INDEX

S.NO. TITLE Pg.No.

1 Acknowledgement 2

2 Perspectives on the study of international 3

politics

3 Emergence of international state system 15

4 Bibliography 30

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I want to thank everyone who has helped and
supported me throughout my college project,
Approaches to the study of International politics.

First and foremost, a big thank you to my math

professor, DR SUSHILA PANDEY for giving me valuable
guidance and pointing me in the right direction.

I owe a special debt of gratitude to my parents,

whose constant encouragement, patience, and
understanding have been the foundation of my
success.
I would also like to acknowledge my friends who
contributed their ideas and perspectives, which
greatly enriched the project.

I appreciate each and every one of you for shaping

this project and enhancing my learning
experience.
Thank you all!

2
 PERSPECTIVES ON THE STUDY OF
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

A.Meaning, Nature and Scope of International Politics

International Relations is an important branch of Social Science. The
Scope of International relations is the complex relations existing among
the sovereign states of the world. It is mainly concerned, among other
things, with the study in depth of all events and situations affecting
more than one state. The great Greek Philosopher Aristotle said that
man by nature is a social animal. Being a social animal, man can’t live
in isolation. His basic nature and his basic needs make him to satisfy
his numerous needs in association with others. Moreover no man is
self-sufficient even in his daily needs and therefore, he has to depend
upon his fellow man for existences. Just as no individual can live in
isolation, no state can afford to live in isolation. Like the individual no
state is self-sufficient. Naturally, it has to cultivate relations between
states. These relations are the subject matter of International Politics.
DEFINITION
According to Hartman “International Relations as a field of
study is focused upon the process by which states adjust their national
interest to those of other states”.

Padelford and Lincoln define it as the “Interactions of state policies

within the changing patterns of power relationships”. According to
Quincy Wright “International Relations is the relations between groups
of major importance in the life of the world at any period of history and
particularly relations among territorially organized nation states which
today are of such importance. We will also use the term to designate the
studies of discipline, describing, explaining or assisting in the context
of these relations. With the assistance of these definitions it can be
understood that nations try to protect their incompatible interest by
means of power.

3
Padelford and Lincoln define it as the “Interactions of state policies
within the changing patterns of power relationships”. According to
Morgenthau, “It is the struggle for and use of power among nations.”
Palmer and Perkins opine that International politics is essentially
concerned with state system. Sprout and Sprout also defined
international politics as those aspects of the interactions and relations
of independent political communities in which some element of
opposition, resistance and conflict.
NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
International Politics constitute relations and interactions among
nations. As in politics, so in international politics, there are sovereign
states whose interests are not identical. Those interests of the sovereign
states are called national interest. The sovereign states in order to
achieve their interest come into conflict with one another and as a
means to achieve the ends, power is generally used. Thus INP is that
aspect of interactions and relations of sovereign states in which the
element of conflict or interest is present. It is a process in which nations
try to protect their incompatible interest by means of power.
But international relations are not merely state to state political
relations but it is something more than this. As Hartmann says “INRS
include all intercourse among states and all movements of peoples,
goods and ideas across national frontiers. Thus it is clear that
international Relations covers a wider meaning than mere political
relations. No doubt political factors dominate over other factors in
international Relations namely economic, cultural and religious factors.
Therefore it studies it studies the totality of all relations of all those
factors between, and among the states of the world.
SCOPE OF INTERNTIONAL POLITICS
International Politics is an important branch, of social science and it is
inter disciplinary in nature. Scope means areas of study. The scope of
International Relations is not yet well settled. In 1954 the UNESCO
published a booklet edited by C.A W Manning. In this book IR has been
recognized as an independent discipline. During the last 40 years this
discipline has evolved all the traits of an independent study and it can
4
be understood from its progress that it is well on its way to becoming
and Independent academic discipline. Most of the scholars of
international Relations describe the following aspects in the study of
this discipline.
1. State system
2. National Interest
3. National Power
4. Foreign Policy
5. Instruments of international politics – Diplomacy.
Foreign policy, international trade, Economic and Military
assistance etc.
6. Nationalism, Colonialism and imperialism.
7. Control of interstate Relations – Balance of power-
International law and international organizations.
8. Dynamic elements and new Dimensions-Rivalry between super
powers and different blocs of nations.
9. World government.
10. War and peace ideologies.
11. Ethnic groups – Races of mankind and Terrorist groups.
12. International Regionalism.
13. Nuclear weapons and its use.
International organization and its role in maintaining world order.
International Relations is a developing subject it has to keep pace with
the highly dynamic, and developing nature of relations among nations.
Hence its scope is bound to be ever expanding in content.
International Relations and International Politics
Many writers have shown their inability in drawing a line of
demarcation between international Relations and international Politics.
5
Kenneth Thompson and Morgenthau consider IP as an inalienable part
of IR. This super flauos resemblance does not make IP the core of IR/-
Both are different from each other as shown below:
1. International Relations includes all sorts of relations ie, political,
economic, cultural, geographical, legal and non-official. So it embraces
the totality of relations among people. But International Politics
includes only the political aspects of the overall relations. In other
words only those relations which arouse actions and reactions are the
subjects of IP. Thus it can be said that international politics is the
political aspects of international Relations.
2. International Relations is a wider concept whereas international
politics is a narrower concept.
3. The methodology of the study of international relations is
descriptive while that of international politics is purely analytical. In
international relations the factors are studied chronologically while in
international politics the basis of study is what, when and how of the
present with a relationship between the past and future.
It is established beyond doubt that international politics derives its
strength from international relations. The former uses the latter as the
basis and subject matter of study and hence both are one and the same
thing. Modern international politics aims at the establishment of peace
through the international organization and international relations too
are based on this very principle. Thus, concern for peace is the common
denominator between international politics and international relations.
International Politics and National Politics
In international politics, there are sovereign states whose interests are
not identical. These interests of the sovereign states are called the
national interest. The sovereign states in order to achieve their interests
come into conflict with one another and as a means to achieve the ends
power is generally used. Thus, international politics is that aspect of
interactions and relations of sovereign states in which the element of
conflict or interest is present. National Politics, like international

6
politics also involves a sort of adjustment of relationship within and
among individuals or groups.
Politics denotes the struggle for power. Whether it is national politics
or International politics, politics is a common word. According to
Morgenthau, “Power man’s control over the minds and actions of other
men and political power means the mutual relations of control among
the holders of public authority and between the latter and people at
large”.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN NATIONAL POLITICS AND
INTERNATIONALPOLITICS
1. International politics as well as national politics cluster around the
interests. Conflict is the result of incompatible interests.
2. In both seeking of power is important as it is the means through which
the desires and wants can be fulfilled.
3. Both adopt psychological methods to seek power.
4. In both alliances generally appear from the desire of men states to
strengthen themselves against the adversary.
DISSIMILARITIES
1. In international politics only interests are permanent and so the
states may use direct means to achieve their goals. The use of
cunningness, treachery, and sabotage is the part and parcel of
international politics. In national politics some ethical norms have to
be observed. The state regulates the conduct of it citizens and punishes
them if they jump over the limits.
2. In national politics the individuals are under the coerciveauthority
of the state. The laws are universally binding upon them and the
municipal courts have a complete jurisdiction over them. On the other
hand, the sovereign states are governed by a weak law called
international law and the International Court of Justice too cannot
exercise its jurisdiction as freely as the municipal courts do in regard
to individuals.

7
OBJECTS OF THE STUDY OF INTERNATION
AL POLITICS
In this increasingly inter dependent world its study is essential for
human survival and human progress. It reveals how men and nations
tend to act in given circumstances and so tells us what conditions
should be encouraged and what conditions should be discouraged if we
are to promote international harmony and well-being.
In international relations we deal with nations and human beings. The
states are sovereign in nature and sovereign nation states have not yet
learned to live in peace. War is the most important problem facing the
world community. Today a war cannot be fought with the nuclear
weapons, since it would destroy the whole civilization that mankind
has built up. The students of international relations should bear in mind
this cold reality. Attempts may be made to put an end to this ugly
phenomenon of war.
Again, no community can live in isolation. What is being witnessed is
increasing global inter dependence, both political and economic. A war
anywhere or fluctuations in prices of commodities like oil will affect
all countries. Under such conditions the study of international relations
will help people to know each other and understand the problems which
confront them.
Our aim is to create a world state. Every people should have
consciousness about the brotherhood of man. A basic knowledge of the
cultural or linguistic or racial peculiarities of the people of the world
would help us to create more understanding and tolerance.
The objects can be summed up as follows.

1. To find out ways and means leading to the establishment of peace.

2. To avoid conflict among nations and to seek the areas of co-

operation.
3. To give less and less importance to the external sovereignty and to
perpetuate the idea of world brotherhood.

8
4. To help the underdeveloped and undeveloped countries by pooling
the resources of economically advanced countries.
5. Liquidation of imperialism and colonialism.
6. To balance the power among nations.
7. To establish collective security for maintaining peace and avoid
aggression.

8. To give respect and obey the international law.

9. To respect and strengthen the working of international
Organization.
B. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL
POLITICS
The History of modern political thought is the story of a contest
between two schools that differ fundamentally in their conception of
the nature of man, society and politics. Realism and idealism are the
two main competitors for recognitions as the sound approach to the
study of international politics. One believes that a rational and moral
political order derived from universally valid abstract principles
achieved. It assumes the essential goodness and changeability of human
nature. It trusts in education, reform and the periodic use of force to
remedy these defects. This is the idealistic school. The basic
assumption underlying realist approach is rivalry and strife among
nations in some form or other. It is contest for power or influence
always goes on in international society, and this contest cannot be
controlled by International law or Government. Therefore, the prime
function of Diplomacy and Statesmanship is to check the contest for
power and the means to be adopted, for its new balance of power.
IDEALIM
Idealism refers to an approach to international politics that seeks to
advance certain ideals or moral goals, for example, making the world a
more peaceful or just place. The main component of political idealism
is liberal theory of ethics and politics. It is based on liberal concept of
9
human beings. According to it, people are born reasonable and good. It
means that for idealists, relations between states are seen as basically
peaceful. According to Idealists war, use of force and violence should
be abandoned in favour of new ways and means as determined by
knowledge, reason, compassion and self-restraint.
Idealism stands for improving the course of international relations by
eliminating war, hunger, inequality, tyranny, force, suppression and
violence from international relations. To remove these evils is the
objective before humankind. Idealism accepts the possibility of
creating a world free from these evils by depending upon reason,
science and education.
“Political idealism in international relations represents a set of
ideas which together oppose war and advocate the reform of
international community through dependence upon moral values and
the development of international institutions and international law.”
The Idealist Approach advocates morality as the means for securing the
desired objective of making the world an ideal world. It believes that
by following morality and moral values in their relations, nations can
not only secure their own development, but also can help the world to
eliminate war, inequality, despotism, tyranny, violence and force.
Characteristics of Idealism

• Human nature is essentially good and capable of good deeds in

international relations

• Human welfare and advancement of civilization are the concerns

of all.

• Bad human behaviour is the product of bad environment and bad

institutions.

• By reforming the environment, bad human behaviour can be

eliminated.

• War represents the worst feature of relations.

10
• By reforming international relations, war can be and should be
eliminated.

• Global efforts are needed to end war, violence and tyranny from
international relations.

The main supporters of idealism have been Mahatma Gandhi,

Bertrand Russell, Woodrow Wilson, Aldous Huxley, William Ladd,
Richard Cobben, Margret Mead, and others. They strongly oppose the
realist view of international politics as struggle for power and national
interest and advocate the use of reason, education and science for
securing reforms in relations and for eliminating war and other evils
from international relations.
REALISM
The Philosophy as realism which flourished almost throughout the 18th
and 19th centuries has been revived after the Second World War E.H
.Carr, George Kennan,Thompson, Schuman and Morgenthau are the
leading realists. Morgenthau’s is generally recognized as the main
exponent of this theory. It was he who gave theoretical orientation to
realism. He is the first to develop a realistic model. According to him,
the central focus of realism is power. Other realists who follow
Morgenthau have only carried forward the tradition established by him.
Since Morgenthau is the chief advocate of the realist school it is proper
to discuss in detail his realist theory of International politics. In his
famous book ‘Politics among Nations, published in the late forties
Morgenthau propounded the theory. He has developed his theory in the
form of six principles of political realism.
The first principle of Political realism is that Politics is governed by
objective laws which have their roots in human nature. Man is a mixture
of good and bad, selfishness and altruism. Loving and quarrel some
traits and possessive and sacrificial qualities. Above all his is the story
of struggle for survival and human history is an account of War contest
and peaceful settlements. The earliest theory of politics takes into

11
account the storyof human history as it has unfolded itself and tries to
prevent it in a rational manner.
Secondly the main element of Political realism is the concept of
national interest which Morgenthau defines in terms of power. His
assumption is that statesmen think and act in terms of interest defined
as power. Power is not only a tool of analysis but also a guide to policy.
According to Morgenthau, a foreign policy should concern more with
the political requirement of success rather than anything else. He guards
against two popular fallacies. The concern with motives and the
concern with ideological preferences. A student of international politics
must not indulge in fining the motives of statesmen. For one thing such
a task is difficult as motives are a complex psychological phenomenon
and another it is unnecessary in political study.
Thirdly, interest and power are no doubt the key concept in
Morgenthau’s Theory, but the meaning attached to them is not static
and fixed once and for all. The states interests are fluid and change with
the ever changing situation in the world at large.
Fourthly, political realism, though aware of the moral significance of
political action, maintains that universal moral principles should not be
applied to the action of states in their abstract universal formulation. It
must be modified in accordance with the time and place. Realism,
considers prudence to be the supreme virtue in politics. There can be
no political morality without prudence.
Fifthly, as political realism does not identify national interests with
universal morality and defeats its own purpose, it does not treat what is
right and justifiable for certain nation as good for all countries. It
refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with
moral law that governs universe.
Finally political realism maintains the autonomy of the political sphere.
It thinks interm of interest defined as power. It puts all other standards
in subordination to political standard. It should not be mixed up with
the legalistic moralistic approach to international politics;
Evaluation
12
SYSTEMS THEORY
Besides the idealist and realist approaches there are some other
approaches whichare more reasonable and realistic. The systems
approach is one among them. Among the political scientists who made
a significant contribution to this theory mention must be made of David
Easton, Gabriel Almond and Morton Kaplan field of international
politics.
Mortan Kaplan is one of the best representatives of the system approach
Kaplan believes that a system is most inclusive if it has such
recognizable interest as are neither completely identical not necessarily
opposed to each other. A political system should have specific areas of
jurisdiction and should provide methods for settling conflicts of
jurisdiction. To him force is necessary as a last resort to keep the
political system intact. He believes that the most important system is
the international system. But he does not regard international system as
apolitical system is subordinate to their role of decision making with
international system is subordinate to their role in the national actor
system.He thinks that the behaviour of national actors in the field of
international affairs is always governed by the basic consideration of
national interests. In other words to Kaplan actors on international
scene belong to two categories: national actors and Supra national
actors. National actors are the nation states like Soviet Russia, U.S.
India, Saudi Arabia etc. The Supra national actors are such international
actors as the NATO, Warsaw pact, the U.N. etc.
In a situation where too many actors influence international relations,
it becomes difficult to strike a perfect balance of power position and
loose bipolar system develops. The universal international system
grows when the universal actor like the U.N usurps many of the
functions of powerful units in a loose bipolar system. In such a system
the universal actor become powerful enough to prevent war among
nations, but national actors, retain their individuality. In the
Hierarchical international system, the universal actor becomes too
powerful and the international community becomes a sort of world
state. The unit Veto system develops as a result of weapons

13
development. This system corresponds to the state of nature described
by Hobbes in which the interests of all are opposed and in which all are
at war in with each other.
THE GAME THEORY
DECISION MAKING THEORY
This is another important approach that has been emphasized in the
study of international politics during the last decades. The first major
attempt at introducing the decision making analysis in the study of
foreign policy was made by Richard Snyder and others after the II
World war and is specially developed in the area of foreign policy
making.
The decision making approach has two fundamental purpose.
The first is the identification, crucial structure in the political realm
where change takes place, decisions are taken and actions are indicated
and carried out. The second is the systematic analysis of the decision
making behaviour which leads to action. This approach focuses in
query on action called decision makers and on the state defined as
decisional units. The actions of the state are seen through the action of
decision makers.
Analysing the factor that operate on decision makers, Snyder divides
them into three main sets of stimuli, the internal setting, the external
setting and the decision making process. He studies the personality
factor of the decision maker and the various agencies and processes
involved in decision making. The theory takes the study of international
politics to the real actor from the abstract states and collective situation.
The decision making theory has contributed a great deal to the
understanding of the process of foreign policy making which all other
theories has rejected. Snyder’s scheme is most impressive as a detailed
approach to the whole of international relations.

14
 EMERGENCE OF INTERNATIONAL
STATE SYSTEM

A. WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM
In the age of internationalism, nation-state system can be regarded as
the key stoneof International Politics. The nation state system in the
words of Palmer and Perkins is “the pattern of political life in which
people are separately organized into sovereign states that interact with
one another in varying degrees and in varying ways.” In international
Politics, the existence of these sovereign states is termed as nation state
system”. In order to protect that personal interest, they interact with one
another. States have to engage in war if their interests are not protected.
To secure their existence the states develop their national power.
The state system is as old as the human history. It will be more correct
to say thatthe history of the state system starts with the political
consciousness of man. There are some of the examples of old state
system.
1) Tigris Euphrates system existed in 600 BC
2) Warring state system of China (500-300BC)
3) Indian state system (1000 AD)
The Modern state system is the result of a long historical development.
It originated in the renaissance and reformation period in Europe. They
are different from older ones. In the modern state system the states are
the epicenters of power while the medieval states lacked this
characteristic.
During the middle ages, the state power was not concentrated in the
hands of the state. Feudalism and Catholicism had a great influence in
the control of the states. Renaissance checked Feudalism and
Reformation reduced the influence of Pope in state affairs. The Treaty
of Westphalia in the year 1648 may be said to have established and

15
formalized nation state system. By 1648 the state system was fully
established in Europe.The result of Westphalia was very significant. It
can be considered as the first stage in the evolution of the nation state
system.
WESTPHALIA TO UTRECHT:
The second stage in the development of the state system lies in between
1648 to 1713. This period marked a conflict among France, Britain,
Holland and Spain for colonial supremacy Louis XIV of France was
determined to establish an empire. But, soon France had to face a
coalition of Britain and Austria at the question of Spanish succession.
Francesuffered heavy losses at the treaty of Utrecht. The agreement
reached at Utrecht established such a balance to which Sweden, Russia
and Poland could no longer resolve issued in the East without involving
west.
UTRECHT TO VIENNA
Another development was the rise of Frederick the great of Prussia,
After the Utrecht treaty whenever a continental issued around France
and Austria clashed. In orderto check the threat of Frederick the great
of Prussia, France and Austria form an alliance, which was joined by
Russia. In order to establish a balance of power, Great Britain joined
with Prussia. The result of these alliances and counter alliances was the
7 years’ war in which France, Austria and Spain were defeated. The
third development was the French Revolution France under Napoleon
becomes an important power. Britain, Prussia, Russia Austria and
Sweden by combined efforts defeated France, War ended with Vienna
meeting in which the old balance of power was established again.
VIENNA TO VERSAILLES
The period between 1815 and 1914 is called the period of Pax
Britannica. In Crimean war (1854 - 56) Britain and France collectively
checked the ambition to Russia to dominate
Constantinople. As a result of the Franco- Prussian war Prussia unified
empire under Bismarck and it became a leading power in the continent.

16
The decline of Turkish empire In the Balkans led to the rise of many
sovereign states in Balkans. The states fulfilled their long cherished
goals and nationalism became the basis of their Independence.
In the Western hemisphere the decline of Spanish power led to the rise
of many independent states. These states today are known as Latin
American states. In this period USA made tremendous progress.
In the Far East, Japan came into conflict with China. At the beginning
of the 20th century Japan achieved great credit by defeating one of the
major powers Europe. Before the 1 world war European powers
entangled themselves in such alliances and treaties which clearly
divided European states into two groups.
Triple Alliance and Triple Entente came into existence.
VERSAILES TO PRESENT
The treaty of Versailles contained the seeds of war. It humiliated the
defeated nations. Moreover, it gave rise to Nazism in Germany and
Fascism in Italy. Russia grew powerful under the communist rule.
The modern state system which came into being with Westphalia
basically continues to be the same. It is a pattern in which the
independent communities of the world, by organizing themselves into
sovereign political entitle, act and react with one another.
The state is sovereign externally and internally. Internal sovereignty
means that the state can formulate laws at its own will and accept any
method to secure its interest. The states manifest their sovereign
political entity by adopting specific, currency and Flag.
CHRACTERISTICS OF MODERN STATE SYSTEM
The states the sovereign political entities are different from one another
in many respects. In fact, there are both similarities and dissimilarities
among the states.
The territorial basis gives the state legitimacy because the community
inhibiting a specific territory evolves a language culture and religion.
Almost all the states of the world are distinguished by their territory.

17
After the 2nd World War many states in Asia and Africa came into being
which do not possesses a natural geographical boundary or a distant
territory. Whatever difference may be among the states as the basis of
territory, population or culture, the states are considered legally equal
to one another.
There is difference among states on the basis of Industrial development.
They are as follows.
1. Industrially developed: Industrially developed countries have
high rate of literacy. The use of luxurious goods is higher, death and
birth rate is checked and balanced, political awakening is sufficient
and its impacts can be seen in the foreign as well as domestic policy.
2. Developing: In the case of developing countries they are facing
a lot of problems and it became sometimes very difficult for them to
break and solve this problem. Their main problems are illiteracy,
epidemics, political instability and lack of technical knowledge. India,
Pakistan etc., belong to this category.
3. Under developed: In this category lives the major population of
the world. These countries have to face problems of illiteracy,
problems of transport and communication, rapid increase of
population etc. Indonesia, Sudan are the examples.
Classification of states on the Basis of Power
The prominent writes of International politics classify the modern states
on the basis of power. They are as follows.
1. Great powers: A great power is ‘a power with general interest,
and with such interest that it can attempt advance or protect those
interests in every sphere”. According to some, power is a changing
factor. So a major power can become middle power and vice-versa.

2. Middle powers: It stands mid way between great power and

small states.
Small power: It stands midway between middle power and no power.
It is all power with the means of defending only limited
18
interests.”
Basic Features of Modern State System
There are certain important features, with our which modern state
system loses itssanctity Palmer and Perkins call them “corollaries of
state system”. They are as follows.
a. Concept of Sovereignty: In the words of Palmer and Perkins,
‘Sovereignty is the legal theory that gives the state unique and virtually
unlimited authority in all domestic matters and in relation to other
states” In international Politics Sovereignty would mean the right of
self-government and promotion of national interest through foreign
policy. It emphasizes that states can make laws at its own will and has
the right to make relations with other states.

b) Doctrine of Nationalism: Modern states cling to the idea of

Nationalism. It is feeling of oneness among the people. Modern states
are known as nation states. Aggressive nationalism, however, is
harmful.

c) Principles of National Power: National power is the strength or

capacity which a sovereign state can use to achieve its national
interests. In the absence of national power, there is no existence to the
nation states. Nation state in the International field is decided by the
amount of national power.
Decline of Modern State System:
In the opinion of CAW Manning the western state system determined
at the Treatyof Westphalia still continues to be the same. Even today
the modern states are associated with three characteristics. But his view
is not completely correct because modern state system has completely
changed. The concept of sovereignty has changed a lot. Sovereignty
does not exist in its ancient form of royal absolutism. Scientific and
technological advancement has completely changed the
impermeability and territoriality of the states. Modern sophisticated
weapons have completely changed the warfare. Ideology began to play
an important role in International Politics. After the Second World War
19
many states made alliances with powerful states. Super national
Institutions like NATO, SEATO, CENTO etc. are the result of this. As
a result International Politics is not an inter action between two or more
groups of sovereign states. Hence we can say that there is a decline of
the nation state system. That is why the term ‘International System’ is
used in place of national system.

B.IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

The aspiration for power is the distinguishing element of International
Politics. Every nation possesses the tendency to dominate and rule, and
it tries to pursue the same policy by all means. Imperialism and
colonialism are powerful instruments of national policy. Some nations
try to establish its dominance over others by conquering its territories
or in other words, they want to expand their kingdom. Such
expansionist policy has no limit and we generally call the expansionist
policy as imperialism.

The term ‘imperialism’ is used in a very vague way. It lacks any

common definition. Like other ‘isms’ imperialism has been defined by
different scholars. Imperialism remarks, Palmer and Perkins “Can be
discussed, denounced, defended and died for, but can’t be defined in
any generally acceptable way. It means different thing to different
people”
DEFINITIONS
According to Schuman, “Imperialism is the imposition by force and
violence of alien rule upon subject people’
According to Morgenthau, “Imperialism is the expansion of a state’s
power beyond its borders”.
According to Julius Bonn, “Imperialism is a policy which aims at
creating, organizing and maintaining an empire.”

Methods of Imperialism
The following are the three general methods of imperialism.

20
1.Military Imperialism:

In the words of Morgenthau, “The most obvious, the most ancient and
also the crudest from of imperialism is the military conquest. By
military conquest new territoriesare acquired and thus new power
relations are established. Any change in this situation is only possible
by another war instigated by the defeated nation. But in the new war,
the change of victory goes to the victorious nation. Thus the use of this
method is a great advantage to the imperialist nation. But it has a draw
back. War is a gamble. Sometimes the Imperialist nation may fall,
Napoleons’ example can be cited.
2.Economic Imperialism
Economic imperialism is concerned with controlling policies, domestic
or foreign of the economically weaker nations by means of economic
investment and economic assistance. The most modern economic
Imperialism does not change the power relation through the conquest
of territory by way of economic control.
3.Cultural Imperialism
It is not at the conquest of territory or at the control of economic life,
but the conquest and control of the minds of the man as an instrument
for changing power-relation. If a state conquest the minds of men of
other nations and is able to impose its ideology it would be far more
superior to economic mastery and military victory. The cultural
imperialism would win a more complete victory than any military
victory and economic master.
Colonialism
There is enough similarity between Imperialism and Colonialism and,
therefore, the two terms are used almost interchangeably. They differ
in the following respects.

1) Imperialism is comparatively older than colonialism. Colonialism

is the modern form of Imperialism.

21
2) The purpose of Imperialism is basically to acquire political
power, but the prime object of colonialism is economic.
3) Imperialism is the imposition of alien rule upon other people. It
generally involves the use of military force. Colonialism is the natural
outflow of alien nationality in the subject territory.
In Imperialism the control of the imperialist country is rigled and it
establishes anautocratic rule over the subject people. In colonialism
however, the control of the alien power is comparatively less rigid, and
it also provides better opportunities for development and self-
government.
Imperialism and colonialism have common objectives today. A
distinction, therefore, must be made. Colonialism is a form of
Imperialism itself. Economic Imperialism is known as colonialism.
Colonialism is the modern and economic form Imperialism.
Motives of Imperialism and colonialism
1. Nationalism: Nationalism is one of the fundamental motives of
Imperialism and Colonialism. Nationalism is charged for the evils
of Imperialism Nationalism has an inherent desire to exalt a state
and to further its interests of national territorialexpansion.
R.L.Buell remarks “Paradoxical as it may seem, pure nationalism
has forcedgovernments in the path of Imperialism.” Every nation
takes pride in its national
expansion. Generations of Englishmen glorified in the boast that “the
Sun never sets on the British Empire”.

2. Increase in National Prestige and National Power:

Every imperialist expansion addsto the prestige and power of the
imperialist nation. Mussolini, Hitler and Napoleon etc. had the same in
their mind.
3. National Defense: Imperialism also fulfills the objectives of
National defence. It helpsnational defence by providing markets
and essential raw materials. and by providing populations from
which troops and labourers may be drawn. It also helps in the
22
 national defence by providing areas and bases for the defence of the
state or its line of communications. Colonies have proved a good
source of providing man power to the Imperialists. For example,
England had nearly 4,00,000 troops from India alone, duringthe
first world war.
4. Adjustment of Balance of Power: When a nation moves towards
imperialist expansion, other nations also do not lag behind. France
and Britain fell in the imperialist race for gaining control over more
and more colonies to ensure the adjustment of Balance of power.
When the imperialistic objectives of one nation is achieved, the
rival nation also tries to pursue the same end by whatever means
available to it. The so called American and Soviet Imperialism are
example to this.

5. Economic gain: One of the fundamental motives of Imperialism is

economic gain. Thecapitalist system also has motivated
Imperialism. The grown industrialization in Europe was very much
responsible for imperialism and colonialism. The Imperialist
nations for getting raw materials, market for their surplus goods and
investment opportunities for surplus capital acquired colonies in the
far of areas. Imperialist powers have always used colonies as means
for economic exploitation.

6. Surplus population: Surplus population is also cited as one of the

motives of Imperialism. Imperialism serves as an outlet of surplus
population. When there is a rapid increase in surplus population,
new areas are needed to emigrate surplus population, in the 19th
century the European countries faced the problem of surplus
population and the same has been adjusted by emigration to
colonies. Actually populated states have found relief in emigrating
to their colonies.
Merits of imperialism and Colonialism
1. White man’s Burden: The imperialist place this argument that
God has imposed a moral obligation upon the advanced and cultured
races to uplift the backward races. The white race of Europe claims that
23
in the very discharge of their moral obligation they have assumed
control over the backward races of Africa and Asia. It is indeed true
that the modern and superior civilization of Europe had made its effects
upon Asia and Africa. Asians and Africans got an opportunity of
learning European languages literature and modern science and they
also came into contact with the superior and advanced race of Europe.
This was an advantage of Imperialism to the subject people.
2. Political Unity: In Asia and Africa there used to be small states
which lacked efficient and orderly government; the imperialist powers
bound this areas in the threat of unityand centralized government. The
Political unity of India is an example.
3. Economic Development: With the establishment of European
empires in Asia and Africa, economic development of the areas took
place. These areas got the advantage of railway, transport and means of
communication. The opening of new materials paved the way for
industrialization. Trade and commerce also developed.

4. Training for self-government: The European established

despotic and autocratic rulein the colonies. But gradually, they were
given training for self-government and ultimately got the rights of self-
government. In due course they all become independent. It is also said
the Imperialism is responsible for the resurgence of Asia and Africa.
Demerits of Imperialism and Colonialism
1. Imperialism as symbol of Political subjection:
Imperialism is the imposition of alien rule upon the subject people. It
is based on superior- subordinate relationship imperialist power never
considers the dependent people on equal status. It deprives the people
of their political rights. Imperialism is established by force.
2. Economic Exploitation: Economic gain is one of the
fundamental motives of imperialism. For their own interests the
capitalist imperialist countries fully exploitedthe dependent
countries. The Imperialist powers established factories in the
colonies. But it was not for the development of the colonies, it

24
 was for the economic gain of the imperialists. Imperialist powers
had exploited the colonies with all possible measures.
3. Encourage racial discrimination: Imperialism encourages
racial discrimination. In India the Britishers created the problem
of racial discrimination on the basis of religion. In Africa the
policy of colour discrimination was pursued between whites
andblacks.
4. War and rivalry: Imperialist rivalries among the Imperialist
powers have become a source of War and Interstate conflicts. The
first and second world wars were the results of the imperialistic
rivalries among the big powers.
New Imperialism and Neo – Colonialism
With the time and age the form of Imperialism has also undergone or
change. The age of military’s and political
Imperialism has gone and its place has been taken byEconomic
Imperialism. As the form of Imperialism has undergone a change, Neo
colonialism, has also taken the place of classical colonialism. After the
II world war most of the Asian and African colonies got independence
and they are free politically. But they are dependent economically.
Actually they are under the influence of big powers. This is called Neo
colonialism. The aim of Neo colonialism is to establish Economic
dominance. According to Palmer and Perkins” Neo colonialism is a
new and more insidious form of imperialism, widely prevalent and
particularly pernicious and dangerous”.
TYPES OF NEO-COLONIALISM
1) Economic Dependencies: An Economic Dependency is a
politically independent and sovereign nation whose Economic
enterprises are control by a foreign country. They are economically
under developed nations. If the major economic enterprises in the
nations are run and controlled by foreigners the nation is an Economics
Dependency. If a given percentage of national Income, say 51/- is
carned by foreigners the nation isan economic dependency.

25
2) Satellites: A satellite if formally an independent nation but it is
controlled both politically and economically by some big powers. In
communist nations major economic enterprizes are run by the
government. So it is not possible for one nation tocontrol the economy
of other with our dominating its political institutions. Thus a nation
which is controlled to the politically and economically by some foreign
power, becomes completely dependent to it and has to freedom of by a
Foreign power over satellite is much more complete than exercised
over the Economic Dependencies.

C.COLD WAR
The Cold War was a period (1945-1991) of geopolitical tension
between the Soviet Union and its satellite states (the Eastern European
countries), and the United States with its allies (the Western European
countries) after World War II. The world got divided into two power
blocs dominated by two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the US.
The two superpowers were primarily engaged in an ideological war
between the capitalist USA and the communist Soviet Union.
The Cold War was between Allied countries (UK, France etc.
who were led by the US) and Soviet Union. The Soviet Union,
officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
The term "Cold" is used because there was no large-scale fighting
directly between the two sides.
Reasons of Cold War
During the World War Allied countries (US, UK and France) and
Soviet Union fought together against the Axis powers (Nazi Germany,
Japan, and Austria). However, this wartime alliance could not workout
after World War II, due to multiple factors.
Truman Doctrine:
This Doctrine was announced on March 12, 1947, by US President
Harry S. Truman. The Doctrine was a US policy to stop the Soviet
Union’s communist and imperialist endeavors,

26
through various ways like providing economic aid to other countries.
For example, US appropriated financial aid to support the economies
and militaries of Greece and Turkey. According to some scholars this
doctrine marked the official declaration of the Cold War.
Iron Curtain:
Iron Curtain is the political, military, and ideological barrier erected
by the Soviet Union after World War II to seal off itself and its
dependent eastern and central European allies from open contact with
the West and other noncommunist areas. On the east side of the Iron
Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the
Soviet Union, while on the west side were the countries that were allies
of the US, UK or nominally neutral. Important Events of the Cold
War:
1. Berlin Wall Blockade 1948: As the tension between Soviet
Union and Allied countries grew, Soviet Union applied Berlin
Blockade in 1948. The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet
Union to limit the ability of Allied countries to travel to their sectors
of Berlin. Further, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of
the German Democratic Republic began to build a barbed wire and
concrete wall (Berlin Wall) between East and West Berlin. It primarily
served the objective of stemming mass emigration from East Berlin to
West Berlin. Except under special circumstances, travelers from East
and West Berlin were rarely allowed across the border. This Berlin
Wall served as a symbol of the Cold War (US and Soviet Union), until
its fall in 1989.
2. The Marshall Plan vs. The Cominform: In 1947, American
Secretary of State George Marshall, unveiled European Recovery
Programme (ERP), which offered economic and financial help
wherever it was needed. One of the aims of the ERP was to promote
the economic recovery of Europe. However, this was an economic
extension of the Truman Doctrine. The Soviet Union denounced the
whole idea of Marshall Plan as 'dollar imperialism. Therefore, the
Cominform (the Communist Information Bureau) - was launched in
1947, as the Soviet response to the Marshall Plan. It was an
organization to draw together mainly Eastern Europe countries.

27
3. NATO vs. Warsaw Pact: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization)
The Berlin blockade showed the West's military unreadiness and
frightened them into making definite preparations. Therefore, in 1948,
mainly the countries of Western Europe signed the Brussels Defence
Treaty, promising military collaboration in case of war. Later on
Brussels Defence Treaty was joined by the USA, Canada, Portugal,
Denmark, Iceland, Italy and Norway. This led to the formation of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. NATO
countries agreed to consider an attack on any one of them as an attack
on all of them, and placing their defence forces under a joint command.
The Warsaw Pact (1955) was signed between Russia and her satellite
states shortly after West Germany was admitted to NATO. The Pact
was a mutual defense agreement, which the Western countries
perceived as a reaction against West Germany's membership of NATO.
Space Race: Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for
Cold War competition. In 1957, Soviet Union launched Sputnik I, the
world’s first artificial satellite and the first manmade object to be
placed into the Earth’s orbit. In 1958, the U.S.
launched its own satellite called Explorer I. However, this space race
was won by the US, when it successfully landed, the first man (Neil
Armstrong) on the surface of the moon in 1969.
Arms Race: The containment strategy of US provided the rationale
for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States, reciprocated
by Soviet Union. Development of nuclear weapons took place on a
massive scale and the world entered into the age of nuclear age.
The Cuban Missiles Crisis, 1962: The Cuba got involved in the Cold
War when US broke off its diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961,
and Soviet Union increased their economic aid to Cuba. In 1961, the
USA planned Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, intending to overthrow
the head of Cuban state (Fidel Castro), who was backed by the Soviet
Union. However, the operation failed. Fidel Castro then appealed to
the Soviet Union for military help, to which Soviet Union decided to
set up a nuclear missile launchers in Cuba aimed at the USA. Cuban
28
Missile Crisis brought two superpowers on the brink of a nuclear war.
However, the crisis was averted diplomatically.
End of the Cold War
In 1991, Soviet Union collapsed due to multiple factors which marked
the end of the Cold War, as one of the superpowers was weakened.
Reasons of the collapse of the Soviet Union
Military reasons: The space race and the arms race drained a
considerable proportion of Soviet Union's resources for military needs.
Policies of Mikhail Gorbachev: In order to kick start moribund Soviet
economy, Gorbachev instituted the policies of glasnost (“openness”)
and perestroika (“restructuring”). Glasnost was
intended for liberalization of the political landscape. Perestroika
intended to introduce quasi free market policies in place of
government-run industries. It allowed more independent actions from
various ministries and introduced many market-like reforms. Rather
than sparking a renaissance in Communist thought, these steps opened
the floodgates to criticism of the entire Soviet apparatus. The state lost
control of both the media and the public sphere, and democratic reform
movements gained steam throughout the Soviet Union. Also, there was
growing disenchantment in the public due to falling economy, poverty,
unemployment, etc. This made the people of the Soviet Union attracted
to western ideology and way of life.

The Soviet-Afghan (1979–89) was another key factor in the

breakup of the Soviet Union, as it drained the economic and military
resources of Soviet Union. The end of the Cold War marked the victory
of the US and the bipolar world order turned into a unipolar.

29
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:
-Sri. P. K. Varghese, Associate Professor, Sulthan Bathery. & Smt. Fathimath
Suhara. K. (2019). “INTRODUCTION TOINTERNATIONAL POLITICS”.

Websites:
- Walt, S. M. (2022, March 3). The state of global geopolitics. Foreign Policy.
https://www.foreignpolicy.com
An article analyzing recent developments in international politics.

Journal Articles:
- Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (1977). Power and interdependence.
International Organization, 31(4), 379-408.
Explores liberal perspectives on global cooperation.

30