Methods of data Collection

Methods of Data Collection

► The process of data collection is directly related to sampling and is best viewed as complementary to it.
► Data, therefore, are collected directly from the identified and selected sample population.
► Data collected from the sample can be either ‘direct data’ or ‘indirect data’
► Direct data include recordable spoken or written words and also observable body-language, actions and interactions.
► The interactions may be human-to-human or human responses to inanimate objects.
► Direct data can include: thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of experience, responses, actions, interactions, language and processes of
individuals and groups within their social and/or cultural setting.
► Indirect data are generated, in the first instance, by someone or something else, such as with documents or photographs reporting an event or
an artistic rendition of an event or experience (novels, songs, paintings, poems, photographs).
► Direct data, though, are the most common form in qualitative research.
► Depending on the types of data required for a qualitative study, various methods of collecting data can be used singularly or in combination
to obtain direct data.
► For direct data, these methods may include interview, observation, open-ended questionnaire, journaling (diary accounts) or ‘think aloud’
sessions.
 Interview Method

► Interviews are regarded as the prime method for qualitative data collection; also representing the most common method for gathering qualitative
data.
► Spoken ‘narrative’ is the basis of most qualitative data, where that narrative is most often gained through a direct encounter between the researcher
and participant (or several
participants) using in-depth interviews or focus group interviews.
► Interviews can be conducted by telephone, email and, more recently, through social media conversations (e.g. Twitter, Facebook).
► Interviews in qualitative research may be unstructured, semi-structured or occasionally structured.
► With unstructured interviews, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answers are pre-determined.
► The interviews are designed to be informal and conversational with the aim of encouraging participants to express themselves in a naturally
unfolding manner.
► Unstructured interviews tend to start with single broad questions, such as ‘what is your experience of …’.

► Unstructured interviews are free-flowing conversation with a definite focal point.

► Semi-structured interviews have an interview guide providing a set of questions for discussion. The questions are set to ensure the research
questions or objectives are covered.
► Structured interviews in qualitative research are not very common and follow a list of set questions usually asked in a certain order, but
these questions are still open-ended; that is, usually commencing with words like ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘where’, ‘when’ etc.
 Conducting Interviews

► The structure and conduct of interviews are very important.

► A poor interview will produce poor quality narrative data and poor outcomes
overall.
► Conducting interviews can be a complex and demanding skill that requires attention to process.
► There are certain pre-requisites to conduct interviews
► The ‘rules of engagement’ need to be established early on, such as establishing and maintaining a warm and non-judgmental manner
towards the participant/s.
► Asking questions in a balanced, unbiased, nonthreatening, sensitive and clear way.
► Choosing a setting for the interview where it is most appropriate to ask personal questions.
► The majority of interviews conducted in qualitative research are audio-recorded or, less commonly, video-recorded.
► Both of these formats have an advantage over handwritten notes because it
is often impossible to record everything the interviewer hears or to observe everything that
occurs in an interview situation.
 Conducting Interviews

► In the interview process, the participant needs to be made to feel as comfortable as possible.
► It is necessary to ensure privacy and comfort and ensure that all items required for the encounter are available.
► This will likely include recording equipment, tapes, consent forms, participant
information sheets, drinks and tissues/ culturally appropriate supporting materials.
► Researchers should take active steps, such as posting ‘do not disturb’ signs and disabling
telephone or pager devices.
► Appropriate time should be allowed for each interview. Interviews should not be hurried or stopped before they
have naturally completed.
► If the participant wishes to stop the interview or the researcher senses that the participant is becoming too tired or
distressed,
then the interview can be stopped or paused at any time.
► During an interview, the interviewer’s presence and engagement (including how they listen and attend to and end
responses) is vital to the process.
Conducting Interviews

► In a structured or semi-structured interview, an appropriate range of questions are asked as listed on interview schedules.
► The purpose of these question lists is to provide clarity and assist the participant if hesitant or confused.
► Questions may also be used to prompt expansion and elaboration if further detail is required.
► An active listening position is adopted by the researcher, concentrating on what is being said as well as being alert to
other cues, particularly non-verbal cues
► During the interview, some researchers find it useful to record (memoing) non-verbal aspects of the interview.
► Another researcher may be invited to take detailed notes (memos) during the course of the interview.
► The notes are later used to guide the data collected from the audio/video-taped interviews.
► Alongside this, the interviewer may well note and review their own thoughts and feelings about the interview and any
‘extraordinary’ situations or events that arise.
 Techniques for Interviews

► Funneling: beginning the interview with general and broad (non-threatening) opening
questions and then narrowing down to topic specifics as the interview progresses

► Probing: eliciting further details or seeking clarification (laddered Questions). This is where
appropriate questions are asked in a series leading from the least intrusive questions to the
most intrusive.

► Paraphrasing: repeating what the participant has said, without changing the meaning of
what has been said, assists understanding and clarity and acts as a further prompt.
 Benefits and Limitations of Interviews

► Interviews provide the researcher with a valuable opportunity to enter the world of the participant and reflect on a particular event.
► Rapport and trust can be developed and are desirable to collect the extensive and detailed data that are needed.
► Interviews should develop as conversational encounters that offer opportunities to clarify
issues, as well as probe for ever-deeper insight.
► Overall, qualitative interviews potentially offer a productive, meaningful and supportive engagement that benefits both researchers and
participants.
► Limitations: securing access, making sensitive records, managing power relationships, managing ‘space’, managing
communication and managing the sequence of interviews.
► Limitations: Interviews are not so much limited by the techniques and methods used, but mostly by how these are applied by the researcher.
Ethically, interview schedules should be challenged if there are questions which are seemingly biased, leading, unbalanced, emotive,
imposing, coercive, manipulative or threatening.
► The potential for an increased imbalance in the power relationship between interviewer and interviewee should be avoided.
► Power Imbalance issue during the research process.
► Time Consuming.
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

► ‘a technique involving the use of in-depth group interviews in which participants are selected because
they are a purposive, although not necessarily representative, sampling of a specific population, this
group being ‘focused’ on a given topic’
► Participants in this type of research are, therefore, selected on the criteria that they would have
something to say on the topic, are within the age-range, have similar socio-characteristics and would
be comfortable talking to the interviewer and each other.
► One of the distinct features of focus-group interviews is its group dynamics, hence the type and range
of data generated through the social interaction of the group are often deeper and richer than those
obtained from one-to-one interviews.
► Focus groups could provide information about a range of ideas and feelings that individuals have
about certain issues, as well as illuminating the differences in perspective between groups of
individuals.
► The uniqueness of a focus group is its ability to generate data based on the synergy of the group
interaction.
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

► Regardless of whether a pre-existing or newly-formed group is used, the important role of the group
facilitator or moderator should not be underestimated.
► A skilful moderator, as well as being able to manage the existing relationship, could create an
environment in which the participants who do not know each other feel relaxed and encouraged to
engage and exchange feelings, views and ideas about an issue.
► Apart from the facilitator or moderator a note taker should be present to observe non-verbal
interactions, indicate the impact of the group dynamic, document exchanges of views and the general
content of discussion and note which statement is made by which particular individual, thereby
supplementing the oral text and enabling a fuller analysis of the data.
► Krueger (1994) suggests continuing with running focus groups until a clear pattern emerges and
subsequent groups produce only repetitious information (theoretical saturation).
► The optimum number of participants for a focus group may vary. Krueger & Casey (2000) suggest
between six and eight participants, as smaller groups show greater potential. However, the number
generally suggested as being manageable is between six and ten participants; large enough to gain a
variety of perspectives and small enough not to become disorderly or fragmented.
 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

► Each group interview usually lasts approximately 1–2 h, based on the complexity of the
topic under investigation, number of questions and the number of participants.
► Rich data can only be generated if individuals in the group are prepared to engage fully in
the discussion and, for this reason, advocates the use of a homogenous group.
► Based on the topic under investigation participants should share similar characteristics:
gender group, age-range, ethnic and social class background.
► Most researchers, although they would not disagree with the concept of homogeneity,
recommend that participants should not know each other, thus encouraging more honest
and spontaneous expression of views and a wider range of responses.
► On the other hand, advocates the use of pre-existing groups, as acquaintances could
relate to each other’s comments and may be more able to challenge one another.