India-USA Foreign Relations: A Historical Overview

Introduction

India and the United States share a unique and complex history that spans several decades of
diplomatic, economic, and strategic interactions. Both countries are major global players, and
their relationship has evolved significantly since India’s independence in 1947. India, with its
burgeoning economy and increasing geopolitical importance, and the U.S., as a global
superpower, have navigated periods of cooperation, tension, and realignment. The purpose of
this project is to explore the evolution of India-USA foreign relations, tracing key milestones
from the early years of India’s independence to the present day.

Understanding the historical context of this relationship is crucial as it sheds light on the
multifaceted dynamics at play in international diplomacy. Through the years, these two
democracies have witnessed various stages of alignment and divergence in their policies,
underpinned by their respective national interests.
Early Interactions (Pre-Independence and Independence Period)

Pre-1947 Relations
Before India gained independence in 1947, interactions between India and the United States
were limited, primarily due to the colonial rule by the British. However, the seeds of a
relationship were planted through cultural exchanges, missionary work, and some political
dialogue. Indian intellectuals and nationalists, including figures like Rabindranath Tagore,
Mahatma Gandhi, and Jawaharlal Nehru, had interacted with American academics and social
reformers. Many Indians, such as Gandhi, were influenced by the U.S. concept of democracy
and freedom.

Role of the U.S. in India's Struggle for Independence

The U.S. played a supportive role in India’s fight for independence, though not always
aligned with Indian aspirations. American leaders like President Woodrow Wilson expressed
sympathy for the cause of Indian self-determination during the First World War. The
American public also showed interest in India’s independence movement, particularly after
Mahatma Gandhi's leadership and non-violent approach gained global recognition.

However, U.S. foreign policy was often influenced by Britain, its ally during the colonial
period, and this limited direct U.S. support for India's independence. Nonetheless, American
intellectuals and civil society played a pivotal role in raising awareness about the Indian
independence movement.

Post-Independence Period
After India’s independence in 1947, the United States initially adopted a cautious approach
toward India, which was then a newly independent nation in the midst of global Cold War
tensions. India’s non-aligned policy, which was meant to steer clear of the ideological and
military blocs of the Cold War, was seen with some skepticism by the U.S., who feared
India’s potential drift toward the Soviet Union.
The Cold War Era (1947-1991)

Early Cold War and Alignment with the Soviet Union

In the early years of the Cold War, the United States’ foreign policy was heavily influenced
by the global ideological struggle against communism. India’s non-aligned stance, however,
led it to develop close relations with the Soviet Union, which alienated the U.S. Despite
India’s reluctance to align with either the Western or Eastern bloc, U.S. policymakers viewed
India’s ties with the USSR with suspicion. This was particularly evident during the 1950s and
1960s when India’s support for anti-colonial movements and its lack of enthusiasm for the
Western bloc alienated U.S. interests.

Kashmir Conflict and U.S. Involvement

The Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan, which began shortly after India’s partition
in 1947, became a focal point in the U.S.-India relationship. The U.S. often found itself in the
delicate position of trying to mediate between the two nations. However, the Cold War rivalry
with the Soviet Union influenced the U.S.'s approach, leading to a more pro-Pakistan stance,
especially during moments of crisis like the 1965 and 1971 wars.

The 1970s and Nuclear Tensions

India’s nuclear ambitions, particularly the 1974 Pokhran nuclear test, significantly strained
U.S.-India relations. India’s nuclear capabilities led to international condemnation and
sanctions from the United States. India, however, maintained its stance on pursuing nuclear
technology for peaceful purposes, and this disagreement marked a period of tension in the
relationship between the two countries. The U.S. also imposed economic sanctions and cut
military assistance to India during this period.

The 1980s and Improving Relations

By the 1980s, both nations began to realize the strategic importance of cooperation. India,
facing security threats from China and Pakistan, and the U.S., seeking to counter Soviet
influence, found common ground. While India remained non-aligned, the strategic
importance of the relationship with the U.S. was recognized. In the late 1980s, military and
intelligence cooperation began to improve, even though political tensions over nuclear
policies continued.
Post-Cold War Era and the End of the 20th Century (1991-2000)

The End of the Cold War and New Realities

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, India and the U.S. found themselves in a new
global environment. The Cold War rivalry had ended, and both countries began reassessing
their foreign policies. India’s economic liberalization in the early 1990s, along with its
growing integration into the global economy, led to a renewed interest in strengthening ties
with the United States. India also saw an opportunity to enhance its global standing by
engaging more actively with Western powers.

Economic Liberalization in India

India’s economic reforms, initiated by then-Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao in 1991,
marked the beginning of a new era in India-U.S. relations. The liberalization of India’s
economy opened up new avenues for trade and investment between the two countries. The
U.S. became one of India’s largest trading partners, and American companies began investing
in India’s rapidly growing market, especially in information technology (IT) and
telecommunications.

Nuclear Tests and Sanctions

In 1998, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, which caused a dramatic setback in U.S.-
India relations. The U.S. imposed economic sanctions on India and called for the country to
adhere to the non-proliferation regime. However, India defended its actions, arguing that the
tests were necessary for national security. Despite the sanctions, diplomatic channels
remained open, setting the stage for future collaboration.
The 21st Century: Strategic Partnership Begins (2000-2010)

Bill Clinton’s Visit to India (2000)

In the year 2000, President Bill Clinton visited India, marking a historic shift in U.S.-India
relations. The visit helped thaw the tensions of the past and opened up new avenues for
cooperation in areas such as defense, trade, and technology. Clinton's visit also underscored
the importance of India’s role in the global balance of power, particularly in the context of a
rising China.

George W. Bush and the Civil Nuclear Agreement (2005)

A landmark moment in the India-U.S. relationship came in 2005 when U.S. President George
W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh signed the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear
Agreement. This agreement allowed India to conduct nuclear trade with other countries,
despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). This deal
marked a turning point in the bilateral relationship and was a symbol of growing strategic
cooperation between the two nations.

Economic Growth and IT Sector

India’s economic rise in the 2000s, particularly in the IT sector, provided a new dimension to
U.S.-India relations. The U.S. and India increasingly became global economic partners, with
the U.S. becoming one of India’s largest trading partners. Indian professionals, particularly in
the IT sector, played an increasingly important role in the U.S. economy, fostering greater
people-to-people ties.
Strengthening Ties and Strategic Cooperation (2010-2020)

Barack Obama’s “Pivot to Asia” and India’s Role

Under President Barack Obama, the U.S. pivoted its foreign policy toward the Asia-Pacific
region. This strategic shift placed greater emphasis on India as a key partner in maintaining
regional stability, especially in the face of China’s growing influence. The U.S.-India
relationship was bolstered by increased diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation
during this period.

India’s Role in Global Security

India’s growing military and economic capabilities made it an important partner in the fight
against global terrorism. The U.S. and India cooperated on various counterterrorism
initiatives, particularly after the 2008 Mumbai attacks, which were carried out by Pakistan-
based militants. Both nations also deepened their military-to-military ties, with joint exercises
and defense agreements like the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA).

Economic Cooperation and Trade

The economic relationship between India and the U.S. flourished during the 2010s, with both
countries signing several trade deals and agreements aimed at boosting bilateral trade.
However, there were some areas of disagreement, including trade imbalances, intellectual
property rights, and climate change.
The Current Phase and Strategic Partnership (2020-Present)

Donald Trump and Narendra Modi’s Personal Relationship

The relationship between U.S. President Donald Trump and Indian Prime Minister Narendra
Modi was characterized by strong personal ties. These close personal relations led to
increased cooperation in areas such as defense, trade, and regional security. The two leaders
also worked closely to counter terrorism and regional instability, particularly in the Indo-
Pacific region.

Cooperation on Global Issues

In response to global challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change, and
geopolitical shifts, India and the U.S. have worked closely together to find solutions. The
U.S. played a significant role in providing India with medical supplies and vaccines during
the COVID-19 crisis. Additionally, both countries have made progress in addressing climate
change, with joint initiatives to reduce carbon emissions and promote renewable energy.

Biden Administration and Continuation of Strong Ties

The Joe Biden administration has continued the strong partnership with India, placing a focus
on security, economic cooperation, and tackling climate change. As both countries seek to
address regional security challenges, particularly in the Indo-Pacific, their collaboration in
defense, trade, and technology remains a critical component of the relationship.
Conclusion and Future Prospects

Key Achievements

The U.S.-India relationship has come a long way since the days of early Cold War tensions.
The relationship is now defined by strategic cooperation, deep economic ties, and a shared
commitment to global stability. Key achievements include the 2005 Civil Nuclear Deal,
growing defense and counterterrorism cooperation, and the expanding economic relationship.

Challenges

Despite the strong ties, challenges remain, including trade disputes, human rights concerns,
and tensions over regional issues such as Kashmir and the role of China in the Indo-Pacific.
Both countries will need to continue navigating these challenges to maintain a productive
relationship.

Future Prospects

Looking ahead, the future of U.S.-India relations appears bright. Both countries are likely to
deepen their cooperation in areas such as defense, technology, climate change, and regional
security. As India continues to rise as a global power, its partnership with the United States
will become even more critical in addressing global challenges such as climate change,
terrorism, and the evolving power dynamics in Asia.
References

 "India-U.S. Relations: From Cold War to Strategic Partnership" by David M. Malone

 "The India-U.S. Nuclear Deal: A Review" by Ashley J. Tellis
 U.S. State Department Reports on India
 "The U.S.-India Relationship: A 21st Century Partnership" by Thomas A. Breslin
 India and the United States: The Case for a New Relationship by Stephen P. Cohen