©Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2025) 24, 513-521

http://www.jssm.org DOI: https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2025.513

` Research article

The Effects of Small Vs. Large-Sided Games on Physical Fitness Adaptations:

A Randomized Controlled Design in Female Soccer Players

Di Yang 1, Yun Feng 2, XuBin Guo 3 and Pei Hu 1

1
Geely University of China, Chengdu, China; 2 China West Normal University, Nanchong, China; 3 Civil Aviation Flight
University of China, Guanghan, China

ing skill acquisition through the manipulation of task, en-

Abstract vironmental, and individual constraints. This approach
Research comparing the effects of different small-sided soccer promotes learning by encouraging players to self-organize
game (SSG) training formats on physical adaptations remains and adapt their behavior in response to game-relevant con-
scarce. This study aimed to compare small-format SSGs (SSGSF: ditions. By maintaining perceptual and action couplings,
1v1 to 3v3) with large-format SSGs (SSGLF: 6v6 to 8v8) on ver- SSGs provide both specificity and representativeness in
tical jump, change-of-direction (COD), linear speed and aerobic
capacity adaptations in youth female soccer players over a six-
training. They simplify real-game scenarios, allowing
week training period. Using a simple randomized, parallel, con- coaches to structure the game format to match the intended
trolled design, players were assigned to one of two experimental learning outcomes and the players' developmental levels
groups (SSGSF or SSGLF) or a control group. Forty-five female (Davids et al., 2013). By preserving the dynamics of full-
youth players (15.7 ± 0.5 years old) competing at a developmental scale play - specifically maintaining the cooperation-oppo-
level participated in the study. All participants had a minimum of sition interaction - while encouraging greater involvement,
two years of playing experience and adhered to at least 90% of SSGs provide more enjoyment than traditional drills
the intervention protocol. The experimental groups received two (Selmi et al., 2020). They also promote active technical and
additional SSG sessions per week, while the control group main- tactical involvement while imposing significant physical
tained their regular training routines. Baseline and post-interven-
tion assessments included countermovement jump height (CMJ),
and physiological demands, making them well-suited for
change of direction deficit in the 5-0-5 test (COD deficit), 30-me- simultaneously addressing multiple training objectives
ter linear speed, and final velocity in the 30-15 intermittent fitness within a focused, game-representative context (Hill-Haas
test (VIFT). The SSGSF group exhibited a significantly smaller et al., 2011; Bujalance-Moreno et al., 2019; Clemente et
CODdeficit compared to the control group (p = 0.026; d = 1.032, al., 2020; Borges et al., 2022).
moderate) after the intervention. The SSGLF group exhibited a Changing task conditions in SSG, such as the for-
significantly smaller 30-m sprint time compared to the control mat of play (e.g., number of players involved), playing
group (p = 0.044; d = 0.303, small). Both the SSGSF (p = 0.039; d field dimensions, task objectives (e.g., method of scoring),
= 0.880, moderate) and SSGLF (p = 0.026; d = 1.043, moderate) and task rules (e.g., ball touch limitations), significantly in-
groups exhibited a significantly greater VIFT compared to the con-
trol group. In conclusion, the findings suggest that SSGSF may be
fluence both physiological and physical responses during
more beneficial for improving COD ability, while SSGLF could play (Halouani et al., 2014; Bujalance-Moreno et al., 2019;
potentially be more effective for enhancing linear sprint perfor- Dios-Álvarez et al., 2022). Changes in the format of play,
mance. Both formats appear to have a positive impact on aerobic such as the number of players per side, can alter work-to-
performance, though the extent of their effects might be similar. rest ratios and affect both metabolic and muscular demands
Coaches might consider these differences when selecting SSG (Rampinini et al., 2007; Rebelo et al., 2016). For example,
formats, as each format could contribute differently to physical reducing the number of players increases individual work-
performance adaptations. load, resulting in higher-intensity physiological efforts, re-
Key words: Football, physical performance, sports training,
flected in intensified heart rate responses, higher blood lac-
women. tate levels, and increased ratings of perceived exertion
(Rampinini et al., 2007). This is particularly beneficial for
targeting aerobic power (Lacome et al., 2018). Moreover,
Introduction alterations in field dimensions directly impact movement
patterns: smaller fields typically lead to more frequent ac-
Small-sided games (SSGs) are modified versions of soccer celerations, while larger fields promote greater total dis-
with fewer players, played on smaller fields, and often with tance covered and more demanding movements, such as
adjusted rules (Fernández-Espínola et al., 2020). They are sprints (Clemente et al., 2023). Physiologically, players of-
widely used in training contexts to enhance player engage- ten exhibit higher heart rates, elevated lactate concentra-
ment, target specific tactical behaviors and technical ac- tions, and increased perceived exertion in larger fields
tions, and fit the physical and physiological demands to (Casamichana and Castellano, 2010). These changes col-
match training objectives (Clemente et al., 2024a). SSGs lectively influence energy system contributions, with cer-
are particularly well-suited to the constraints-led approach, tain task constraints favoring anaerobic systems and others
a framework in which training tasks are designed to pre- supporting aerobic conditioning, depending on their struc-
serve the representative dynamics of the game while guid- ture and intensity. This can promote positive adaptations in

Received: 12 May 2025 / Accepted: 20 June 2025 / Published (online): 01 September 2025
514 Female soccer: Small vs. Large-Sided Games

physiological outcomes relevant to meeting the sustained to design training plans that effectively target physical
demands of soccer. performance outcomes relevant to enhancing playing per-
While there is a substantial body of research exam- formance, such as muscular power, speed, and aerobic ca-
ining the acute physiological and physical responses to var- pacity. Including women athletes in research would also
iations in task conditions among youth and adult males and help address their underrepresentation in sports training
females (Halouani et al., 2014; Ometto et al., 2018; Dios- studies, particularly in the context of SSGs. Comparing
Álvarez et al., 2022), the literature on the use of SSGs as small-sided formats (e.g., 1v1 to 3v3, or SSGSF) with larger
structured training interventions in experimental studies re- formats (e.g., 6v6 to 8v8, or SSGLF) could provide coaches
mains limited - particularly in female populations (Moran with valuable insights into each format's specific impact on
et al., 2019; Clemente et al., 2024b). Most existing studies physical performance adaptations, helping them select for-
focus on comparing SSG to analytical training exercises, mats that best align with targeted training outcomes. For
particularly high-intensity interval training (Hammami et these reasons, this study aimed to compare SSGSF with
al., 2018; Clemente et al., 2021a). However, there is a no- SSGLF on physical performance adaptations in youth fe-
table gap in research that acknowledges how different SSG male soccer players over a six-week training period.
formats lead to significant variations in acute physiological
and physical demands, and how these differences might in- Methods
fluence long-term physical and physiological performance
adaptations (Clemente et al., 2021a). Surprisingly, studies Experimental approach
comparing the effects of different SSG formats over the This study used a single-blind design (with evaluators
long term are quite scarce. blinded), employing simple randomization in a parallel,
For example, a recent study (Wang et al., 2024) controlled format. Two experimental groups (SSGSF and
compared two different SSG formats - one on a smaller SSGLF) received two additional weekly training interven-
field and the other on a larger, more elongated field - over tions based on SSG over a six-week period, in addition to
an 8-week period. The results showed that while both for- their regular training sessions. The control group continued
mats significantly improved aerobic performance, only the with their standard training routine. The evaluators were
elongated field enhanced sprint performance in the players. blinded to group assignments, while participants and
Another study examining the influence of field dimensions coaches were not. Randomization was conducted using
on aerobic performance adaptations found that anaerobic opaque envelopes, with each participant within a team ran-
speed reserve was lower for the large-area-per-player domly assigned to one of the groups, ensuring a 1:1 alloca-
group compared to the small-area-per-player group. Mean- tion ratio. Randomization occurred prior to baseline assess-
while, repeat-sprint ability, sprint, and aerobic perfor- ments, and participants were not allowed to switch groups
mance were similarly impacted by both larger and smaller thereafter, thus ensuring allocation concealment.
field dimensions in a 4-week intervention (Faga et al., The study was approved by the ethics committee of
2022). Although these examples offer findings into how China West Normal University and was assigned the ap-
field dimensions influence performance adaptations, the proval code (ID: CA202504003). Participants and their le-
effects of different playing formats are even less studied. gal guardians were informed about the study design and
In the only study (Makar et al., 2022) examining this factor, were explicitly told that they were free to withdraw at any
researchers tested extreme (1v1) and moderate (5v5) SSG time without penalty. After receiving this information, the
formats over a 4-week intervention. They found that the legal guardians signed an informed consent form.
extreme-sided games led to significant improvements in Convenience sampling was used to select teams that
vertical jump height and change-of-direction performance shared similar competitive levels and age groups, and were
among youth soccer players, while the impact on aerobic also able to accommodate the training interventions. Three
performance was similar across both formats (Makar et al., soccer teams, competing at the same level and with com-
2022). parable training approaches, participated in the study.
Significant gaps remain in intervention studies on Within each team, participants were evenly distributed
SSGs, especially concerning the use of different playing across the three groups (i.e., SSGSF, SSGLF, and control),
formats. An important limitation is the scarcity of studies; ensuring that each group contained a similar number of
the only research (Makar et al., 2022) comparing adapta- players coming from different teams.
tion effects between smaller and larger SSG formats lacked The study began with a baseline assessment con-
a control group, making it difficult to determine what ad- ducted in the week prior to the start of the training inter-
aptations would occur if players followed their usual train- vention, which lasted for six consecutive weeks. A post-
ing routines. Additionally, the 4-week intervention period intervention assessment was then carried out in the week
used was likely too short to foster meaningful long-term following the intervention. While the regular training ses-
adaptations. Another critical gap is the lack of SSG inter- sions were exclusively planned and managed by the
vention studies involving female athletes; none of the ex- coaches of each team, the SSG interventions were added
isting studies examining various SSG task conditions on and monitored by the research team, with designated
physical adaptations have included women (Dios-Álvarez coaches specifically responsible for implementing these
et al., 2022). Therefore, in addition to the scarcity of ran- games. The study took place during the pre-season period.
domized experimental studies, the methodological limi-
tations of existing research also warrant further investiga- Participants
tion. Addressing these gaps is essential for coaches aiming The sample size for the study was determined using
Yang et al. 515

G*Power software (version 3.1.9, Universität Düsseldorf, Out of an initial pool of 68 available players, 10
Germany). This calculation accounted for three groups, were excluded for being goalkeepers, and 11 were ex-
two measurement points, a statistical power of 0.95, a sig- cluded due to injuries at the time of the baseline assess-
nificance level of 0.05, and an effect size f = 0.839, which ments. Additionally, 2 more players were excluded during
was derived from the partial eta squared estimate of 0.413 the intervention period for missing more than 40% of the
of a prior study examining various SSG training interven- team training sessions (Figure 1).
tions and their impact on aerobic capacity as measured by A total of 45 female youth soccer players (age: 15.7
the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (Wang et al., 2024). ± 0.5 years; height: 165.2 ± 5.2 cm; weight: 57.6 ± 5.9 kg;
Based on these parameters, a sample size of 12 participants experience: 3.6 ± 0.8 years in competitive soccer) partici-
was recommended for the ANOVA repeated measures pated in this study. More detailed information, broken
within-between interaction. down by groups, is presented in Table 1. All players were
Participants were recruited by directly reaching out from teams competing at the same level, classified as tier 2
to teams and their head coaches and directors, followed by (trained/developmental) according to the Participants Clas-
contacting the players and their legal guardians. The eligi- sification Framework (McKay et al., 2022). The three
bility criteria for inclusion in the study were as follows: (i) teams had 3 training sessions a week with an average of
participants had to be female players with a minimum of 109 ± 11 minutes of duration per session. As part of their
two years of competitive soccer experience; (ii) attendance regular training routine, the teams begin with a general
of at least 90% of the experimental intervention sessions warm-up lasting about 10 minutes. This is followed by a
and at least 85% of total team training sessions throughout specific conditioning session, focused either on aerobic
the study period; (iii) no injuries or illnesses in the month power or speed, lasting 15 to 25 minutes depending on the
preceding or during the study period; and (iv) completion day of the week. Next, they often engaged in targeted train-
of all evaluation tests and attendance at all measurement ing activities involving positional games, specific offen-
points. Exclusion criteria included (i) being a goalkeeper, sive or defensive tactics, or dedicated technical drills for 30
and (ii) participation in any dietary or supplemental train- to 40 minutes. The session commonly concluded with a
ing program (e.g., strength training) that could influence formal game lasting 15 to 20 minutes, followed by a 5-mi-
the study results. nute cooldown.

Figure 1. Participant flow throughout the study.

Table 1. Player characteristics by group. Data are means ± SD.

SSGSF (n = 15) SSGLF (n = 15) Control (n = 15)
Age (years) 15.7 ± 0.6 15.7 ± 0.5 15.7 ± 0.5
Experience (years) 3.7 ± 0.8 3.5 ± 0.7 3.7 ± 0.9
Height (cm) 162.5 ± 4.5 167.3 ± 4.7 165.9 ± 4.9
Weight (kg) 54.3 ± 3.8 58.7 ± 4.4 59.7 ± 7.6
SSGSF: small-sided games in formats ranging from 1v1 to 3v3; SSGLF: small-sided games in formats ranging from 6v6 to 8v8.
516 Female soccer: Small vs. Large-Sided Games

Table 2. Description of the training intervention for both experimental groups.

SSGSF – session1 SSGSF – session 2 SSGLF – session 1 SSGLF – session 2
261 min of 1v1/2 min rest 261 min of 1v1/2 min rest 26 min of 6v6/2 min rest 26 min of 6v6/2 min rest
Week 1 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
158 m (60 m2/player) 158 m (60 m2/player) 4030 m (100 m2/player) 4030 m (100 m2/player)
242 min of 2v2/2 min rest 242 min of 2v2/2 min rest 28 min of 7v7/2 min rest 28 min of 7v7/2 min rest
Week 2 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
2014 m (70 m2/player) 2014 m (70 m2/player) 4535 m (113 m2/player) 4535 m (113 m2/player)
82 min of 3v3/2 min rest 82 min of 3v3/2 min rest 28 min of 8v7/2 min rest 28 min of 8v7/2 min rest
Week 3 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
3018 m (90 m2/player) 3018 m (90 m2/player) 4535 m (105 m2/player) 4535 m (105 m2/player)
361 min of 1v1/2 min rest 361 min of 1v1/2 min rest 36 min of 6v6/2 min rest 36 min of 6v6/2 min rest
Week 4 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
158 m (60 m2/player) 158 m (60 m2/player) 4030 m (100 m2/player) 4030 m (100 m2/player)
342 min of 2v2/2 min rest 342 min of 2v2/2 min rest 38 min of 7v7/2 min rest 38 min of 7v7/2 min rest
Week 5 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
2014 m (70 m2/player) 2014 m (70 m2/player) 4535 m (113 m2/player) 4535 m (113 m2/player)
83 min of 3v3/2 min rest 83 min of 3v3/2 min rest 38 min of 8v7/2 min rest 38 min of 8v7/2 min rest
Week 6 Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK Small goals (22) / no GK
3018 m (90 m2/player) 3018 m (90 m2/player) 4535 m (105 m2/player) 4535 m (105 m2/player)
GK: goalkeeper; SSGSF: small-sided games in formats ranging from 1v1 to 3v3; SSGLF: small-sided games in formats ranging from 6v6 to 8v8.

Training intervention the intervention and once after. Both evaluations occurred
The groups assigned to either SSGSF or SSGLF received with 72 hours of rest prior. The assessments took place in
the supplementary training intervention with a 48-hour rest the afternoon in indoor facility (temperature of 21.5 ± 0.9º
between sessions. These interventions were conducted dur- and relative humidity of 56 ± 2%). The assessments were
ing the first and second training sessions of the week. The conducted by a team of four experienced evaluators, who
training was implemented prior to the team's regular train- were blinded to the participants' group assignments.
ing, with sessions led by coaches selected by the research In addition to the demographic and anthropometric
team. Each intervention began with a general warm-up pro- assessments, the players began with a generalized warm-
tocol, which included 4 minutes of jogging, 5 minutes of up protocol, identical to the one used in the intervention
dynamic stretching for the lower limbs, and 5 minutes of sessions. Following the warm-up, all participants pro-
ballistic drills focused on the lower body. A detailed de- ceeded through the same sequence of tests, which remained
scription of the training interventions is provided in Table consistent for both evaluation moments: (i) countermove-
2. ment jump height (CMJ); (ii) change of direction deficit in
The intervention was organized into two blocks, the 5-0-5 test (COD deficit); (iii) 30-meter linear speed;
each lasting three weeks. In the first block, players pro- and (iv) final velocity in the 30-15 intermittent fitness test
gressed by increasing the playing formats within each (VIFT). The rest period between tests was 3 minutes.
group. In the second block, while the variation in game for-
mats was maintained, the overall volume of play was in- Countermovement jump height (CMJ)
creased. During the first block, the intervention sessions For the CMJ, participants began by positioning themselves
lasted between 12 and 16 minutes, while in the second in a squat with their knees at a 90° angle and feet shoulder-
block, the session duration ranged from 18 to 24 minutes. width apart, while keeping their hands on their hips to pre-
The volume was consistently balanced between the two vent using their arms for assistance. The objective was to
groups, with the main variations focusing on the game for- achieve the highest possible jump while maintaining this
mats, and consequently, the field dimensions and training position.
regimens. Jump height was recorded using the My Jump 2 app
Players were grouped according to the coaching on an iPhone X, which was selected due to its proven ac-
staff’s qualitative assessment of competitiveness, with the curacy and reliability in measuring vertical jumps (Bogataj
aim of maintaining balanced teams during the drills. This et al., 2020). Each participant performed two attempts, sep-
assessment considered not only players' technical and tac- arated by a 2-minute rest period. The average jump height
tical abilities, but also their regular inclusion in the starting (in centimeters) from the two trials was then used for the
lineup and positional roles. Team groupings were adjusted analysis.
based on the specific ormat employed. To ensure the games
ran smoothly and to maintain game dynamics, 2 to 3 balls Change of direction deficit in the 5-0-5 test (COD defi-
were placed around the field to speed up ball retrieval after cit)
going out of bounds. Coaches provided verbal encourage- For this study, the 5-0-5 change-of-direction (COD) test
ment to keep the players engaged and motivated through- was conducted in its standard form. Participants started in
out the games. All games were played on synthetic turf. a split stance, with their dominant leg in front. They began
by sprinting 10 meters, with the first 5 meters, the 180°
Assessment procedures turn, and the return 5 meters each timed separately (Ryan
The players were assessed on two occasions: once before et al., 2022). The time for the two 5-meter segments was
Yang et al. 517

recorded as the COD time, which was then subtracted from for homogeneity of variances, Levene’s test was applied,
the total 10-meter sprint time to calculate the COD deficit. also resulting in p > 0.05. To examine the interaction be-
Participants were asked to use the same leg for the tween time and group, a mixed ANOVA was conducted.
180° turn in both trials. The COD times were captured us- Effect sizes for comparisons between pre- and post-inter-
ing the COD timer app on an iPhone X, a validated and vention measurements were determined using partial eta
reliable tool that delivers measurements consistent with squared (𝜂 ) and Cohen’s d. Since 𝜂 and Cohen’s d have
those taken by timing gates (Chen et al., 2021). Each player different magnitude scales, the effect sizes were interpreted
performed two trials, with a 2-minute rest interval in be- according to their respective criteria (Hopkins et al., 2009):
tween. The average COD deficit (in seconds) from both at- for 𝜂 , small (≥ 0.01), moderate (≥ 0.06), and large (≥
tempts was then used for the analysis. 0.14); for Cohen’s d, small (≥ 0.10), moderate (≥ 0.30),
large (≥ 1.2), and very large (≥ 2.0). The Bonferroni test
30-meter linear speed
was used for post-hoc analyses. All statistical analyses
The 30-meter linear sprint test was carried out to evaluate
were conducted using JASP software (version 0.18.3, Uni-
sprint performance. Participants started from a split stance,
versity of Amsterdam, The Netherlands), with a signifi-
with their preferred leg forward. They positioned them-
cance threshold of p < 0.05.
selves behind the starting line and were instructed to main-
tain the same starting posture, with the same leading leg,
throughout the trials. Each player performed two trials,
Results
with a 2-minute rest interval in between. The assessment
Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of baseline and
was conducted using the MySprint mobile application on
post-intervention physical performance values for the three
an iPhone X, which has previously been validated for its
groups. Significant interactions (time*group) were ob-
reliability and accuracy when compared to photocells
served in CMJ (F = 24.804; p < 0.001; ηₚ² = 0.542, large
(Romero-Franco et al., 2017). The average 30-meter sprint
effect), CODdeficit (F = 19.480; p < 0.001; ηₚ² = 0.481,
time (in seconds) from both attempts was then used for the
large effect), 30-m sprint time (F = 18.427; p < 0.001; ηₚ²
analysis.
= 0.467, large effect), and VIFT (F = 16.503; p < 0.001; ηₚ²
Final velocity in the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (VIFT) = 0.440, large effect). No significant differences were ob-
The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test, in its original format, served between the groups at baseline for CMJ (F = 0.671;
was used to assess the players' capacity to sustain progres- p = 0.573; ηₚ² = 0.037, small effect), CODdeficit (F =
sively intense intermittent efforts until exhaustion (Buch- 0.633; p = 0.536; ηₚ² = 0.029, small effect), 30-m sprint
heit, 2008). The test involved a series of 30-second shuttle time (F = 0.089; p = 0.915; ηₚ² = 0.004, negligible effect),
runs, with 15 seconds of passive recovery between each, and VIFT (F = 0.010; p = 0.990; ηₚ² = 0.000, no effect).
following an audio cue that indicated the required pace No significant differences were observed between
(Buchheit, 2008). The test began at a speed of 8 km/h, the groups at post-intervention for CMJ (F = 2.693; p =
which increased by 0.5 km/h after each 30-second round. 0.079; ηₚ² = 0.114, moderate effect). However, significant
The test ended when the participant could no longer keep differences were observed between the groups at post-in-
up with the pace or chose to stop due to fatigue. The final tervention for CODdeficit (F = 4.018; p = 0.025; ηₚ² =
result was based on the highest running speed achieved 0.161, large effect), 30-m sprint time (F = 3.381; p = 0.044;
during a completed 30-second round, which was recorded ηₚ² = 0.139, large effect), and VIFT (F = 4.792; p = 0.013;
as the final velocity in the 30 - 15 Intermittent Fitness Test ηₚ² = 0.186, large effect).
(VIFT) in kilometers per hour. All players were already fa- Specifically, the SSGSF group exhibited a signifi-
miliar with the test due to their regular assessment routines cantly smaller CODdeficit compared to the control group
within their training programs. (mean difference: 0.16 s; p = 0.026; d = 1.032, large effect
size) after the intervention. The SSGLF group exhibited a
Statistical procedures significantly smaller 30-m sprint time compared to the con-
The normality of the sample was assessed using the Kol- trol group (mean difference: 0.06 s; p = 0.044; d = 0.303,
mogorov-Smirnov test, which yielded p > 0.05. To check small effect size) after the intervention.

Table 3. Mean ± standard deviation of baseline and post-intervention physical performance values for three groups.
SSGSF (n = 15) SSGLF (n = 15) Control (n = 15)
Baseline 21.6 ± 3.3 19.8 ± 4.6 20.1 ± 3.6
CMJ (cm) Post-intervention 23.0 ± 3.6 20.0 ± 4.8 20.2 ± 3.5
p and d (post-pre) *p < 0.001; d = 0.406 p = 0.150; d = 0.043 p = 0.481; d = 0.028
Baseline 0.57 ± 0.15 0.63 ± 0.16 0.60 ± 0.14
5-0-5 COD deficit (s) Post-intervention 0.42 ± 0.14 0.53 ± 0.16 0.58 ± 0.17
p and d (post-pre) *p < 0.001; d = -1.034 *p < 0.001; d = -0.625 *p = 0.045; d = -0.129
Baseline 5.14 ± 0.22 5.15 ± 0.25 5.18 ± 0.27
30-m sprint time (s) Post-intervention 5.12 ± 0.20 4.98 ± 0.20 5.18 ± 0.22
p and d (post-pre) p = 0.376; d = -0.095 *p < 0.001; d = -0.756 p = 0.929; d = 0.000
Baseline 15.0 ± 1.5 15.0 ± 1.3 15.1 ± 1.5
VIFT (km/h) Post-intervention 16.6 ± 1.2 16.7 ± 1.0 15.5 ± 1.3
p and d (post-pre) *p < 0.001; d = 1.185 *p < 0.001; d = 1.478 *p = 0.015; d = 0.286
CMJ: countermovement jump; COD: change of direction; VIFT: Final velocity in the 30-15 intermittent fitness test; p: p-value within-group (post-pre);
d: Cohen’s effect size within-group (post-baseline); *: significantly different from post to baseline (within-group).
518 Female soccer: Small vs. Large-Sided Games

Figure 2. Percentage difference for the observed measures. *: significantly different between groups (p < 0.05).

Finally, both the SSGSF (mean difference: 1.1 variability in individual actions (Young and Rogers, 2014).
km/h; p = 0.039; d = 0.880, moderate effect size) and This increased exposure likely enhances neuromuscular
SSGLF (mean difference: 1.2 km/h; p = 0.026; d = 1.043, stimulation, supporting rapid acceleration, deceleration,
large effect size) groups exhibited a significantly greater and re-acceleration (Konefal et al., 2023). Second, the
VIFT compared to the control group after the intervention. smaller space and greater individual involvement may im-
Figure 2 shows the percentage of differences between post- prove players' ability to quickly recognize optimal mo-
intervention and baseline for the physical performance var- ments for changing direction, potentially benefiting both
iables observed. physical performance and perceptual reaction speed (Mota
et al., 2022). In larger play formats, which naturally asso-
Discussion ciates with larger fields, individual involvement in these
actions may decrease, with movements becoming more
The current research revealed that while both SSGSF and elongated and linear and less frequent in directional
SSGLF significantly improve aerobic performance as meas- changes, reducing the multidimensional movement seen in
ured by VIFT, only SSGSF effectively enhanced the COD smaller formats (Castagna et al., 2017). However, possibly
deficit, whereas only SSGLF significantly improves 30-me- because changes in direction can still occur frequently even
ter linear sprint time. However, neither SSGSF nor SSGLF in larger formats, this may explain why the specific differ-
were effective in promoting significant adaptations in CMJ ences between smaller and larger formats were not signifi-
performance. These findings suggest that specific playing cant.
formats influence adaptations in speed-related measures, Based on this rationale, it may help explain the find-
while both formats can be used with similar effectiveness ings of our study, where only SSGLF significantly enhanced
when the primary goal is aerobic development. 30-meter sprint performance compared to the control
The results of our study indicated that, after the in- group, while SSGSF did not. However, no significant dif-
tervention period, the SSGSF group showed significantly ferences were observed between SSGSF and SSGLF. Our re-
greater improvement in the COD deficit compared to the sults align with two previous studies (Faga et al., 2022;
control group, reflected in lower COD deficit scores. How- Wang et al., 2024) that compared smaller and larger field
ever, no significant difference was found between the dimensions, although those studies were conducted with
SSGSF and SSGLF groups. In contrast, the SSGLF group did youth males. These studies (Faga et al., 2022; Wang et al.,
not show a significant difference from the control group, 2024) found that only games played on larger fields (which
suggesting that only SSGSF was effective in improving this naturally involve a greater number of players, i.e., larger
measure. The only previous study (Makar et al., 2022) sim- formats) resulted in significant improvements in linear
ilar to ours that compared the use of 1v1 versus 5v5 formats speed, outperforming games played in smaller spaces at
also found a tendency for the smaller format to be more this level. Previous studies (Castagna et al., 2017;
effective than the larger one in enhancing COD perfor- Clemente et al., 2019) report that sprint actions are subop-
mance, although that study did not include a control group. timal in smaller formats and small spaces during SSGs.
The reasons for these findings may lie in two fac- This, coupled with the evidence that only near-maximal
tors. First, in smaller formats, limited space requires a more and maximal sprint actions can lead to improvements in
diverse range of accelerations, decelerations, and COD ac- sprint performance (Haugen et al., 2014), may explain why
tions due to a higher degree of individual involvement and smaller formats are less effective in driving improvements
Yang et al. 519

at this level. Thus, larger formats, which provide greater This study has some limitations, including a re-
and more elongated dimensions, may facilitate improve- stricted competitive level, which may limit the generaliza-
ments by allowing players to achieve near-maximal sprint bility of the findings to other levels, such as professional or
speeds due to the additional space available to reach these adult athletes, as well as a relatively short intervention pe-
speeds (Wang et al., 2024). riod (6 weeks), which may not provide insights into poten-
Both groups, however, were equally effective in tial plateaus after longer durations. Additionally, further re-
significantly enhancing VIFT compared to the control search is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms that
group. Our results do not align with a previous study may drive these adaptations. Future studies should con-
(Makar et al., 2022) that compared 1v1 and 5v5 formats, sider including a broader range of competitive levels, ex-
which did not reveal any significant improvements in this tending the intervention period, and investigating the po-
measure. However, their study (Makar et al., 2022) was tential benefits of combining SSG formats with strength
conducted over only 4 weeks, which may not have been training. Another limitation is that, although validated mo-
enough time for the necessary adaptations to occur. There- bile applications were used, they are not considered gold-
fore, longer periods are likely required to provide sufficient standard measurement tools. This should be seen as an area
stimulus for adaptation. In fact, a recent meta-analysis for improvement in future research. Finally, more mecha-
comparing SSGs and high-intensity interval training re- nisms of adaptation remain to be explored, including de-
vealed that both are similarly effective in enhancing aero- tailed analysis and monitoring of training load, as well as
bic performance in soccer players (Clemente et al., 2024b). the impact on biomechanics and muscular recruitment pat-
Additionally, the moderate analysis showed that SSGs, re- terns - particularly during COD movements.
gardless of whether small or large formats are used, are Despite its limitations, this study suggests that
also similarly beneficial in improving aerobic performance SSGs can be an effective complementary training modality
(Clemente et al., 2024b). for improving aerobic performance in female players, as
Although smaller formats, such as 1v1 and 3v3, en- both small- and large-sided formats were shown to enhance
sure significantly higher physiological intensities (Hill- VIFT. Coaches can use these formats interchangeably, de-
Haas et al., 2011), leading to greater cardiovascular and pending on their specific goals, as both were similarly ef-
metabolic demands (Lacome et al., 2018), larger formats, fective in boosting aerobic capacity. However, for im-
such as 6v6, still provide substantial intensity due to the provements in COD deficit, smaller formats like 1v1 or 3v3
increased duration of play and the need to maintain a high may be more beneficial due to the greater individual in-
level of work throughout the game. Larger formats stress volvement and diversity of actions they promote. Con-
the aerobic system through sustained moderate to high-in- versely, larger formats (e.g., 6v6, 7v7) may be more suita-
tensity efforts with occasional bursts (Bujalance-Moreno et ble for enhancing sprint performance, as they provide more
al., 2019), thereby possibly enhancing cardiovascular ca- space for players to achieve near-maximal sprint speeds.
pacity. Both intervention groups likely resulted in in- Coaches should consider integrating different SSG formats
creased mitochondrial density (Mendham et al., 2016), and into training sessions based on specific performance objec-
enhanced oxygen delivery and utilization (Delextrat et al., tives, while also recognizing that more specific strength
2018), all possibly contributing to the observed improve- and conditioning interventions may be necessary to im-
ments in VIFT performance. prove explosive power and speed-related variables, as
Neither of the experimental groups was able to pro- SSGs alone may not suffice depending on the context and
duce significantly better results in the CMJ compared to the the athletes’ training needs.
control group. Interestingly, the previous study (Makar et
al., 2022) comparing 1v1 and 5v5 training interventions Conclusion
found that the 1v1 group significantly improved their CMJ,
while no significant differences were observed in the 5v5 In conclusion, while both SSGSF and SSGLF were similarly
group. In our study, the SSGSF group also showed a signif- effective in improving aerobic performance, as measured
icant improvement from baseline to post-intervention, alt- by VIFT, their impact on other speed-related measures was
hough there were no significant differences when com- different. SSGSF was more effective in enhancing the COD
pared to the other groups. SSGs may not provide sufficient deficit, whereas SSGLF had a greater impact on 30-meter
stimulus to significantly enhance the strength and power sprint performance. Neither group showed significant im-
required for maximal jumping performance (Clemente et provement in CMJ, suggesting that SSGs may not provide
al., 2021b). The CMJ is predominantly influenced by mus- the necessary stimulus for developing this measure. These
cular strength, particularly in the lower limbs, and involves findings imply that coaches should be cautions in selecting
both explosive power and neuromuscular coordination SSG formats based on specific training objectives -
(Nuzzo et al., 2008). Thus, SSGs may not be optimal for whether improving aerobic capacity, COD performance, or
increasing maximal force production during a vertical sprint speed - while also considering the need for supple-
jump, as these actions involve different neuromuscular mentary strength training to enhance explosive power.
stimuli. Further research is needed to understand how spe- However, such findings are context-dependent, and ana-
cific reactive strength training or maximal strength training lyzing other competitive levels, contexts, and longer study
can be integrated to target these adaptations, rather than re- durations may be important for making broader generali-
lying solely on specific training drills. zations.
520 Female soccer: Small vs. Large-Sided Games

Acknowledgements professional players. Research in Sports Medicine 27, 50-59.

The experiments comply with the current laws of the country in which https://doi.org/10.1080/15438627.2018.1511560
they were performed. The authors have no conflict of interest to declare. Davids, K., Araújo, D., Correia, V. and Vilar, L. (2013) How small-sided
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are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author decision-making skills. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 41,
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Key points

 SSGSF (1v1–3v3) significantly improved change of direc-

tion (COD) ability.
 SSGLF (6v6–8v8) led to greater improvements in linear
sprint performance.
 Both formats effectively enhanced aerobic fitness (VIFT)
compared to the control.