Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)

Semester: Spring, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Explain role of motivation in learning with reference to different functions of motivation. As a
teacher How will you enhance motivation of your students?
A common distinction made in the literature is between extrinsic and intrinsic forms of motivation. Intrinsic
motivation is the act of doing an activity purely for the joy of doing it, and it is frankly very rare in school and
work contexts. Extrinsic motivation, or the use of external rewards or punishments to encourage student work
completion, is generally painted in education as the enemy of good instruction. This is true to a certain extent
because, as learning is comparable to exploration, the use of rewards or punishments tends to outline a
boundary around how much a student should explore.
However, there are actually many different forms of extrinsic motivation, and not all are equally likely to lead
students down a path of apathy and dissociation from the joy of learning. For example, one extrinsically
motivated student may work hard in school because they fear failure and the anger of their parents. Another
may study hard because they see the value of the content in helping them work toward their dream of becoming
a doctor. Neither student in these examples is intrinsically motivated – their goals lie outside the simple
enjoyment of the activity. However, the second student is likely to be more independent and self-guided in their
learning because they recognise the value of these extrinsic rewards. This form of motivation is much more
sustainable because it does not require constant threats or prizes from teachers or parents. There is also some
research to suggest that extrinsic motivation can lead to intrinsic motivation, in the sense that students may
embark on a task for reasons associated with extrinsic motivation but become intrinsically motivated through
the process of engaging with the task and learning to value it.
Achievement Goal Theory
Achievement Goal Theory argues that all motivation can be linked to one’s orientation towards a goal.
According to this theory, there are two forms of goal: performance goals and mastery goals. Performance goals
are based on satisfying one’s ego by appearing smart in front of one’s peers or on achieving a sense of
superiority. Mastery goals are, as they sound, motivated by a desire to fully master a skill or concept. Students
with mastery goals will finish a project when they are proud of it rather than when it meets the minimum
requirements. Even after they turn in the assignment to be assessed, they may continue to reflect on it and make
refinements. Mastery goals largely align with intrinsic motivation in the former theory.
Some researchers in education have broken the concept of Achievement Goal Theory down further, borrowing
the idea of approach and avoidant behavior from psychology. As the name suggests, students with approach
performance goals actively seek to outperform others while those with avoidant performance goals actively
work to avoid being seen as inferior. While less studied, approach and avoidant orientations also apply to
mastery goals as well.
Expectancy Value Theory

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

Goal orientation has a strong impact on persistence through a rigorous task, as described in Expectancy Value
Theory. According to this model, expectations and values influence performance and task choice directly. There
are two main components to this theory. First, a student’s effort, the level of challenge they choose and
ultimately their performance will follow their expectation of success or failure. Second, the extent to which a
student values learning a skill or concept directly impacts their effort and mastery of that skill or concept.
Expectations and values themselves are influenced by beliefs about one’s competence (otherwise known as self-
efficacy) and by beliefs about the difficulty of the task. If the student remembers doing well or feeling satisfied
when completing a similar task in the past, they are more likely to push themselves to work hard on the current
task. However, if the student remembers that the activity was too difficult to be completed and they became
frustrated, or not difficult enough and they became bored, they are unlikely to engage with it.
These beliefs, goals, and memories are also affected by a student’s beliefs of other people’s attitudes towards
and expectations for them, and by their own interpretations of their previous achievement outcomes. Children’s
perceptions and interpretations are influenced by a broad array of social and cultural factors, and especially by
parents and teachers.
Flow Theory
Flow is described as a psychological state in which an individual is purely intrinsically motivated and in which
their sense of time is muted. Students experience flow during mastery-oriented tasks. This state is accompanied
by a lessening of self-conscious thoughts and feelings. While there are many different psychological states that
a student can experience throughout the learning process, such as wonder, confusion, worry and helplessness,
flow is the most effective state of learning. Not only do students learn a great deal while experiencing flow
because their learning is internally motivated, but they will continue without constant teacher prodding. These
students will continue the learning process beyond the minimum requirements, or even outside the confines of
the school context. Flow is said to occur within ‘Goldilocks’ conditions: tasks that are too difficult for the
student will engender frustration and helplessness, while tasks that are too easy will cause the student to feel
bored, and both these states of mind lead to disengagement from the activity. When possible, differentiation for
individual student ability allows students to practise skills and concepts that are just withintheir current ability.
Nature versus nurture
Each of these theories points to the malleability of motivation. While natural genetic variability will lead to
differences in a student’s innate drive, every student has the desire to reach their goals. Our task as teachers,
then, is to apply what we know from social science research to create environments, instruction, and activities to
cultivate student motivation.
Some theorists classify motivation as a stable trait of the person, while others consider it to be more task
specific. Individual-specific motivation describes the orientation with which all activities are approached, while
task-specific motivation is dependent upon the appeal of the activity. Both forms can be improved through
positive reinforcement, just-difficult-enough tasks, mastery-oriented goals and plenty of opportunities for

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

success, as research indicates that even small initial successes are motivating for students. Individual-specific
motivation is not the same as genetic predisposition to be a motivated person. Any individual can garner a more
motivated outlook through specific supports and strategies. This resource focuses on motivation as an
individual-specific trait because the research for this argument is fairly compelling, and because efforts to
improve motivation of a person as a whole rather than towards one activity has greater potential impact.
Why is motivation important?
First and foremost, motivation is an orientation towards learning. Therefore, it impacts how likely a student is
either to give up or push forward, and how thoughtful their reflection on their learning will be. The deeper the
motivation for pursuing an activity, the more likely that the student will not accept easy answers to complex
questions. In short, intrinsic motivation fosters strong and flexible critical thinking skills. On the other hand,
amotivation and purely extrinsic motivation lead to low interest and academic persistence.
Motivation fosters creativity and critical thinking
Students who are intrinsically motivated treat learning like play. As a result, they are more likely to flip the
learning on its head to see it from a new angle. Motivated students are not more intelligent than unmotivated
students, but their need to find out the answer to a question or to master a concept pushes their thinking.
Intrinsically motivated students will think about questions far beyond the confines of the classroom, because the
presence of the teacher or the fear of a low grade are not the underlying drivers for their thinking. Therefore,
motivated students, by virtue of thinking longer and harder and enjoying the challenge of being confused, will
ask deeper, more thought-provoking questions. Motivated students are more able to adapt learned content to
new situations because they tend to reflect on underlying causes or frameworks.
Motivation cultivates resilience and self-assurance
When a student is truly engrossed in a task, they have less cognitive and emotional energy to focus on social
image. Individuals who engage in intrinsically motivating activities report that their self-consciousness and
other stressors tends to fade for the period of the activity. Motivated students are also more able to emotionally
‘bounce back’ from a low grade on a test or a harsh criticism from a teacher or peer. Because intrinsically
motivated students are not driven by fear of failure or criticism, they are less likely to disengage in such
circumstances. With that said, every student does feel the demotivating effects of negative feedback, even if
driven students experience them to a lesser extent.
Motivation and agency
Agency may be defined briefly as a sense of purpose and autonomy in striving after one’s goals.Agency and
motivation are inextricably linked concepts because, as a student becomes more driven to reach a goal, they
consequently develop a stronger sense of purpose in directing their energy towards that goal. When it comes to
educational attainment, highly motivated students find a way to forge their own path and tend to be skeptical of
the limitations set by others. As professionals, motivated individuals also tend to be skeptical of established
ideas or rules of the field, and instead constantly challenge themselves by experimenting with new ideas.

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

While the above theories may differ in emphasis, each can support student motivation through the following
practical applications.
Practise growth mindset
Students who feel like they will improve through hard work will exert more effort than those who believe that
their success is based on intelligence. Teaching students to use the phrase ‘yet’ when explaining their gaps in
knowledge helps to move them away from this deterministic orientation. For example, if a student says ‘I can’t
do that’, suggest that ‘you can’t do that, YET’. Making a conscious effort to provide wait time also removes the
pressure of needing to be the first to find the answer. When students come to realise that their teacher will
always wait 5 seconds or so before calling on a student rather than always calling on the first hand up, they will
be more likely to engage with the struggle of thinking through the problem. Finally, by keeping the emphasis on
progress rather than scores, growth mindset pushes students to continually challenge themselves and reflect on
their improvement. Even small improvements and successes can help to spur a student’s motivation.
Encourage self-efficacy
Students who are paralysed by low academic self-confidence will struggle to drive their own motivation. A
sense of competence is enhanced through optimal challenges. These are also referred to as ‘just right’
challenges because they are difficult enough to be just above the student’s current ability to work independently
but easy enough for the student to follow along with the teacher. As the student practises this new skill or
concept, the teacher slowly removes their structured support, making it more and more difficult. This slow
removal of support, paired with positive reinforcement and opportunities to receive support along the way,
keeps students at this level of optimal challenge as they improve. Consistent small successes will further
enhance motivation.
In addition, most of us can relate to the value of being reassured of one’s own competence to learn a skill or
concept. Students often base their view of their own competence on how they believe their teacher views them.
Therefore, teacher observations of student effort encourage a sense of competence, as well as pointing out how
far the student has come in their learning. When students have a firm sense that they are regarded as competent,
they will be more likely to treat learning like play, making mistakes and taking risks. Threats and unyielding
deadlines tend to diminish this orientation towards play-like learning.
Normalise the struggle
Students may give up because they falsely believe that, if they were going to succeed, it would be easy.
Teachers can disentangle this misconception by providing examples of failures that well-known individuals
overcame along their journey towards success. Emphasising the value of asking for help may catch students
who are falling behind and becoming disengaged from the material. Finally, modeling the struggle through your
own words and actions can be a powerful example to students. One phrase that may be useful when students
seem to lose motivation for a difficult task is: ‘This is new, this is hard, and if you get it wrong the first time
then the challenge is simply to figure out why and to carry on.’

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

Minimise competition when there is one right answer

A pressure to compete tends to diminish motivation unless the two students are and perceive themselves to be
equally competent: if a student at the top of the class is pitted against a student who is struggling, the latter
student may feel that there is no reason to try. This is not to say that class or school-wide competitions should
be avoided. When broader competitions are more open-ended, students can creatively self-guide their projects,
and will feel a stronger sense of intrinsic motivation.
Develop optimally challenging, mastery-oriented goals
Differentiating tasks so they are appropriately challenging allows students to maintain optimal engagement.
When students are working just within their current ability, they are drawn in by their curiosity to find the
answer and spurred by the belief that they can find the answer. Teachers can also encourage students to set
authentic learning goals rather than performance goals. Students can practise using mastery-orientation
language when writing weekly, monthly, or long-term goals. Goals that begin ‘to learn…’, ‘to understand…’, or
‘to master… [a particular skill]’ support this orientation, while goals such as ‘to get… grade’, ‘to earn more
points than last quiz’ or ‘to meet my parent’s goal of…’ all express performance goals. Teachers can reinforce
mastery-orientation by modeling it in their own goal setting.
Create quiet space
Despite the popular idea that fidgets or music support student focus, brains generally need quiet or ambient
noise to stay engaged. Higher level brain functions such as creativity and critical thinking are inextricably
linked to a state of flow, so students who are constantly interrupted will never be able to reach this level of
highly motivated thinking. Therefore, independent and collaborative work should occur at separate times, or in
separate spaces if they must occur simultaneously.
Avoid tangible rewards
Some learning is simply not particularly interesting, and no amount of differentiation can make every learning
experience enjoyable for every student all of the time. External rewards such as long-term career goals and
teacher approval are realistic external rewards that teachers can use. However, when deciding whether to use
external motivation, it is important to keep certain principles in mind. Tangible rewards are often
counterproductive, and the more external the reward, the less inherently valuable the student will find the
activity. Even when students complete an activity for the inherent value they see in it, and are given an
unexpected reward, they later regard their motivation for doing the activity as more extrinsically motivated than
students who were not given a reward.
Acknowledge but don’t dwell on potential hurdles
Students who believe that they can succeed are more likely to reach their goals. However, it is important that
students consider what may go wrong in order to avoid being emotionally devastated when they encounter
setbacks. In fact, letting students know that they will encounter setbacks, and that they are entirely normal, takes
away some of their sting in the moment. In addition, students who consider hurdles before taking on a challenge

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

are able to make a plan regarding how to continue moving forward. It is deeply valuable to emphasise to
students that obstacles will always come up, but that what is important is to learn from these obstacles rather
than to dwell on them.
Measuring motivation
Periodically evaluating students’ social-emotional learning serves the dual purpose of informing the teacher of
their students’ progress and wellbeing, and prompting students to practise self-awareness. While formal school-
wide social-emotional assessments are valuable for collecting comprehensive data, these measures are time-
consuming and cannot practically be implemented more than once or twice each year. For these formal
assessments, one reliable measure with strong evidence of validity is the Panorama Social-Emotional Learning
Survey. However, on a fortnightly or monthly basis, teachers can informally gauge student motivation by asking
the following questions:
How often do you do the following? Write a 1-10 next to each response (1=Not Often; 10=Very Often)
1. Choose to work above and beyond what is expected _____
2. Stick with a task until it is completed _____
3. Attempt to solve problems that others have difficulty with _____
4. Hurry through assignments _____
5. Ask questions to better understand difficult concepts _____
6. Try to avoid competitive situations _____
7. Put forth minimum effort _____
8. Do something over again just to get it right _____
These questions are suitable for verbal or written check-ins. When scoring written check-ins, items 4, 6, and 7
should be reverse-scored.
It is also prudent to consider not only the level of motivation a student has but their form of motivation. Is the
student more intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, or somewhere in between? With this knowledge, we can
use the above strategies to nudge the students towards more internal motivation by developing their sense of
competency and control over their learning, as well as doing what we can to draw students in with interesting
content.
Q.2 Discuss the concept of individual differences. Explain areas of individual differences and their
implications for education.
Definitions of Individual Differences:
1. Drever James:
“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or physical
characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.”
2. Good, C.V.:

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

“The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristics or a number of

characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another.”
3. Skinner, C.E.:
“Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.”
4. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.:
“Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental abilities,
knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.”
“The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences. This study classifies
individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and observes the differences within and between
those groups. Physical, mental, social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under individual
differences.” – John P.De Ceeceo
Perhaps the first task of every teacher in a class should be to know and study individual differences among his
pupils. Individual differences in bodily appearance and physique, habits and skills, interests and temperaments,
abilities and attainments have already been recognised.
According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.” It is clear from this definition of individual differences that it comprehends every aspect of human
personality which is in some manner measurable.
Types of Individual Differences:
1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are various
physical individual differences.
2. Differences in intelligence:
There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can classify the individuals from
super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.
3. Differences in attitudes:
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people, objects, institutions and authority.
4. Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These
differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in learning mathematics.
These differences in achievement are even visible among the children who are at the same level of intelligence.
These differences are on account of the differences in the various factors of intelligence and the differences in
the various experiences, interests and educational background.
5. Differences in motor ability:

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
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There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different ages. Some people can perform
mechanical tasks easily, while others, even though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing
these tasks.
6. Differences on account of sex:
McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women, on the basis of
some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.
(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc., while men show
greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion.
(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and chemistry.
(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were found to be three times of
such faults in women.
(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many colour blind men as there
are women.
(vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home and day-dreaming
and show various levels in their play. On the other hand boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war,
scouting, stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.
7. Racial differences:
There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment is a normal factor in causing these
differences. Karl Brigham has composed a list on the basis of differences in levels of intelligence among people
who have migrated to United States from other countries.
On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a particular individual cannot be
calculated since this difference is based on environment.
8. Differences due to nationality:
Individuals of different nations differ in respect of physical and mental differences, interests and personality etc.
‘Russians are tall and stout’; ‘Ceylonese are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of humour’; ‘Yellow
races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty and frank’; Indians are timid and peace-loving’ and the
like observations enter into our common talk.
9. Differences due to economic status:
Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and character are caused by economic differences.
10. Differences in interests:
Factors such as sex, family background level of development, differences of race and nationality etc., cause
differences in interests.
11. Emotional differences:

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
Semester: Spring, 2020

Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular situation. Some are irritable and aggressive and
they get angry very soon. There are others who are of peaceful nature and do not get angry easily. At a
particular thing an individual may be so much enraged that he may be prepared for the worst crime like murder,
while another person may only laugh at it.
12. Personality differences:
There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of differences in personality, individuals have been
classified into many groups.
Spranger, for example, has classified personalities into six types:
(a) Theoretical,
(b) Economic
(c) Aesthetic,
(d) Social,
(e) Political, and
(f) Religious.
Jung classified people into three groups:
(a) Introverts,
(b) Extroverts, and
(c) Ambiverts.
Trottor divided individuals into:
(a) Stable minded, and
(b) Unstable minded.
Jordon thinks of personalities into:
(a) Active, and
(b) Reflective type.
Thorndike has classified people into four categories on the basis of thinking:
(a) Abstract thinkers,
(b) Ideational thinkers,
(c) Object thinkers, and
(d) Thinkers in whom sensory experience is predominant.
Terman has classified people into nine classes according to their level of intelligence:
(a) Genius,
(b) Near genius
(c) Very superior,
(d) Superior,
(e) Average,

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
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(f) Backward,
(g) Feebleminded,
(h) Dull, and
(i) Idiot.
It is an admitted fact that some people are honest, others are dishonest, some are aggressive, others are humble,
some are social, others like to be alone, some are critical and others are sympathetic. Thus we see that the
differences in personality are dependent on personality traits. Teacher should keep in mind these differences
while imparting education to the pupils.
Causes of Individual Differences:
Some of the main causes of individual differences are as under:
1. Heredity:
One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is heredity. Individuals inherit various
physical traits like face with its features, colour of eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands,
colour blindness, baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental
traits like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. Now it is an admitted fact that heredity
differences result in the quantity and rate of physical as well as mental development being different and
different individuals.
2. Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s environment are reflected in the
changes in his personality. Psychologically speaking, a person’s environment consists of sum total of
stimulation which he receives from conception until his death.
Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. All these
forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe that individual differences are caused by both
heredity and environment. Personality is the outcome of mutual interaction between heredity and environment.
3. Influence of caste, race and nation:
Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. It is generally seen that son of a
Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son of a trader has the traits of business.
Similarly individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality, character and mental
abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and cultural environment. Many studies have
shown the existence of differences between Americans and Negroes, Chineese and Japaneese, English and
Indian individuals.
4. Sex differences:
Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in sex. The physical development of the
girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys. Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier
than the boys. After 15, boys start winning the race.

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
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Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are brave, hard, choleric, efficient and
competent.
5. Age and intelligence:
Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age. Many individuals differ
because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are below the average in intelligence and mental age
find much difficulty in learning and the average intelligent persons can learn quickly.
6. Temperament and emotional stability:
Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and slow, some humorous and
others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual is differently affected by physical, mental and
environmental factors. Differences in emotional stability cause individual differences.
7. Other Causes:
Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home background lead to individual
differences.
8. Economic condition and education:
Individual differences are caused by economic condition of the parents and the education of the children. It is
not possible for the children of two economic classes to have a similarity and equality.
Role of Individual Differences in Education:
One of the important objectives of modern education is the complete development of the individual. Individuals
have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities. We cannot afford to
ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children. Since school work is planned on group
basis it presents a formidable challenge to all teachers.
Hence some practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences are suggested:
1. Limited size of the class:
Generally there are 50 or more than 50 students in a class. In such a large class, it is not possible for the teacher
to pay individual attention to the students. The size of the class should be small. It should be divided into
various units so that after class-room work their various difficulties may be found out.
2. Proper division of the class:
Now there are separate classes for the students, who have different intelligence. While bringing about this
classification, the teacher should keep in mind the difference in age, interests, emotional and social qualities.
3. Home task:
The teacher should assign home task to the students while keeping in view the individual differences.
4. Factor of sex:
Boys and girls are to play different roles in society. Hence the factor of sex should be kept in mind.
5. Curriculum:

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
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The curriculum should be modified to suit the needs of all types of children. A large number of subjects should
be included in the curriculum so that education can be provided to each child according to his interests, needs
and abilities. Curriculum should not be rigid but it should be flexible.
If we lay down the same curriculum for all the students, the brilliant students will not be able to have full mental
diet, and the backward students and the students of lower I.Q. will lag far behind in the class, and they may start
playing truancy from the school.
6. Methods of Teaching:
Methods of teaching should be chosen on the basis of individual differences. It is not advisable to use the same
method of education in the case of all children-gifted or backward.
7. Educational Guidance:
Teacher should impart educational guidance to the students while keeping in view their individual differences.
He can assist them in the selection of educational career, selection of subjects, selection of books, selection of
hobbies and co-curricular activities and in many other areas connected with education.
8. Vocational Guidance:
While keeping in view the individual differences the teacher can guide the students in the vocation that they
should adopt.
9. Individual Training:
Many plans and techniques for individualizing instructions have been advocated.
Some of these plans are as under:
(i) Dalton Plan:
This plan was introduced by Miss Helen Parkhurst at Dalton. According to this plan, the school is regarded as a
‘children house.’ The principles underlying the plan are freedom, co-operation and allocation of time. The
pupils are free to continue without interruption the work in which they are absorbed, unhindered by time tables.
They are not taught in classrooms. They are given subjects that suit their interests. The advantage of this plan is
that each pupil is allowed to proceed at his own rate and in accordance with this individual ability. Thus the
instructions are completely individualized.
(ii) Morrison Plan:
This Plan was devised by Professor H.Q. Morrison of the University of Chicago. This plan is based on directed
guidance and stresses unit assignment. To establish learning unit is an important task in the Morrison plan. The
plan is based on individual needs and interests.
(iii) Winnetka Plan:
This plan was instituted by C.W. Washburne in the school of Winnetka, Illinois. This plan is based on the
principle that the pupils should be allowed to follow his own rate of learning in each of the subjects of his
curriculum. Before instituting this plan it is observed through an examination that how much an individual
already knows. On the basis of it, specific learning unit is planned for him.

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 Course: Educational Psychology and Guidance (6501)
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Progress is checked by the pupils himself by means of self-administered tests. The advantages of this plan are
that the backward and the intelligent are to proceed at their own rates. Moreover, there are no failures since the
pupil is measured against his own progress.
(iv) Contract Plan:
In this plan, the subjects of study are determined like the Dalton method; the pupil’s progress is measured
through tests like the Winnetka method. Thus this plan is a synthesis of Dalton and Winnetka methods.
(v) Project method:
This method was suggested by Kilpatrick. In this method each member of the group can work in terms of his
interest and ability. Hence this method is also in the direction of individualization of instructions.
Q.3 Critically discuss the significance of metal health for teachers. What are different factors that can
have an adverse effect upon teachers' mental health?
Consult with a school counselor, nurse, or administrator and the student's parents if you observe one or more of
the following behaviors:
 Feeling very sad or withdrawn for more than two weeks
 Seriously trying to harm oneself, or making plans to do so
 Sudden overwhelming fear for no reason, sometimes with a racing heart or fast breathing
 Involvement in many fights or desire to badly hurt others
 Severe out-of-control behavior that can hurt oneself or others
 Not eating, throwing up, or using laxatives to make oneself lose weight
 Intense worries or fears that get in the way of daily activities
 Extreme difficulty concentrating or staying still that puts the student in physical danger or causes
problems in the classroom
 Repeated use of drugs or alcohol
 Severe mood swings that cause problems in relationships
 Drastic changes in the student's behavior or personality
You can support the mental health of all students in your classroom and school, not just individual students who
may exhibit behavioral issues. Consider the following actions:
 Educate staff, parents, and students on symptoms of and help for mental health problems
 Promote social and emotional competency and build resilience
 Help ensure a positive, safe school environment
 Teach and reinforce positive behaviors and decision-making
 Encourage helping others
 Encourage good physical health
 Help ensure access to school-based mental health supports

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Efforts to care for the emotional well-being of children and youth can extend beyond the classroom and into the
entire school. School-based mental health programs can focus on promoting mental wellness, preventing mental
health problems, and providing treatment.
Effective programs:
 Promote the healthy social and emotional development of all children and youth
 Recognize when young people are at risk for or are experiencing mental health problems
 Identify how to intervene early and appropriately when there are problems
Individuals working in school settings are particularly vulnerable to work-related stress. Data from the
2013 Gallup-Health-ways Well-Being Index found that 46% of teachers in K-12 settings report high levels of
daily stress during the school year. This level of stress is similar to that of nurses (46%) and physicians (45%)
and is the highest (along with nurses) among the 14 professional categories included in the study. Furthermore,
found that 78% of teachers reported feeling physically and emotionally exhausted at the end of the day. The
stress that educators experience affects their enthusiasm about the profession and longevity in the field. For
example, a survey of 30,000 teachers revealed that 89% said they had been enthusiastic about teaching when
they started the profession, but only 15% reported being enthusiastic at the time they completed the survey. The
stress of the education field is further illustrated in the high rates of teacher turnover; 10% of teachers leave
after one year, and 17% of teachers leave within five years. Turnover rates are much higher in urban districts,
where up to 70% of teachers leave within the first year. This issue is not limited just too new teachers; many
experienced teachers leave the profession because they feel unable to deal with the myriad challenges of
modern teaching.
There are a multitude of factors contributing to the high rates of stress and burnout in the education field.
Studies suggest that some of the most common sources of teacher stress include:
 High-stakes testing;
 Large class sizes;
 Student behavioral challenges;
 Inadequate resources;
 Poor physical space;
 Bureaucracy;
 Workload;
 Paperwork;
 High responsibility for others;
 Perceived inadequate recognition or advancement; and
 The gap between preservice training expectations and actual work experiences.
Additionally, lack of autonomy is a significant contributor to teacher burnout and stress; teachers who do not
feel that they have autonomy over their classroom or that they have a collective influence over school policy are

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more likely to experience job dissatisfaction. Research showed that when compared to 12 different occupational
groups, teachers are the least likely to state that they agree with the statement: “At work, my opinions seem to
count.”
Educators and other school-based staff can experience the stress of compassion fatigue and/or vicarious
traumatization, which is defined as “the natural consequent behaviors and emotions resulting from knowing
about a traumatizing event experienced by a significant other—the stress resulting from helping or wanting to
help a traumatized or suffering person”. Compassion fatigue can be the result of experiencing one traumatic
case, or a cumulative impact over time. As explained by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network: “Any
professional who works directly with traumatized children … is at risk of secondary traumatic stress.” Although
compassion fatigue has traditionally been discussed as being a secondary effect for individuals providing
clinical services to traumatized clients, it also has an impact on teachers and other school staff who work closely
with youth who have experienced adverse experiences. The impact of compassion fatigue may be particularly
acute for teachers working in poor, underresourced urban and rural communities, where students may have been
exposed to community and family violence and traumatic experiences.
Teachers and other school staff who experience exhaustion and burnout related to their work are likely to have a
number of negative physical and psychological symptoms and consequences, including:
 Emotional numbing;
 Feeling “shut down”;
 Loss of enjoyment;
 Lack of energy;
 A sense of cynicism or pessimism;
 Increased illness or fatigue;
 Aches and pains;
 Increased absenteeism and “sick days”;
 Greater problems with boundaries; and
 Difficulty making decisions or making poor decisions.
Educator and school staff stress and burnout affects not only the adult professionals but also the students with
whom these professionals interact. For example, teacher burnout is predictive of student academic outcomes,
including being correlated with lower levels of student effective learning and lower motivation. Additionally,
teacher burnout appears to affect the stress levels of the students they teach; a recent study found that teacher
burnout level explained more than half of the variability in students’ levels of cortisol (a stress hormone) when
evaluated in the morning.
Despite the strong evidence for the existence of work-related stress, only 36% of respondents from all fields to
the Stress in America survey stated that their employers provide the resources they need to effectively manage
their work-related stress. The numbers are even weaker in the education field, with only 25.5% of schools

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offering stress management education to staff. Although comprehensive programs are recommended to address
staff wellness, many schools and school systems have limited programs, and school staff may have exposure
only to professional development and basic resources. Thus, although school employees throughout the United
States are clearly affected by work-related stress, they often lack the programs, resources, and tools needed to
support their management of that stress and the promotion of overall wellness. This article demonstrates the
value of school staff wellness and highlights unique aspects of the job that should be taken into consideration
when addressing the well-being of school-based staff. It shares key findings from the literature and discusses
how to best measure and implement effective staff wellness programs in schools. Finally, it summarizes best
practices in the school staff wellness field and highlights exemplary programs.
Although school employees throughout the United States are clearly affected by work-related stress, they often
lack the programs, resources, and tools needed to support their management of that stress and the promotion of
overall wellness.
Q.4 Highlight the importance of guidance in school. What are different modes of guidance that can be
used in schools?
1. Meaning of Guidance:
It is fact that we use word “Guidance” most frequently in our day to day life. But it is a hardest job to define
and understand the concept of guidance in clear cut words. It is not really a recent concept and it is as old as our
human civilization is so that to be more clears about concept of guidance it is necessary to discuss some of the
definitions of different guidance experts and authors.
They have cited their definitions in various ways not disturbing the main theme of guidance by which we find a
common agreement among them. For an open discussion certain definitions regarding the concept of guidance
were mentioned here.
Good:
“Guidance is a process of dynamic interpersonal relationships designed to influence the attitudes and
subsequent behaviour of a person.”
Hamrin and Erickson:
“Guidance is that aspect of educational programme which is concerned especially with helping the pupil
to become adjusted to his present situation and to plan his future in turn with his interests; abilities and
social needs.”
Lefever, Turrell and Weitzel:
“Guidance is an educational service designed to help students make more effective use of the schools training
programme.”
Chisholm:

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“Guidance seeks to help each individual become familiar with a wide range of information about himself, his
interests, his abilities, his previous development in the various areas of living and his plans or ambitions for the
future.”
Jones:
“Guidance involves personal help given by someone, it is designed to assist a person to decide where he wants
to go, what he wants to do or how he can best accomplish his purpose ; it assists him to solve problems that
arise in his life.”
Dunsmoor and Miller:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
“Guidance is a means of helping individuals to understand and use wisely the educational, vocational and
personal opportunities they have or can develop and as a form of systematic assistance whereby students are
aided in achieving satisfactory adjustment to school and to life.”
Mathewson:
“Guidance is the systematic professional process of helping the individual through education and interpretative
procedures to gain a better under-standing of his own characteristics and potentialities and to relate himself
more satisfactorily to social and moral values.”
Bernad and Fullmer:
“Guidance is perceived as all those activities which promote individual self realization.”
Stoops and Wahlquist:
“Guidance is a continuous process of helping the individual development to the maximum of his capacity in the
direction most beneficial to himself and to society.”
Traxler:
“Guidance enables each individual to understand abilities and interests, to develop them as well as possible and
to relate them to life-goals, and finally to reach a state of complete and mature self-guidance as a desirable
member of the social order”.
Smith:
“The guidance process consists of a group of services to individuals to assist them in securing the knowledge’s
and skills needed in making adequate choices, plans and interpretations essential to satisfactory adjustment in a
variety of areas.”
Crow and Crow:
“Guidance is assistance made available by competent counsellors to an individual of any age to help him direct
his own life, develop his own point of view, make his own decisions, carry his own burdens”.
Mc Daniel:
“Guidance is a facilitative service, it does not undertake to carry out the objectives of educational programmes;
rather, it attends to provide aids to pupils and staff to help pupils determine the courses most appropriate to their

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needs and abilities, find instructors who will be more sympathetic to their individual requirements, and seek out
activities which will help them realize their potentialities.”
Brewer:
“Guidance is a process through which an individual is able to solve his problems and persue a path suited to his
abilities and aspirations”.
Moser and Moser:
“Guidance is a with many meanings. It is a point of view, it is a group of services, it is a field of study… should
we be required to choose one of the emphasis, service would predominate.”
Mortensen and Schmullar:
“From one point of guidance clearly embraces all of education, from another, it is seen as a specialized service
whose primary concern is with the individual.”
Tiedeman:
“The goal of guidance is to help people, become purposeful and not merely to peruse purposeful activity”.
National Vocational Guidance Association, U.S.A:
“Guidance is a process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself
and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept against reality and to convert it into reality with
satisfaction to himself and benefit to the society.”
Secondary Education Commission, 1954 (India):
“Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys and girls to plan their own future wisely in the full
light of all the factors that can be mastered about themselves and about the world in which they are to
live and work.”
After compiling all the definitions cited above, it is found that guidance goes smoothly carrying two individuals
into its account. In one side the needy child who seeks guidance plays his role on the other hand the guide or
guidance worker who is having excess experiences in his field concerning guidance acts sincerely.
That is why it is proved that like education, guidance is also bipolar process. It is a some sort of assistance or
help given by guidance worker to the youngster not only to make him fit for educational career or job career but
also it suggests how to adjust with others and to prepare him for future world.
Especially in educational situation teacher plays a vital role as guide at the time problems faced by the students.
In short, it is stated that suitable solution and fruitful suggestion for the problem of the students is the important
goal of guidance which is to be achieved.
2. Nature of Guidance:
An analysis of the above stated definitions by various experts depict the nature of guidance in the
following ways:

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(i) Guidance is education itself:

Like education, guidance is a process which is meant to enable child or individual to manifest innate
potentialities or noble qualities for his development touching social development as well. Education and
guidance are both take utmost care for the development of the child and man which is the real goal of life.
Owing to this reason it is proved that guidance is also as educational process which ultimately states that
guidance is education itself.
(ii) Guidance is a continuous process:
Human life is dynamic and world is also receiving changes in the every stage of the age. So more or less an
individual faces certain problems of life and society and tries his best to adjust not for few days or few years
rather for entire life span.
Because life is full of problems, anxieties and tensions from the point of solution of problems, selection of
choices and taking suitable decisions. Indeed, guidance is not limited to particular period of human life but it is
needed for all times to come which proves that guidance is a continuous process.
(iii) Guidance is a bipolar process:
Previously it is pointed out that guidance is a process or service or programme where person or persons from
the two sides participate. In one hand the child or individual plays his role, who needs guidance and on the other
hand the guide or guidance worker completes his job offering guidance or advice to the needy child or person.
Of course, in some situations group of the individuals take guidance from guidance worker also. In-fact
guidance is a bipolar process where two said sides act properly.
(iv) Guidance is universal in nature:
Guidance is necessary for every human life. Because every human life goes through certain problems in its
survival. Some need guidance to solve the problems of life constantly while others require it occasionally in the
life time. From this point of view it can be said that guidance is universal in nature.
(v) Guidance is a help at the time of need:
The real meaning of guidance reveals that guidance is form of help, assistance or advice offered by a senior,
trained, experienced and qualified person to the needy youngster he who lacks knowledge of facing difficulties
or problems of life.
(vi) Guidance is a solution for the problems:
When individual or child feels unable to face the problems of life, he starts on going to door of guidance
worker. Because guidance worker or expert suggests some of the ways to overcome the problems faced by the
needy person.
(vii) Guidance is both generalized and a specialized services:
Guidance is a generalized service as it is carried on by teachers, parents, and relatives to assist or help the
individual child when he becomes unable to solve the problems of life. Guidance is not only a generalized
service but also it is a specialized service.

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Because in some particular situation and context the guidance work is done by specially qualified and trained
personnel such as counsellors, psychologists, psychiatrists keeping in view to solve the problems of the child.
(viii) Individual is the central point of the guidance:
Really individual is the main focus of guidance as it deals with the weakness, efficiency, needs, motives and
interests of individual including his care and caution for the problems.
(ix) Guidance is systematic and organised:
Guidance is not an incidental and haphazard business so far its working process is concerned. Guidance can be
more effective, purposive and goal achieving if it becomes more systematic, organised and well done.
(x) Guidance is a co-operative process:
Of course guidance mainly takes two category of persons such as guide and individual who seeks guidance. To
offer guidance to the child guidance worker or the technical personnel needs many information’s concerning
observational and interactive behaviour which may be collected from parents, teachers and relatives.
Guidance work cannot be completed and fruitful one without receiving the required information’s regarding
child from the said nearest persons. So that at the time of guidance the technical personnel should be co-
operated by parents, teachers and relatives. Due to this reason it is uttered that guidance is a co-operative
process.
(xi) Guidance is decision making:
The meaning and nature of guidance will be incomplete if we say that guidance is related to problem of
individual and its solution. Rather guidance is meant to help the individual in solving problems and to take his
own suitable decisions at the time of need.
(xii) Guidance has wide applications in the various aspects of life:
Guidance does not cover only problems of relating few aspects of life such as educational, vocational and
personal. Rather the knowledge of guidance is widely and popularly applied to solve the problems concerning
health, social, emotional and marital aspects of human life.
(xiii) Guidance is invited for individual as well as social development:
The development of the society depends upon the activity, adjustment and achievement of the individual as he
is the part and parcel of the society. From that point of view guidance indirectly invites development of the
society as it hopes, aspires and helps best for the individual development to the highest extent so far his
educational career, vocational career etc. are concerned.
3. Scope of Guidance:
Indeed the scope of guidance is very vast and extending one as it gives much emphasis on various aspects of
human life. With due importance it does not ignore any aspect of life. The need and importance is much more
felt by every individual as the human life getting more complex and the world undergoes through various
changes day by day. Besides that guidance is an essential help which is given to the needy persons at any age

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and stage of individual life. At present, the scope of guidance is increasing and highly appreciating by the
modern talents.
The scope of the guidance extends its long hand in helping needy individual the following considerations
regarding:
1. Selection of suitable courses and subjects,
2. Better choice of preferable vocations/occupations,
3. Preparation for a better job,
4. Proper placement in the world of the works,
5. Been interest for higher education and training,
6. Clear cut knowledge of applying and availing the scholarships;
7. Sure gain of the achievements in favourable field,
8. Improvement of regular study habits,
9. Maintenance of the physical health relating physical exercises, food etc.,
10. Development of the mental health,
11. Solution of the personal adjustment problems,
12. Careful and fruitful suggestions for social adjustment problems,
13. Ways to find out and gain pleasure, peace and satisfaction in both personal and as well as social life.
Above discussions made clear about educational, vocational, social, moral, physical, personal and vocational
aspects of human life which are the great concerns of the scope and study of guidance.
Guidance has wide sphere so far its scope and uses are concerned. It has no limited use in case of secondary
school students at their problems. Rather guidance is also needed for college and university students to have a
better reach and solution of their problems.
Besides this, the scope of guidance includes and provides helps and services for the individuals of any age, sex,
race, caste, colour, creed, area, labels abilities etc. The scope of guidance does not believe in any particular form
of guidance.
Rather the scope of guidance includes all forms of guidance such as informal, non specialist and professional.
The scope of guidance also is enriched by some of the new fields considering adjustment in the context of
ever growing society like:
(a) Socialized curriculum
(b) Co-curricular activities
(c) Community resources
(d) Physical surroundings and continuing environment
(e) Educational privileges
(f) Avocational opportunities
(g) Group life and co-operation

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(h) Social contact and interactions.

(i) Research about problems relating social groups and guidance.
Also the scope of guidance embodies certain tools and techniques to measure or evaluate the abilities, interests,
aptitudes and attitudes of the individuals such as—
1. Interview schedules
2. Observations
3. Different appropriate tests
4. Rating scales
5. Individual inventories
6. Diagnostic records
7. Sociometric techniques
8. Ancedotal records
9. Case studies
10. Cumulative record cards
11. Educational clinics
12. Required instructions
13. Study of group activities
14. Investigations and researches.
In the light of above descriptions it can be concluded that the scope of guidance is broad as well as vast which
covers entire situations and span of life of the individuals of the present world.
4. Bases of Guidance:
To get clear cut idea about guidance it is barely necessary to discuss about the bases of guidance in details.
Guidance is based on following bases namely Philosophical, psychological, sociological and pedagogical:
(i) Philosophical Basis of Guidance:
Education acts as the best panacea for development of the innate potentialities of the individuals. So proper care
of education for the individual should be taken into considerations. Keeping this in view our constitution has
declared “Fundamental Rights” to provide due respect and dignity to the individual. On the same line “Rights
of the Child” have been announced by the UNESCO which gives hopes and aspirations for children of the
world.
In our constitution “Right of Education” receives special status and position so far Fundamental Rights are
concerned. Hence every individual would be able to attain self direction, self growth and self realization if he is
provided suitable education starting from primary to university education with full freedom and proper
educational opportunities. Freedom implies awareness of various alternatives to choose better one in the field of
education or vocation according to one’s strength and weaknesses, abilities and aspirations; efficiency and
goals.

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The constitutional promise like equality of opportunity means creating equal opportunities and providing equal
facilities in the sphere of education to get the highest development of individual potentialities by which one
would be able get job of his own liking and abilities.
This would be possible if we take initiative for guidance programmes in all most all schools of the country.
Being an integral part of education guidance helps individual to understand himself and his surroundings. At the
same time guidance also helps individual to take his own appropriate decisions and solve his own problems
wisely. Besides this guidance helps a lot in identifying individuals interests and capacities and to gain the
educational privileges given by nation or social set-up.
Actually the philosophical basis of guidance is as old as our civilization is. The same is proved especially in
India through several examples of mythology and ancient “Puranas” For example, Srikrishna was guiding or
advising Arjun keeping certain better objectives in the mind in the sacred battle of Mahabharata at Kurukshetra
which proved the philosophical basis of guidance very clearly.
In western countries guidance service in schools and other formal and informal agencies of education takes
proper care about the individual, his educational and vocational rights and freedom, respect and status or dignity
of the individual which gives clear hints about the philosophical basis of guidance.
(ii) Psychological Basis of Guidance:
Without any controversy and confusion it is pointed out that no two individuals are alike so far the
psychological evidence is concerned. It is also widely known that each and every individual is unique and one
differs from another in all aspects like physical, mental, emotional, personal aspects etc. It is most urgent to say
that education should be provided to the individual child considering individual difference including both inter
individual differences and intra individual differences.
By means of this important consideration the interests, abilities, strength, weaknesses, tastes and temperaments,
efficiency and skills would be taken in to account for given courses and occupations. For this reason an
individual child or youngster becomes satisfied in his educational and vocational careers showing highest
efficiency in his own liking courses or occupations which invites personal and social developments
simultaneously.
Hence the teacher or guidance personnel has prominent role to play in this regard. Education becomes effective,
fruitful and goal receiving if guidance should be offered to the individual based on his psychological needs,
characteristics and capacities. In this context the main task of teacher and guidance worker is to plan and
prepare required curricular and co-curricular programmes through guidance services in the school judging the
psychological needs, characteristics, health and abilities by which the goal of guidance is achieved easily.
(iii) Sociological Basis of Guidance:
The present world is in flux as various changes, and developments such as rapid industrialization, unexpected
population explosion, quick knowledge explosion, new technological development, molecule societal structure,
various needs and demands of the people are taking place in the human society.

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In this context an up-to-date man receives more benefits and becomes successful in achieving peace and
pleasure adjusting himself in the different fields such as science, arts, religion literature, commerce, health,
mass media and so on. But in case of common and ignorant man, it becomes a difficult and impossible task to
adjust in the complex society which is not desirable so far present survival of the individual is concerned.
Therefore, the need and importance of guidance is urgently felt by the individual to overcome the problems of
the modern and changing society in day to day life.
Because guidance acts as power house of man to help him to keep proper pace with the dynamic and ever
growing society and to provide due accommodation to the personal and social adjustments of human life which
enables man to gain maximum satisfactions in the today’s world.
(iv) Pedagogical Basis of Guidance:
Now a day’s pedagogy occupies an important place as it deals with teaching or teacher’s behaviour in relation
to the development of learners. To make teaching more interesting and fruitful the teacher has to apply suitable
methods of teaching considering several factors such as psychology of the students, their needs, interests,
attitudes, skills and aptitudes.
So that an ideal teacher should be more particular and careful in this regard. Simultaneously problems like large
class teaching, high drop outs, defective class management, class having equipment problems, present trends of
evaluation problematic administration and supervision of class rooms have become current issues for teachers
and researchers.
That is why it is the task of the teacher to find out the real cause of problem which arises in the teaching
learning situation. Keeping these causes in the mind teacher has to go further step to tackle the faced problems.
At the same time students become active to experience new problems. Therefore guidance should be offered to
the individual taking pedagogical basis in to the account at present.
5. Need of Guidance:
Now a days guidance has become much more essential for students, administrators, educators and for the
common people as it helps them to meet various needs of life. So that it would be worthwhile to discuss the
reasons stated as below for which guidance service is encouraged in schools and colleges of our country with a
special status of its own.
(i) Guidance is needed in helping total development of the pupils:
In general, the existing system of education takes much attempts to develop intellectual aspect of the pupil
through teaching process which goes in the school. Only this sincere job of school does neglect other aspects of
pupils which are to be developed.
In the present schooling system the innate potentialities, abilities, interests, skills, values of the students are not
taken into considerations which do not invite total development of the pupils. So much more attention should be
paid by the teachers or guidance personnel’s to understand the pupil first and his innate abilities and talents then
by which goals of guidance is achieved.

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Without the support of guidance service in the school it is not at all possible to study, understand, and offer
attention to pupil and his hidden talents keeping in view the individual differences among the students. That is
why the need of guidance service is highly felt for the total development of the pupils for the sake of personal
and social benefits.
(ii) Guidance is needed to enable students to proper choices of their educational career at different stages:
Very often it is found that most of the students go on rushing to the school without choosing a suitable course
by which later on they become disappointed. Because they become unable to have a better choice regarding
educational courses and syllabus. Naturally these students become way ward and frustrated as they do not
receive a better suited courses for their further study.
For example, after completion of the high school education a student has to keep his feet in certain possible
courses such as vocational courses, higher level of academic courses of study to enter into the first degree
classes in the college or university etc.
It is sure to say that each and every individual student is a better kind of asset for family as well as society. So
that no result or gain will be possible if any student does not go for better choice, preference and selection of
courses after completion of ten years of high school education. In this context guidance service in the school
comes forward to enable and guide students to choose proper and suitable courses for their future to achieve
goal successfully and systematically.
At the same time school guidance services provide sufficient educational and occupational information’s about
different educational and vocational possibilities for the students. Besides this a good guidance service makes
students smart and cautious enough to have a better choice for educational and vocational courses and develops
self concept, self knowledge, self choice for job within them which shows them real path to achieve real goal of
life.
(iii) Guidance is needed to help students in choosing, preparing for, entering into a better career:
The present society has become more complex and day by day where change IS treated as a common
characteristic of the modern society. To survive in the existing society has become a risky job for everybody. In
the continuing social set up it has become a hard task for the student to choose and prepare himself for a
suitable occupation as the existing world is dominated by rapid change in industrial set up, changing market
conditions, the change of para professional occupations and change in many other govt., and private service set
up.
So that it is not easy to find out a suitable job keeping in view the nature of job, satisfaction in job, financial and
other available facilities. In this context school guidance service provides a package of available information’s,
scope and prospectus about the various jobs which offers satisfactory hints to achieve occupation goal after
entering in to a job by better selection and preparation for it.
It is also observed that most of the students are first generation learners those who are deprived of required
occupational guidance due to weak family background and lack of experienced personnel’s guidance. To

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overcome these problems guidance service organised in the school comes to picture to provide sufficient
information’s to students to have a judicious selection for the suitable job in the world of works.
(iv) Guidance is needed for the vocational development of the students:
No credit will go to an individual if he simply joins somewhere in a particular job. Because an individual has to
achieve success and satisfaction through various stages from starting point to its end. So guidance service
offered in the school not only helps to the students to know their innate abilities, interests, and efficiencies but
also it assists the students to make aware of the world of work. Availing this guidance service in the school,
students achieve vocational development in the field of vocation utilizing the previous knowledge received in
the school campus.
(v) Guidance is needed to help students for better school adjustment:
Really school is a new set-up for a fresh and new student where he has to face different situations unlike home.
So he has to tackle the situation properly which will make him well adjusted in the school. But the question of
maladjustment comes in case of a student if he fails to know how to study, how to prepare for tests, how to
adjust with class mates and teachers etc. That is why school guidance service is urgently needed to make
students well adjusted in the school situations.
(vi) Guidance is needed to help students for better home adjustments:
Family is the first smallest society of child which acts as the first school of the child. Generally, it includes
parents, brothers, sisters and other related members. Here the life of the child begins and the grows in the same
surroundings. Also child spends most of his times in the family where he has to adjust and cooperate properly
with parents, siblings and other members of the family.
Just after four or five years child starts on going to the school, where he gets much scope to adjust with the new
circumstances. Besides that sometimes child does not adjust in the family situation and faces adjustment
problems. Due to this reason school guidance service helps the child how to adjust in the home and with family
members smoothly.
(vii) Guidance is needed to supplement the efforts of family:
The present society undergoes certain changes due to rapid industrialization, political and social changes in the
occupational structure, population explosion, science and technological development, need and demands of
modern life including growing complexity of life and effect and pressure of home etc.
Being a primary institution, home takes initiative to provide all sorts of supports and help to child. But due to
rapid social changes home is not in position to offer adequate service to the child. Because almost all the
members of family generally busy in their own work and get less time to guide the child.
On the other hand parents and other well wishers may not be able to give adequate guidance to child as they are
ignorant about up to date information’s of new careers, and courses in relation to occupation and education. To
satisfy this purpose school starts guidance service to supplement the efforts of home for the betterment of the
students.

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(viii) Guidance is needed to reduce the mismatching between education and employment and to help for
best use of man power:
Today, as never before, thousands of youngsters with certain diplomas and degrees are applying for
employment for the purpose of their engagement. But unfortunately they are not opting for a service which does
not command any relevance to the job specification.
At the same time the number of the applicants for service is much more in comparison to the vacancy of the
post. So it is an unnecessary wastage of time and money that the youngsters are coming to the floor of job
having no efficiency and interest for the job. In this context school guidance service offers valuable advices
regarding well suited job for the and to utilize man power properly by which both the individual and as well as
society gets maximum benefits.
(ix) Guidance is needed to help students from weaker section of society for their school and social
adjustments:
In most of the cases it is observed that students from weaker sections of the society do not adjust and cooperate
with school situations and society. They are having innumerable problems and needs relating to their socio-
economic status, family background, educational and occupational status etc.
Due to these causes they face difficulties in adjustment with peers, senior mates; junior mates, teachers of
school and social environment. Also they do not feel active and sound in communicating, making friends,
gaining knowledge from class room teachings, participating in different co-curricular activities set by school. So
that guidance service is required to motivate and encourage these students to adjust better in school and his
environments.
(x) Guidance is needed to help students in need of special help:
In a school, we find different categories of exceptional students such as gifted, backward and handicapped those
who need special help and guidance for their personal development. That is why the guidance service offered in
the school takes special initiative to provide special help and guidance looking to their problems and needs.
(xi) Guidance is needed to help students to make best possible use of extra times besides school hours:
“Time and tide wait for none” is a common saying—which gives hints is not to mutualize time. So that every
student should make best, possible use of extra times which he gets after school hours. Really mis-utilization of
time leads to the failure in both academic prosperity and personal development of the students. Owing to this
reason guidance service of the school offers positive direction to the students to utilize extra times properly.
(xii) Guidance is needed to check wastage and stagnation in the country:
At present, wastage and stagnation are two rising problems which directly injure the educational system of the
country. Of course, several obstacles are responsible for it. At primary school stage some students leave
educational campus being changed into drop outs and some of students complete their educational ladder taking
much of time and money with lower divisions. To minimize wastage and stagnation, the good guidance service
comes forward to suggest the students for better achievements.

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(xiii) Guidance is needed to attach more importance to the school to attract the students:
Besides school students there are many children those who are away from track of education. To attract them
school sphere and system should be better organised and education given to the students should be mean ingful
and relevant for both individual and community life. In this context the good guidance service can play better
role in making school attractive and effective by which the goals of school and education is achieved.
(xiv) Guidance is needed to organize secondary and higher secondary education systematically and
successfully:
The existing pattern of education framed a new curriculum to be implemented in the country which included
different branches of knowledge such as social sciences, life sciences, mathematics, languages, arts, music,
work experience and other aesthetic activities. So that the secondary and higher secondary school curriculum
are overcrowded by different subjects.
It also disappoints the students for their confusion and controversy regarding choice of proper courses and
vocational career. Due to this reason guidance service extends its hand of cooperation in organizing secondary
and higher secondary education successfully in the country.
(xv) Guidance is needed to check indiscipline of the students:
Really discipline invites a better individual life and a cultured social life. Sometimes it is found that students
lack of sense of direction, a sense of responsibility, a sense of integrity and a sense of fulfilment create
disturbances in the school and outside also.
So that school guidance service provides real direction to the students to utilize their inner energy in some
creative ways. As a result of which both individual as well as society become free from the burden of
indiscipline.
Above all, to achieve individual, social and national development to an optimum level, guidance needs to be
entered in to educational system with its urgent implementation. Guidance also shows accurate path to the
students for higher courses and career considering their abilities, aspirations, interests, aptitudes etc. Therefore,
sincere, systematic and scientific guidance service should be entertained in the school to satisfy personal
interest, social interest of the individual as well as national interests.

6. Importance of Guidance:
In past guidance was not formal, systematic and planned one. In the form of advices the guidance was offered to
the children informally and randomly by the parents, teachers or experienced well-wishers. But in course of
time due to rapid human explosion, influence of rapid industrialization, impact of science and technological
development, entrance of modernity and social changes the human life became more complex which compelled
him take the help of guidance always or occasionally.
Now a days guidance occupies an important place in the human life as it helped individual student in paying
individual attention, giving special help and instruction to exceptional children, providing scope to choose

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suitable subjects of study, helping in the development of study habits, selecting proper occupation, solving
personal problems and so on.
Besides this the importance of guidance service provided in the school is clearly known from its needs and
helps which is previously elaborated. However in the present century the importance of guidance is highly
realized due to its various needs and demands by every Indians and as well as the people of entire humanity.
7. Functions of Guidance:
After a long discussion about needs and importance of guidance service, it would be very easy to describe
the functions of guidance which are stated as below:
(i) It helps guidance worker or guide to collect, analyse and use of the personal, social and psychological data
about students for whom guidance is needed.
(ii) It helps student to have a better and suitable choice in the life so far his educational, vocational and personal
field are concerned.
(iii) It helps student to utilize available resources through proper channelization of his energy to get maximum
benefit for both personal as well as social life.
(iv) It helps student to understand himself and to direct for his personal development.
(v) It helps student to provide planning, placement and follow up programmes for suitable selection and proper
utilization of the facilities available in the world of work and occupation.
(vi) It helps student to provide adequate response at the problem so far his personal adjustment is concerned.
(vii) It helps student to solve the problems of career planning and educational programmes.
(viii) It helps student to overcome the problems of new situations, new institutions and new accepted activities
of life.
(ix) It helps student to check his emergence and maladjustments by which self development and self realization
of student is achieved.
(x) It helps student to think rationally for society, co-operate and act profitably and sincerely for social welfare
and better community life by which both the personal development as well as social development of student can
be possible easily.
8. Aims and Objectives of Guidance:
Like education, the guidance has various aims and objectives which draw the attentions of teachers, educational
planners and guidance workers. It is known that without aims and objectives the entire plan, proposal and
service related to guidance become fruitless. Therefore if it barely necessary to know the aims and objectives of
the guidance clearly without any conflict and confusion.
To continue the same discussions certain aims of guidance are stated below at first:

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(i) Psycho-physical aim:

The first and foremost aim of guidance is meant for development of the mental health and physical health of
student. Otherwise the individual will not be free from his weakness and incapability so far his psycho- physical
health is concerned.
(ii) Educational aim:
In the second situation, student faces many problems such as selection of suitable courses, choice for essential
books and problems related to class teaching, study lessons and examinations. So that educational aim of
guidance come to picture to solve the problems in the context of educational career and progress by which
student gets maximum benefits.
(iii) Vocational aim:
The vocational aim of guidance is meant to prepare students for future vocation and to show better efficiency in
profession with much more job satisfaction. So that school guidance service helps students providing accurate
available information and prospectus of different jobs in relation to their ability, interests, aptitudes and hidden
potentialities. At the same time it also keeps up-to-date students to have better choice for liking occupation.
(iv) Recreational aim:
Guidance gives hints to the students regarding the utilization of leisure hours in best possible use has become
another important aim of guidance for the individual development.
(v) Social aim:
The social aim of guidance is considered as another important aim of guidance which is meant for social
development concerning role and activities of individual students. Really guidance keeps its eye on the students
teaching them for society to gain maximum social prosperity.
(vi) Personal & psychological aim:
The personal and psychological aim of guidance seems to be more important aim relating the personal
adjustment and psychological adjustment of the students both in the family and personal situation as well as
school situation. So that this aim of guidance suggests students how to adjust better in personal life and solve
problems which occur in the psychological sphere of life.
About aims and objectives of guidance, the Education Commission (1964-66) gave certain valuable
recommendations that guidance should be adjective as well as developmental when it is offered in secondary
school level.
According to the views given by Education Commission, the objectives of guidance are stated as below:
(a) To aid the students to know and develop their abilities and interests.
(b) To help them understand their strengths and weaknesses.
(c) To help them making realistic choices in education and vocation.
(d) To inform students about their educational opportunities.

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(e) To help them find solutions to their problems personal and social adjustments in the schools, homes and in
the society.
(f) To help the headmasters and teachers to understand their pupils better.
After the discussion of aims and bases of guidance, certain general objectives of guidance related to
secondary schools may be pointed out as follows:
(a) To provide adequate, complete, comprehensive, reliable and necessary meaningful information to the
students about their inner abilities, interests and potentialities.
(b) To assist adolescent boys and girls to understand themselves and to develop insight to the solution of
problems on the basis of realization of their strength and limitations.
(c) To study the needs, interests, abilities, limitations, ambitions and parental aspirations of younger boys and
girls with much more care and attentions.
(d) To help parents to understand their off springs better by which they become able to provide right type of
education to them for their expected developments.
(e) To help teachers as well as headmasters to understand the students better as a result of which they become
able to organize curricular and co-curricular activities for them taking demands, needs, interests and abilities of
the students in-to account.
(f) To assist students to find suitable solutions to the problems according to best of their capacities.
(g) To help pupils to take their own suitable decision in regards to their selection of useful courses and to plan
for better educational career.
(h) To help youngsters to choose, plan, prepare for a better occupation according to their vocational interests.
(i) To enable the individuals to adjust successfully in the home as well as school situations.
(j) To assist students to think and act better for social adjustment and social development.
(k) To enable students to gain maximum development of their innate abilities considering their needs, demands,
interests, aptitudes and other creative talents.
In the light of above discussions, it may be concluded that providing successful guidance is not an easy and
careless job. Because it is meant for every individual of the society at the time of his need as it is related to
educational development, vocational prosperity and personal progress including adjustment, of the individual in
different spheres of life. So that guidance draws the attention of guidance worker, guidance planner,
educationist etc.
9. Phases of Guidance:
To go into deep about the concept of guidance it is necessary to explore the three important phases of
guidance which are cited below:
(i) The Counselling Phase:
The counselling phase of guidance occupies an important place in the field of guidance as it has become one of
the oldest methods of providing advices to persons those who need it. Previously in the day to day life of the

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individuals, the parents, teachers and other guidance workers were taking much initiative to advice them. But it
was more authoritarian and specific in nature which was not approved now a day from psychological and
humanitarian point of view.
However educators and guidance workers are trying their best to understand the individuals and offer advices
according to their interests, abilities, aptitudes etc. At the same time freedom of the individuals are highly
stressed at present. Hence, the guidance has become more scientific and psychological in nature which is having
wide applications at present.
(ii) The Mathematical Phase:
The mathematical phase of guidance secures a commanding position in the field of guidance. In the modern
age, teachers or guidance worker has concentrated his energy to measure and observe different required
abilities, interests, behaviours, aptitudes and attitudes to make guidance more successful and systematic one.
Even if the guidance expert has become able to observe and predict the human behaviours and dealings by
correct related measurement and numerical calculations. By adopting this method of knowing abilities, interests,
aptitudes and attitudes of the individual, the guidance expert or worker receives more accuracy, clarity and
success in the guidance programmes.
(iii) The Demonstrative Phase:
In primitive age, the guidance service was offered through certain spiritual functions, moral and religious
speeches and it was limited to only oral advice. So it was not touching practical and experience aspect of
individual life to the much extent. But in the modern age guidance service is offered directly through experience
of the individuals by organizing picnics, excursions and various types of tours and programmes. Due to this
cause the demonstrative phase of guidance receives more importance in the field of guidance.
10. Principles of School Guidance:
As an organised professional activity, guidance is based on certain well accepted principles. Of course various
guidance experts have elaborated principles of guidance from their own point of view taking psychology,
sociology, education and other allied social disciplines into accounts.
The following are some of the principles of guidance for the purpose of present discussion:
(i) Guidance is unique to an individual:
The most significant contribution of psychology is individual difference concept which strongly states that no
two individuals are alike in the world so far their abilities, interests, aptitudes and attitudes are concerned. So
that it is considered that each individual is a unique one. Keeping this in the mind, a guidance worker should
start offering guidance to the individual with proper care. In this context, the technique or a strategy meant for a
particular student may not be applicable in case of other student so far guidance offered is concerned.
(ii) Guidance is always goal oriented and goal directed:
It is not possible to provide guidance service to an individual without setting realistic goal. So that a guidance
worker before offering guidance should keep a specific goal to achieve in the context of problems of the

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individual. Otherwise every endeavor will go without any expected result. It is also a hardest job and impossible
to go through all most all the problems of life of individual. Therefore guidance worker should set the goal, con-
sidering practicability and reality so far solution of the problem is concerned.
(iii) Guidance is a professional activity:
Guidance is a highly professional activity as it invites professionally trained personnel for the purpose of
providing guidance to the needy individuals. It is not half-hazard business which can be managed by common
man without having any professional training. Instead of helping needy individuals it would be harmful for
them if the job of guidance carried out by common untrained personnel’s. So that strictly it should be taken in to
account at the time of guidance offered to the individuals.
(iv) Guidance is concerned with all round development:
Like education, guidance service does not ignore all round development of the individual. Helping and touching
in the solution of a problem of an individual is not only concerned with a specific segment of his personality
development but also it helps for all round development of the individual indirectly. Therefore guidance
receives special status at present as it is related to all round development of the individual.
(v) Guidance is meant for all those who need it:
Really guidance is not an unnecessary activity. More or less each and every individual at any stages of his
growth and development requires guidance ii-respective of the age, caste, creed, sex, colour, occupation, status
etc. So that with proper care and treatment guidance service should be offered to all those who really need
assistance at the time of their problematic situations.
(vi) Guidance is a continuous Process:
Guidance is not a one dose panacea and one time guidance programme offered to the individual at the time of
his problem. It is not only related to the solutions of problem but also it is concerned with all round
development of the individual. It is continuously offered keeping the need into the consideration. It is not
restricted to a particular or specific period of life. It is a suitable and continuous service extending all
throughout the life of the individual.
(vii) Guidance is not specific to any stage of development:
Guidance is needed at all stages of individual’s life as it is not restricted to specific stage of development. At the
same time it does not consider few dimensions of life. It deals with problems faced by the individual in various
field such as educational, vocational, personal, social and health spheres. So the need of guidance is urgently
felt in different stages of life so far development of the individual in related area is concerned.
(viii) Guidance should be based on a clear cut knowledge of characteristics of the stages of individual
growth and development:
To provide proper guidance service, a guidance worker should be an expert in the field of psychology so far
characteristics of stages of human growth and development are concerned. Because each and every person has
to pass through several phases in his life span such as infancy, childhood adolescence, adult hood, senescence.

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Almost all phases of life is definitely related to certain growth and development. According to growth and
development of the individual, the guidance worker should plan for the required guidance service as a result of
which the real goal of guidance service is achieved by guidance worker.
(ix) Guidance should be based on valid and reliable data:
The valid and reliable data about the individuals’ abilities, interest, aptitudes, attitudes, status and other required
strategy are the real foundation stone of the perfect enquiry by which guidance worker understands individual
and his problems.
Keeping these in the mind, guidance worker starts on giving guidance service to the individual. To collect the
required data about the individual, guidance worker takes the help of reliable tools. Sometimes it is also
required to go to door of parents, guardians, teachers, peers etc.
Simultaneously guidance worker also takes the help of different useful psychological tests to obtain needed data
from the individuals. So that for valid and reliable data the guidance worker has to take much risk carefully.
Because on the basis of obtained data guidance worker gives stand to offer guidance to the needy individual
accordingly.
(x) Guidance should be based on flexible approach:
In guidance service a single and rigid approach is not appreciable at the time of collection of data, selection of
methods for application, use of the tool for getting data etc. So that a guidance worker should provide flexible
approach, while he offers guidance to the individual. Because an approach suitable for one individual in a
particular context may not be same for guiding the another individual always.Keeping this in mind several
flexible approaches may be used for the purpose of successful guidance.
(xi) Guidance stands on the foundation of co-operation:
Guidance is not a one man’s business. It needs co-operation of guidance worker and needy individual who is in
need of guidance. Besides them persons like parents, teachers, peers and neighbours should co-operate the
guidance worker to know about the individual and to collect data about him who is in need of help. In the
guidance service there is no room for non co-operation and conflicts. So that a guidance worker also should
start his work with a positive and co-operative attitudes. Also same dealings and attitudes are expected from
other needed persons like parents, teachers, peer and neighbours.
(xii) Guidance should be followed by periodic appraisals:
It is most important point to remember that periodic appraisals should be made to know about success and
functioning of the guidance programme provided to the school. Owing to this reason a guidance worker or the
group of guides should be much more careful about carrying periodic appraisals of their immense efforts.

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(xiii) Guidance requires better leadership in case of involvement of many guidance workers in the
guidance programme:
It is a fact that when two or more staff members are engaged in the guidance, someone should “head up” the
assigned work. Therefore the leader of the group should manage the team showing best of his performance and
efficiency.
(xiv) Guidance may be either a group activities or individual activities:
Guidance activities are of two kinds such as group and individual. All workers involved in the guidance service
may not be equally competent in both said fields.
Q.5 Comparatively discuss person centered therapy and behavior therapy with special reference to
views about human nature, structure of personality and the therapeutic process.
Person-centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers in the 1940s. This type of therapy diverged from
the traditional model of the therapist as expert and moved instead toward a nondirective, empathic
approach that empowers and motivates the client in the therapeutic process. The therapy is based on
Rogers’s belief that every human being strives for and has the capacity to fulfill his or her own potential.
Person-centered therapy, also known as Rogerian therapy, has had a tremendous impact on the field of
psychotherapy and many other disciplines.
ROGERIAN THEORY IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
Rather than viewing people as inherently flawed, with problematic behaviors and thoughts that require
treatment, person-centered therapy identifies that each person has the capacity and desire for personal
growth and change. Rogers termed this natural human inclination “actualizing tendency,” or self-
actualization. He likened it to the way that other living organisms strive toward balance, order, and greater
complexity. According to Rogers, "Individuals have within themselves vast resources for self-
understanding and for altering their self-concepts, basic attitudes, and self-directed behavior; these
resources can be tapped if a definable climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided."
The person-centered therapist learns to recognize and trust human potential, providing clients
with empathy and unconditional positive regard to help facilitate change. The therapist avoids directing
the course of therapy by following the client’s lead whenever possible. Instead, the therapist offers
support, guidance, and structure so that the client can discover personalized solutions within themselves.
Person-centered therapy was at the forefront of the humanistic psychology movement, and it has
influenced many therapeutic techniques and the mental health field, in general. Rogerian techniques have
also influenced numerous other disciplines, from medicine to education.
SIX FACTORS NECESSARY FOR GROWTH IN ROGERIAN THEORY
Rogers identified six key factors that stimulate growth within an individual. He suggested that when these
conditions are met, the person will gravitate toward a constructive fulfillment of potential. According to
Rogerian theory, the six factors necessary for growth are:

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1. Therapist-Client Psychological Contact: This first condition simply states that a relationship
between therapist and client must exist in order for the client to achieve positive personal change. The
following five factors are characteristics of the therapist-client relationship, and they may vary by
degree.
2. Client Incongruence or Vulnerability: A discrepancy between the client’s self-image and actual
experience leaves him or her vulnerable to fears and anxieties. The client is often unaware of the
incongruence.
3. Therapist Congruence or Genuineness: The therapist should be self-aware, genuine, and
congruent. This does not imply that the therapist be a picture of perfection, but that he or she be true
to him- or herself within the therapeutic relationship.
4. Therapist Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR): The clients’ experiences, positive or negative,
should be accepted by the therapist without any conditions or judgment. In this way, the client can
share experiences without fear of being judged.
5. Therapist Empathy: The therapist demonstrates empathic understanding of the clients’
experiences and recognizes emotional experiences without getting emotionally involved.
6. Client Perception: To some degree, the client perceives the therapist’s unconditional positive
regard and empathic understanding. This is communicated through the words and behaviors of the
therapist.

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