plants including species that endemic.
This information has also influenced the development of conservation plans
in most developing countries (Kasagana & Karumuri, 2011).
Industries are also not aware of the threat of extinction they pose to
medicinal plans and this can explain the lack of their initiative when
it comes to the protection of threatened plant species. Those who utilize
medicinal plants may also not be aware of how the harvesting and consistent
use can affect plant diversity and availability since they are not directly
involved in the harvesting process. If they were aware of the situation then
it would be easy for them to advocate for the sustainable harvest of plant
resources. Awareness of problems related to plant diversity and the need
for conservation is usually limited to government officials, conservationists,
policy makers and those taking part in the trade of medicinal plants. Their
threat to medicinal plants can be reduced by conserving plant species that are
threatened after a proper assessment and can also include cultivating them.
The maintenance of genetic diversity is also critical in order for medicinal
plants to adapt to environmental changes.
Traditional knowledge can also be used to avert changes and impacts
of climate change and should also be documented. This should be done
while also making considerations about the livelihoods of these individuals.
Medicinal plants that are perennial such as trees and shrubs can benefit
from sequestration. The above interventions should be paired with the
conservation of plant resources. Research can also be done in the case of
medicinal plants. This can be achieved through studying the said plants and
how they behave in their natural habitats. There is also the need to understand
how climate change affects the phenology of a plant, shifts in the range
of plant species, changes in habitats the secondary metabolites produced
by plants. Studies should also focus on understanding how plants will be
affected by arise in atmospheric carbon di oxide, temperatures and enhanced
ultraviolet radiation especially in the case of secondary metabolites produced
by plants. Scientists should also attempt to monitor long term impacts of
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 259

climatic change and also their effects on the chemistry of medicinal plants
(Hamilton, 2004).

10.3.5 Loss of Knowledge

Traditional knowledge is usually passed down from generation to
generation within a clan, a community or within a tribe. It is done through
oral communication, limitation and participation in cultural activities
associated with a certain community. The introduction of modern
allopathic medicine and activities by missionaries in traditional societies
have contributed to the loss of traditional knowledge related to medicinal
plants. Missionaries encourage indigenous communities to use modern
or contemporary medicine and are responsible for some of the lifestyle
changes that occurred in indigenous communities. This also led to the
younger generations not taking up or embracing tribal knowledge related
to the use of medicinal plants. They also stopped the practice our spiritual
and cultural activities ensure inclusive are the use of herbs for treatment of
illnesses. Migration of people and intermarriage also went into effect the
knowledge base when it came to medicinal plants. A comparative study
done concerning medicinal plant knowledge showed that homogeneous
communities were more knowledgeable than indigenous Communities
that were heterogeneous indigenous communities. Their livelihoods in the
past were supported by the use of plants and with changes that occurred
due to modernization, globalization, immigration and urbanization this has
changed and has affected the traditional base for information on medicinal
plants. Anthropogenic activities by the man in order to make or create space
for settlement has led to the loss of diversity in terms of plants. This can be
observed in the invasion of tropical Forests which are rich in plant diversity,
especially medicinal plants (Hamilton, 2004).
Urbanization itself and modernization have led to the use of technology,
migration of Native and indigenous Communities to urban areas especially
the younger generation in search of greener pastures and this has highly
contributing to the loss of traditional knowledge. With modernization people
have been able to access contemporary medicine or healthcare and some
communities no longer see the importance of using herbal medicine which
are sometimes discouraged by health professionals or visiting organizations.
Due to the reduction in people visiting herbal traditional doctors, they have
260 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

sought to also engage in other professions also contributing to the loss of

this knowledge (Hamilton, 2004).

10.3.6 Lack of Proper Management

Lack of proper management systems and organization is also responsible
for the unregulated harvesting of medicinal plants. In the past, native tribes
have practiced traditional and indigenous management which was effective
in the management of plant habitats and was able to allow them to meet their
medicinal plant needs in a manner that is sustainable for all the household.
Most nations manage their resources by declaring them as protected areas
and most of them are managed by the community, local authorities, non-
governmental organizations and the government at a larger scale. the
collection of medicinal plants which is not regulated is due to the absence
of proper management systems and in this case people from the local
community are able to collect these plants prematurely using techniques that
bring him like approaching the entire plant, collection of the wrong parts of
the plants and this will affect the quality of the plant and how long it will be
able to survive (Singh, 2006).
In certain countries, this responsibility is left to the forestry department or
ministry all community institutions who have tried to control the harvesting
of plant resources by allowing it to be done in the case of individuals who
they are issued permits to. The challenge faced is in most cases those in
charge lack information on the resource base especially to do with medicinal
plants and this consequently has a negative impact on the different plant
species that are harvested. there’s also a lack of technical power in the
assessments of resources especially when exploiting is done for commercial
purposes and this also goes on to affect the resource base and acts as a threat
to various medicinal plants

10.3.7 Policy Weakness

Most medicinal plants that are not listed in the red category preferred
commonly as a red list by the international union for conservation of nature
have sweating few countries go to the exploitation and harvesting and this
is related to their demand in the market especially in situations when this is
not planned for. It is necessary for organizations to assess threats to certain
species of plants and then list them as nationally threatened depending on
their availability and numbers in our country. Trade can also be banned to
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 261

offer protection to them from over-harvesting or overexploitation. Over time

this has been possible due to the lack of initiatives at country level to list
some of the plant species as protected. Other than that there is also weakness
in the implementation of policies developed especially if it is not seen as a
priority by a specific country (Singh, 2006).
Political instability is also another reason that hinders conservation
efforts in most countries like Asia and even South America who heavily rely
on herbal medicine in the healthcare systems. In traditional management
practices, the harvesting, managing and distributing of resources was done
in a manner that was sustainable as it was based on the present needs of all
households within a community.
It also paid attention to the ecological aspects of plants and those who
relied on them are able to take care of their plan to ensure that they would still
provide for them in the future. Several organizations in collaboration such as
the World Health Organization, the WFF, the IUCN and other organizations
with an interest in the conservation of medicinal plants have also been able
to develop guidelines that can be used in the development of strategies
and policies when it comes to the conservation of medicinal plants. With
these guidelines, countries can develop strategies and policies on their own
depending on the need over country, since not all plants have the same value
to countries and not all of them are found in consistent amounts (Singh,
2006).

10.4 CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL AND

AROMATIC PLANTS
The main reasons that have been presented that warrants the conservation of
medicinal plants. Some of which include for aesthetic value ethical value
but most important for medicinal use. We tend to value things that are of
benefit to us for example the drugs that are provided to us by Nature mostly
from plants, they also indicate the kinds of undiscovered compounds.
Tropical forests are important when it comes to plants resources and most
of them contain biomedical compounds that are yet to be discovered, whose
potential can be useful in the field of medicine.
Sustainable access to these resources is guaranteed only if we study
these resources and also conserve them. It is important to emphasize the
fact that the loss of plant species means the loss of chemical benefits from
262 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

nature. Most of which cannot be developed in a laboratory. The need for

conservation urgently occurs in the tropics. Tropical Forests cover less
than 10% of the earth’s surface but I believe to process more than 50%
of the world’s species and also species that are endangered. Extinction is
a process that occurs naturally but it was worsened by human activities.
Other than this, it is still important to the field of ethnobotany, especially
the conservation of ethnobotanical folklore, is indigenous knowledge is
essential to local communities who still rely on plants.
If tribes disappear so does their knowledge. Efforts to conserve tribal
knowledge and the tribes themselves is not a luxury and is therefore of
economic significance to a country especially developing countries. The
inability to document search information can lead to significant loss to the
economy and also scientific loss to humanity (Singh, 2006).

10.4.1Why Conserve Medicinal Plants

Human beings have always been dependent on plants for survival and for
centuries they have used such resources for food, shelter, medicine and other
uses. Ancient communities used plant resources in the past, however with
the industrial revolution and the development of technology this knowledge
is at a risk of being lost. This has created the need for conservation and
led to the development of the Chiang Mai declaration whose main focus
was saving lives by saving plants to focus on primary health. Those who
convened showed their concern over the loss of medicinal plants diversity
and the need for international collaboration and conservation concepts
(Kasagana & Karumuri, 2011).
Biological conservation should be an objective of various countries and
regions especially when there is the problem of climate change, to promote
the survival of genetic diversity since they supply biotic resources to local
communities and also provide ecosystem services. Conservation efforts
require engaging various groups of people. A challenge in conservation is
the identification of features of local communities that favor conservation
and where necessary find means of encouraging them.
Medicinal plants provide opportunities for landscape conservation
especially since people depend on these resources. The argument is that
major benefits associated with such plants and can be a source of motivation
and helps in the improvement of how plants are managed and where they are
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 263

found. It is necessary to establish methods to capture the interest of people

before acting to drive people to conserving plant diversity. There are several
benefits offered to communities who grow medicinal plants. To begin
with, they support local healthcare, it creates opportunities for the locals
to generate income. It can also be used in affirming local and indigenous
cultures. Medicinal plants play an important role in areas where there is poor
access to contemporary medicine, those communities that are disadvantaged
financially and also within cultures that are different from those that have
dominance at a national level. When planning and developing conservation
strategies, the parties involved should consider the entire socio-ecological
system in order to achieve conservation through medicinal plants (Kasagana
& Karumuri, 2011).
The interventions developed should be appropriate to the local
livelihoods, should be practical for the local communities and should entail
a socially acceptable distribution of costs and benefits. This applies to
medicinal plants being grown in wild habitats such as forests which are
normally most of value when it comes to genetic diversity and also provides
ecosystem services. Such habitats most of the time are protected legally but
even in cases where this is so, in practice they are usually subject to access by
anyone from the public and can be exploited for their biological resources.
Managing biological resources is difficult without engaging people from the
local community.
Where several issues that need to be addressed when trying to conserve
plant diversity especially for traditional medicinal plants. These include.
• Formulation of clear policies and traditional medicinal practices.
Such policies to promote inter Alia the organization of traditional
rulers and realistically integrate traditional and contemporary
medicinal practices.
• Promotion of the polarization of medicinal and aromatic plants
that grow naturally, by setting up specialized units in the Agra
biological, pharmaceutical and industrial aspects.
• Promotion and increase in the research capacity especially when
it comes to fuel that carry out studies related to medicinal plants.
• Promotion of research in the Economic mapping indigenous
plants, to help in the identification of the quality and quantity
of natural resources related to medicinal and aromatic plants in
order to determine their potential economic profitability.
264 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

• Promotion of studies in the field of ethnobotany in order to gain

access to ethnobotanical knowledge that has the potential to
become extinct from remote indigenous communities especially
from traditional healers.
• promotion of the conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants
using practical in-situ and ex-situ sustainable programs for
example conserving a maximum plant biodiversity and specific
plant species, respectively
• promotion of relevant regional and inter-regional cooperation to
Foster the enhancement to allow the exchange of knowledge and
technology with regards to medicinal and aromatic plant genetic
resources without jeopardizing the genetic germplasm

10.4.2 The Role of International Organizations in the

Conservation of Medicinal Plants
Conservation of biodiversity has been supported by many organizations
such as the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), the WWF
and IUCN. International organizations have the role of encouraging and
supporting the work of individual countries especially when it comes to
designing and implementation of national programs on the conservation
of medicinal plants. They can also be resourceful in the promotion of
information exchange and expert knowledge and technology transfer
between countries and countries can learn from each other. The world
health organization has continued to expand its work when it comes to the
utilization of medicinal plants through promotion activities and developing
guidelines. IUCN has developed policies for the conservation of medicinal
plants in situ and ex situ. WWF has continued its joint project with different
countries in the conservation of medicinal plants. In the 1990s, WHO, IUCN
and WWF collaborated and convened in an international consultation for the
conservation of medicinal plants. Experts from different fields to facilitate
the exchange of views on problems, defining priorities and developing
recommendations for action (Kasagana & Karumuri, 2011).
Those involved included administrators, policy makers in health and
conservation and were from fields such as ethnomedicine, botany, education,
pharmacology, nature conservation and economics.to IUCN and WWF
gained from these consultations as they were significant when it came to
developing their plant conservation programs. This led to the development
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 265

of the Chiang Mai declaration whose theme was saving lives by saving
plants. It affirmed the significance of medicinal plants and calls of the United
Nations, its agencies and member countries as well as other international
organizations, in the pursuit for the conservation of medicinal plants.
During the meeting, several functions were performed for example
certain groups were involved in the development of guidelines primarily for
governments, it outlined precisely what needed to be done. The guidelines
were then presented to different governments and important institutions
throughout the world (Kasagana & Karumuri, 2011).

10.4.3 Objectives of the Guidelines Developed During the

Chiang Mai Convention
Guidelines for conservation aimed to provide a framework for conservation
that was the sustainable use of plants and medicine. The guidelines were
tailor made to describe a variety of tasks that should be done in order to make
sure there is effective conservation for the future and where such plants are
harvested from the wild, they are done in a manner that is sustainable. The
guidelines implement one of the recommendations of the Global Diversity
Strategy with was produced by collaboration between the World Resources
Institute the IUCN and UNEP.
These organizations have defined conservation strategies as the
management of human use of the biodiversity so that it yields the greatest
sustainable benefit to future generations while still maintaining its potential
to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations (Leaman, 2011).
The basic goals of conservation of plant diversity are found within the
world conservation strategy which are summarized in this way. To maintain
vital ecological resources and life support systems which determines the
survival of the economy and human beings in general. It also aims to
preserve species and genetic diversity and the sustainable use of species
and ecosystems which support millions of rural communities and similarly
majority of industries.
Strategies for the conservation of medicinal plants.
The conservation of wearing medicinal plants or threatened plant species
can be managed using scientific techniques as well as social strategies.
They are different techniques that can be used in the conservation of genetic
and plant diversity they include legislation, in situ conservation, ex-situ
conservation (Leaman, 2011).
266 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

10.4.4 Development of Strategies for the Conservation of

Medicinal Plants
Conservation efforts require the setting of strategies. This work requires
team work and the involvement of different disciplines and institutions.
The best way to execute the process for individual countries through the
preparation of strategies that will help in the development of an agreement
on the things than need to be done, giving different roles to different
institutions, motivation of participants to undertake tasks and monitor the
progress of institutions.
The individuals preparing the national strategies are asked to consider
all the tasks in the guidelines but and depending on the countries, different
guidelines will be prioritized depending on their needs. The process can
be started by holding regional and national meetings and workshops which
brings together various experts from different fields. They should start by
stating their priorities, defining their objectives and developing plans. In
the development and implementation of the conservation strategies, it is
necessary for governments to work in partnership with those who make use
of medicinal plants for example traditional herbalists, plant collectors, health
professionals and people from the local communities for example non-
governmental organizations should be consulted from the start (Leaman,
2011).
Developing strategies at a national level makes it easy for those donating
funds to identify activities that are in line with their funding priorities. The
World Health Organization is in collaboration with ministries of health in
developing programmes related utilizing and conserving medicinal plants.
IUCN has been resourceful in assisting countries in the preparation of plant
conservation strategies at a national level. National strategies are essential in
securing involvement and continued participation of the different involved
disciplines. From these professionals can learn from each other ethnobotanists
can learn from health workers who use medicinal professionals. Health
policy makers can learn from conservationists about conservation efforts.
Guidelines from the convention included guidelines on the conducting of
studies, the utilization of medicinal plants, conservation, communication
and cooperation (Leaman, 2011).
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 267

10.5 STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION.

Figure 10.3. Biodiversity conservation strategies.

Source: asciencep.blogspot.com/2010/05/biodiversity-conservation-strategies.
html

10.5.1 Ex-situ Conservation

Ex situ conservation is not so separate or so different from in situ
conservation. It is however an effective strategy that complements it mostly
in the case of medicinal plant species that are over harvested and have the
potential to become extinct. Such plants can have slow growth rates, have
small populations and can be susceptible to attack by pests and diseases.
The aim of ex situ conservation is to foster the cultivation and naturalization
of species that are endangered to ensure that they survive. They can also be
used in the production of large amounts of plant materials that can be used
by pharmaceutical industries in the development of drugs. It can be a means
of sustaining resources from medicinal plants. There are wild species that
cannot survive when they are grown in gardens that do not support their
growth. In such cases those involved select reproductive materials of these
threatened species and store them in seed banks for use in the future.
Botanic gardens: Botanic gardens are of importance in ex situ
conservation. They are used in the maintenance of ecosystems and habitats
and are crucial in the survival of species with an increased probability of
becoming extinct. Botanical gardens are homes to just a few medicinal plant
species and are therefore limiting when it comes to conservation despite
this they still have some sort of uniqueness. Botanical gardens have various
268 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

plant species that grow together under similar conditions and they consists
of diverse taxonomic group. They play an important role in the conservation
of medicinal plants by developing propagation and cultivation guidelines
and also developing programmes for domesticating and breeding.
Seed banks: Seed banks can be used in the storage of plant diversity in
terms of genetics and can do much more than the use of botanical gardens.
The creation of seed banks is recommended in the preservation of genetic
diversity of wild medicinal plant species. Common examples of seed banks
include the Millennium Seed Bank Project at the Royal Botanic Gardens
in Britain. The existence of seed banks can allow ease in the access of
plant samples in evaluating their chemical properties and the provision or
resourceful information when it comes to the conservation of the natural
populations that still exist. Seed banks are one step when it comes to ex situ
conservation but the challenge remains their reintroduction of these species
into the wild and how to restore the wild populations.

10.5.2 In situ Conservation

Planting of medicinal plants ensures constant supply of these materials but they
do not translate co long-term conservation. Besides cultivating these plants
to ensure constant supply it is important to consider long term conservation.
in situ conservation is the long term solution to ensure sustainability in the
use of medicinal plants to meet both commercial and subsistence demands.
This type of conservation entails conserving medicinal plants in their natural
habitats by planning and organization for the protection of medicinal plants
by declaring different areas as protected such as national parks, conserved
areas, forest reserves, parks and medicinal plant hotspots.
In situ conservation assist in the conservation of a number of medicinal
plant species by protecting natural spaces and it is the common means
through which such areas are maintained when there are no reliable means
of conservation this can be due to lack of resources and also lack of technical
support. Many developing countries are unable to protect such areas or use
the protected system. The protected area system covers about 2,279,192,012
ha are and is inclusive of both terrestrial and marine areas and different
types of habitats.
When making declaration with regards related to areas that are protected
or in the process of development of management plans for protected areas
that exist, providing utilization that is sustainable of forest resources by
communities that depend on them need to be dealt with. If the rights of
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 269

indigenous people are not addressed in the planning for conservation, it can
lead to acerbity among such groups it could lead to an increase the risks
when it comes to the future of areas that are protected by governments,
institutions or organizations. This can also result in the loss of indigenous
knowledge and such knowledge becomes nonexistent when plants also
disappear. The harvesting of parts of medicinal plants such as fruits, flowers,
flowers and leaves in a manner that is not destructive should be allowed in
a way that is sustainable especially in the wild. This goes on to encourage
people from an economic perspective especially to local communities and
facilitate their conservation of medicinal plants and drives them towards
generating biological resources that are of benefit to them. In support of
various organizations, governments can develop manuals with collections
of medicinal plants.
Religious and cultural institutions have also made contributions to
the conservation of medicinal plants globally. Research has shown that
these institutions have been conserving in the past and also the present.
It is important to acknowledge the rights of such groups and institutions.
Supporting such institutions can encourage them to will positively contribute
to conservation. A good example is that recognizing institutions is the forest
policy of Nepal of 1993 that acknowledged religious forest and it provided
information of handing over the management authorities of religious forests
like these in the case of religious institutions.
Medicinal plants are often endemic and their chemical properties are
largely due to the secondary metabolites they produce especially due to
natural factors existing in plant ecosystems. In situ conservation of entire
communities allows countries to offer protection to native medicinal plants
and the maintenance of natural communities together with the interconnected
relationships that exist. This type of conservation strategy can increase
the amount of plant diversity that can be conserved and it improves the
connection between the conservation of plant resources and sustainability in
their use. Such conservation efforts have put their focus on the establishment
of plant protection areas using strategies that are systematic, depending
on the type of ecosystem rather than basing its approach on the species.
For in situ conservation to be successful, policies should exist and also be
implemented to support the conservation of medicinal plants
Natural reserves: One of the major causes that lead to losing medicinal
plant resources is as a result of plant habitats being destroyed. The creation
of natural reserves and areas that are protected are of importance when
270 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

it comes to preservation and the restoration of medicinal plant diversity.

Globally, there are about more than 12, 700 area that are protected and this is
about 13.2 million km 2 of the surface of the earth. Conservation of medicinal
plants is critical in the protection of natural environments and it is necessary
to assess contributions and the ecological functions of specific habitats.
Wild nurseries: It is not possible to make all wild plant habitats into
protected areas this will be due to the lack of resources and competition when
it comes to the use of land. Wild nurseries can be established for specific
species. In wild nurseries, the species are cultivated and domesticated
especially plant species that are threatened. The development of wild
nurseries, is an in situ conservation strategy that relieves pressure put on
medicinal plant species found in the wild especially those that overexploited.

10.5.3 Protection of Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous communities have information about the ecosystem that surrounds
them. There also. Some Communities are also aware about the different
methods related to medicinal plants especially those they use. Research has
also shown that search Communities have been conserving plants since time
in memorial and have been found to be one of the best conservationists.
Therefore protecting their knowledge and their encouragement in the case of
traditional communities will facilitate the sustainability of medicinal plant
conservation (Rai, Acharya, & Rios, 2011).
Traditional practices made contributions to the conservation of medicinal
plants that were effective. Best practices include domesticating plants,
prohibiting of grazing in some areas, beliefs of the existence of spirits in
forests and plants, the presence of sacred trees, beliefs on the existent of
religious Forests, protection of plants in burial sites, presence of religious
monuments, careful harvesting of medicinal plants, collecting only dead
wood for firewood, protection of trees from fire and seedlings.
This knowledge can be useful when it comes to dealing with threats
related to plants and also in a dressing areas of concern related to the day-to-
day activities of people. How effective indigenous knowledge and the power
indigenous communities have in the conservation medicinal plants accepted
by the convention of biological diversity. Which encourage member
countries to protect indigenous knowledge related to the conservation of plant
diversity. Ecological management of native communities was over a period
of years observing and experimenting and in order to ensure that still serving
its purpose the concept of conservation was integrated into traditional and
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 271

religious belief of Native communities. Indigenous knowledge is helpful for

conservation and therefore it should be explored and documented so that
it can be utilized when it comes to conservation and development when it
comes to the economy. In order to protect such knowledge and ensure it is
beneficial, it is important that individual countries recognize folklore and
make sure that its role is legitimate. Technology related to Forests should be
part of national policies and the organization in institution in order to allow
accessibility of resources and sharing of benefits (Rai, Acharya, & Rios,
2011).

10.5.4 Need for Research

Research in ethnobotany helps in the generation of knowledge related to
the use of different plant species, the role they play in their ecosystems and
also that which is related to conservation. This information is resourceful
to pharmaceutical Industries, it also helps in making the supply of herbs
consistent and sustainable, it also helps in the conservation all medicinal
plants and also their habitats and finally in the conservation of native
knowledge (Rai, Acharya, & Rios, 2011).
Many countries are involved in trading herbs and selling them to
pharmaceutical Industries to issue or permit to collectors, but have lack of
information on the resource base. Such practices if done continuously for long
periods of time can lead to plant resources becoming extinct. Governments
from different countries especially those that are involved in the trade of
medicinal herbs should conduct research on research resources come from,
the rate of producing yields or the growth rates and need to practice the
issuing of licenses or permit for extraction of such plants in order to carry
out the assessment on the pressure put on medicinal plants. This information
on where plant resources come from can be helpful in the development of
conservation strategies for plants that are at risk of extinction.
Drawing of medicinal plants is only the first option, when it comes to
meeting the market demand for herbal medicine, but information on the
propagation of medicinal plants is available for less than 10% and agro-
technology is available only for both 1% of the plants that people know at
an international level. It is therefore necessary to carry out research in agro-
technology that would be useful in boosting conservation efforts.
The species becomes vulnerable to extinction, then it is necessary
to protect the plant and offer the alternatives to the herb that is at risk of
extinction. Information on plant biochemistry is not known for many
272 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

plants. In order to provide support for the conservation and also ensure the
availability of herbs for those you need them as a substitute to contemporary
medicine, information on biochemistry will be necessary and therefore
research in this case will be important. Countries also lack information on the
distribution of medicinal plants. This information will be important in the
declaration of any space as a protected area or a medicinal plant hotspot for
the Promotion of in-situ conservation. Studies on distribution of medicinal
plants are necessary and they can be used in designing protected areas and
also in the arrangement of medicinal plant protection (Leaman, 2011).

10.5.5 Incentives
Indigenous communities have connections to plants in the ecosystems.
They also have knowledge on the sustainable use of plant resources and
also methods that can be useful in the conservation of plant diversity. The
provision of incentives to such groups of people to ensure they conserve
medicinal plants in the environment can be an effective strategy that will
also capture the attention of indigenous communities since these plants are
of importance to them. There are ten grassroots projects that were used in
studying plant life in India Pakistan China Nepal Uganda and Kenya. The
results from this study showed that such an approach can be successful. In
Uganda their projects made sure that there is sustainability in the supply
of low-cost malaria treatment and in China medicinal plants reserved was
managed by the community after its creation for the first time (Leaman,
2011).
The young generation of herbal practitioners do not pay attention to
adopting this tradition as a profession. In order to deal with this problem,
formulations for medicinal plants that exist require standardizations for
the efficacy and also the establishment of social capital trust for such
professionals in the promotion and continuity of such traditions. With
regards to the problem related to traditional knowledge being eroded and
it being transmitted to the younger generation in uses of medicinal plants,
incentives should be provided traditional herbal healers in the preparation
of medicinal plant formulations and those involved should try and organize
them.
Traditional knowledge especially to plants most people are not aware of
has been declining in time and in order to deal with this issue, the involved
parties should document information on medicinal plants. It has been proven
but in order to be a source of motivation to people, it is necessary to first
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 273

proof and demonstrate how an action will be of benefit to a group of people

or a community and even a population at regional, national and international
level. The connection between the benefits of herbal medication and the
economic benefits together with cultural practices can help in convincing
younger generations of local communities to help in conservation of their
knowledge. Another incentive will be to secure patent rights and offering
compensation for traditional knowledge can encourage people to maintain
traditional practices and also facilitates the conservation of medicinal plants
and similarly their habitats (Leaman, 2011).

10.5.6 Policy Solutions

Conservation and protection of medicinal plants can be performed through
enforcing acts and regulations. Some countries have developed policies that
promote the conservation of medicinal plants that are at risk of extinction and
still provide healthcare and economic benefits through sustainable extraction
of plant resources and in poor countries prioritization of conservation efforts
and implementation is a problem. In countries found in Asia and Africa there
are regulations and programmes developed for conservation, there are also
laws when it comes to collecting medicinal plants, transporting them and
also trading but are yet to be implemented.

10.5.7 Prevention of IAS (Insulin Autoimmune Syndrome)

Controlling IAS can be complex and also expensive after it has spread. The
best solution is to monitor the entry of pest and strengthen quarantine. If the
species is already in an area for example an island the best option would be
to completely take part in the eradication of the island. This is only possible
if the invading species can be detected in early stages when it first arrives
and before the spread is wide. In case the spread is wide, beyond a level that
it can be eradicated.
Efforts should be made to keep these populations under wraps using
a variety of methods like the regulation of removing roots of plants and
also burning and identify invasive plant species. Invasive species can
also be controlled in areas that are protected if they are monitored on a
regular basis, items that people go to parks with should also be monitored,
fields should also be observed and the detection of invasive species done
in order to determine their management. One method of control is the use
of biological measures. This is done by introducing natural enemies of the
274 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

invasive species for population control. Research needs to be undertaken for

the identification of appropriate natural enemies so that it only attacks the
invasive species.

Figure 10.4. Management of invasive species.

Source: https://invasoras.pt/en/invasive-plant-management/

10.5.8 Bio-partnership
Establishing relationships between consumers and suppliers can also be
helpful in protecting the future of medicinal plants. Bio partnerships assists
in the satisfaction of both short-term and long-term goals of the involved
parties especially in managing resources. Those taking part in trades will
take an interest in such relationships or partnerships to make sure there is
a consistent supply in terms of quality and similarly quantity of medicinal
plant resources. Indigenous communities should also be included inside
partnerships. Agreements can be made with rural communities in relation to
their knowledge on medicinal plants, they can also have knowledge and their
production and how to utilize medicinal plants. These partnerships can also
facilitate the encouragement of those taking part in trade or pharmaceutical
industries in order to invest in the conservation and drawing of medicinal
plants.
 Conservation Strategies for Ethnomedicinal Plants 275

10.5.9 Market Improvement

An increase in the commercial use of medicinal plants can be responsible
for the provision of opportunities that leads to growth of economies and
this leads to enhancement of the livelihoods for people living in rural
communities. Sometimes those cultivating the plants and harvesting them
are usually at a disadvantage since they lack access to information on
the market situation and end up using middlemen. The market chain of
medicinal plants is usually large and due to the lack of finances and market
information and leads to relying on middlemen. This can be resolved by
making arrangements such that the farmers can sell their produce directly to
the industries that need them.
Prices of medicinal herbs are usually low during harvesting period but it
later becomes expensive. Farmers can benefit more from delaying the sales
of the plants they harvest. This cannot always apply when they do not have
places to store their harvest until a later date. Value addition to the plant
products can also be beneficial to the farmers. Lack of knowledge about
processing impedes their efforts to increase income from the sale of plant
products. Governments and non-governmental organizations can remedy
this by building warehouses and factories for processing or provide credit
facilities could assist in increasing benefits to farmers and improving rural
economies.
The high prices of medicinal plants from the wild and low prices for
cultivating medicinal plants can be a source of discouragement to those who
cultivate such plants. To deal with this issue, plans should be made to develop
policies that impose extra charges or taxes on medicinal plants from the
wild. When this is done, it will favor farmers that cultivate medicinal plants
more than those who harvest them from the wild and acts as an incentive to
farmers. Once the government has collected the additional taxes, they can
use these funds and direct them towards programs related to the conservation
of plants that can be helpful to farmers.
Governments should also try discourage the overexploitation of medicinal
plants. When illegal harvesting is controlled it will assist in making sure that
there is sustainability in the use of medicinal plants and relieve the pressure
put on them. Certifying herbal plants from various sources can be useful
in discouraging illegal harvesting which does not help to reach the goal of
sustainability. There are different types of certification when it comes to
the control of medicinal plants for example forest management certification,
social certification, organic certification and product quality certification.
276 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

In conclusion, Wild plants are used for treatment of illnesses and

through this, they continue to support local and native communities who
have depended on them since time in memorial. Knowledge on indigenous
plants can be useful when it comes to local communities becoming self-
reliant in primary healthcare, be in support of their livelihoods and creation
of employment opportunities.
When knowledge from indigenous communities is lost, then it can
lead to the younger generations ignoring such knowledge and this deters
conservation efforts especially when the goal is to ensure that conservation
is sustainable or herbal medicine continues to significant in our healthcare
system. At the same time when species become extinct, they also go on
to affect knowledge which goes on to affect indigenous communities who
depend on them for the management of illnesses.
Anthropogenic factors and threats from nature threaten the long term
existence of different medicinal plants which are significant to the human
population especially in contemporary medicine. The loss of medicinal
plants increases the probability of losing traditional knowledge associated
with them and the ecosystems that surround them. To deal with the
anthropogenic factors and natural factors it is important for governments
and organizations they collaborate with to take part in developing and
implementing long term strategies at various levels for the purpose of
conservation. Commitment towards this should come from not only policy
makers but also the communities, even those who do not directly use these
plants such as scientists, civil societies and others.
An integrated approach should be used in order to ensure conservation
is done holistically and in a manner that is sustainable especially when it
comes to developing regulations with regards to certification of products,
policy formulation related to conservation, controlling harvesting and the
protection of indigenous knowledge. In order to foster the development
of holistic conservation, it is important to first look for information on the
situation when it comes to different medicinal plants and native knowledge,
the reliance of rural and native communities in the case of different nations.
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 INDEX

A apocynaceae 34, 164

aristolochic acid 154
acetonitrile 110 aromatherapy 69, 70
acidic lymph fluid 95
Actinic keratosis 105 B
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
bacteriology 2
(ALL) 109
barberry plants 110
Acute Myelogenous Leukemia
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) 104
(AML) 109
biochemistry 27, 271
adipose tissue 114
biological therapy 98
alcoholic solvent 100
biomedical 2, 4, 28, 261
alkaloids 107, 110, 121, 204, 231,
biotechnology 28, 61
238, 241, 252, 253
Bladder cancer 102
Aloe barbadensis 66
blood cells 86, 98, 109, 146, 150
anatomy 2
blood circulation 91, 115, 158, 235
angiotensin converting enzymes
blood glucose 126, 136, 138, 147
(ACE) 164
blood infections 81
anthocyanin 125
blood pressure 9, 43, 46, 82, 125,
anti-diabetic plants 120, 121
127, 135, 141, 145, 150, 151,
antioxidants 41, 82, 88, 113, 123,
153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,
125, 126, 161, 230, 231, 232,
159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164,
241
165, 166, 167, 171, 213, 238,
240, 241
280 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

blood stem cells 98 113, 115, 116, 117, 223

blood sugars 84, 89, 91, 147 Chemotherapy 97
body hormones 98 childhood development 11
body mass index 23, 151 childhood education 11
body temperature 160, 228 chromosomes 96
bone cancer 113 chronic illnesses 9, 29, 250, 251
bone marrow 98, 109 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
brachytherapy 97 (CLL) 109
breast cancer 25, 26, 95, 98, 101, Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
114, 117, 237 (CML) 109
colon cancer 25, 26, 114
C
crude drug 99
cancer cells 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, Cryoablation 98
104, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, Crypoablation 99
114, 115, 116, 117, 237
D
cancerous cells 68, 96, 97, 98, 99,
103, 105 dental infections 90
carbohydrates 23, 131, 147, 153, diabetic plant 132
236, 240 diabetic rats 129, 136, 138
carboxylaldehyde 112 digestive system 20, 24, 84, 89, 125,
cardiovascular 8, 15, 20, 24, 25, 81, 238
85, 96, 121, 126, 140, 145, drug therapy 98
150, 151, 155, 158, 159, 160,
E
161, 162, 164, 165
cardiovascular diseases 15, 25, 81, ecological 2, 4, 5, 6, 63, 256, 261,
85, 96, 126, 140, 155 263, 265, 270
cardiovascular disorders 150, 158 electrical energy 99
cardiovascular hypertrophy 165 environmental health 28
cardiovascular risks 151 epidemiology 13, 27, 28
cardiovascular system 20, 24, 25, ethnobotany 51, 60, 101, 102, 253,
121 262, 264, 271
Cardiovascular system 25 Ethnobotany 96, 252
cell regeneration 96 ethnomedicine 97, 264
chamomile plant 69 Etoposide 107
chemical investigation 101 Eucommiciae 36
chemotherapy 96, 97, 98, 104, 105,
F
106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112,
FDA (food and drug administration)
135
 Index 281

flavonoids 68, 110, 121, 123, 125, hydrolysable tannins 125, 158
126, 127, 129, 158, 193, 230, Hydroxycitric Acid 144
231, 236, 238 hyperemia. 67
fungal diseases 47 hyperglycemia 123, 239
hyperinsulinemia 127
G
Hypertension 150, 151, 153
Garlic 80, 82, 83, 113, 117, 131, hypoglycemia 126
153, 235
I
Ginsenosides 115
global warming 118, 257 immune system 20, 24, 26, 42, 98,
glycosides 121, 159, 237, 238 107, 116, 121, 200, 202, 210,
Grasslands 58 228
immunomodulation 46
H
immunotherapy 98, 106
health care systems 16, 34, 182, Immunotherapy 98
189, 250
K
health professionals 12, 17, 21, 28,
233, 259, 266 Kidney cancer 102
health psychology 2
L
Health science 27
healthy behavior 12 Lemon verbena 49
healthy child development 10 Leukemia 102, 109
heart diseases 23, 25, 79, 80, 84, leukocyte 67
145, 161 Lovastatin. 144
herbalism 99 lung cancer 101, 106, 107, 108, 114
herbal medicine 46, 69, 70, 74, 75, lung diseases 15, 58
100, 103, 104, 107, 108, 115, lycopene 112, 161
154, 167, 171, 172, 178, 179, lymphocytes 26, 115
181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187,
M
222, 225, 231, 234, 243, 246,
256, 259, 261, 271, 276 Macronutrients 23
hormone therapy 97 masonry 152
Hormone therapy 98 medical environments 95
human being 102, 103, 125, 140, medical sociology 27
150, 160, 193, 206, 207 medicinal herbs 38, 66, 74, 77, 79,
human body 8, 10, 23, 27, 94, 95, 135, 170, 172, 174, 175, 177,
97, 98, 100, 104, 105, 115, 271, 275
116, 120, 151, 153, 161, 211, medicinal plants 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
214, 217, 222, 228, 233, 234, 39, 40, 41, 42, 49, 50, 51, 52,
244
282 Ethnobotany: Medicinal Plants

55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, P

75, 77, 78, 97, 102, 108, 114,
Pancreatic cancer 102
129, 131, 135, 139, 145, 171,
pathogenic microorganisms 96
176, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197,
Pedaliaceae 165
198, 210, 212, 213, 218, 220,
pharmacology 27, 159, 225, 235,
223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230,
264
232, 245, 246, 247, 250, 251,
pharmacy 28, 91, 188, 240
252, 253, 255, 256, 257, 258,
phospholipids 110
259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264,
physical and mental health 5, 10, 11,
265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270,
12
271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276
Physical exercise 24
medicinal species 34, 256
physical health 3, 11, 12, 17, 19, 20,
melanoma 102, 104, 105, 106, 108
29, 82
mental illness 12, 16, 20, 21, 22
physical sciences 97
metabolism 23, 27, 108, 235, 242,
physical therapy 28
244
phytomedicine 99
micro bacteria 135
phytosterols 67, 110, 240
microbial toxins 101
Pioglitazone 134
micronutrients 23, 233
plant species 34, 36, 37, 44, 45, 50,
microscopes 95
58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 97, 103,
modern machinery 97
173, 175, 181, 186, 194, 195,
modern oncology 95
198, 214, 218, 223, 228, 246,
modern society 97
252, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258,
modern technology 96, 97, 252
260, 261, 264, 265, 267, 268,
monotypic genus 36
270, 271, 273
N policy development 28
polyacetylenes 110
natural environment 15, 39
polyphenolics 110
natural resources 60, 180, 227, 253,
polyphenols 67, 113, 129, 241
263
pumpkin seed 112
neurological symptoms 165
Pycnogenol 163
O
R
occupational therapy 28
radiation therapy 96, 97, 113, 115,
organic medications 89
117
organic pesticides 49
radiotherapy 109, 111, 112, 115,
117, 118
Rubiaceae 165
 Index 283

S Thyroid cancer 102

tissue environment 98
scytopetalaceae 164
tocopherol 110
sexual dysfunction 74
Tropical ecosystems 35
skin cancer 104, 105, 106
tuberculosis 55, 56, 58
social and cultural 5, 18
tumor cells 113, 117
social environment 13, 15
social responsibility 12 U
social work 28
ultraviolet rays 105
socioeconomic 9
sociology 13 V
squamous cell carcinoma 102, 104,
Virginia dayflower 157
106
Stomach cancer 113 W
sulfonylureas 120
warm temperatures 41, 137
T world Health Organization 2, 6, 18,
34
Targeted drug therapy 98
taxonomy 60 Z
technological innovations 95
terpenoids 68, 121, 129, 231 Zingiberaceae 135
Throat cancer 102 zoology 95