Regulation System

(Body Controller)
Involves the brain and the spinal cord (sumsum tulang belakang)

Types of nervous system!

Nervous System Endocrine System
Produces electrical signal Produces chemical signal
Fast response Slow response
Uses neurotransmitter to pass Glands produce and passes
signals hormones
Neural stimuli Hormonal stimuli

Endocrine System
Hormone is also called a Mediator molecule, released in one parts of the body but
regulates activity of cells and metabolism in other parts of body.

Male Female
Pineal Gland
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Thymus
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Testes Ovaries

HYPOPHYSIS (Pituitary Gland)

Small, pea-sized gland located at the base of your brain below your
hypothalamus. (Infundibulum supports it)

They are influenced by hypothalamus which

is for homeostasis, controls the hormones
produced by Pituitary Gland, etc.

Posterior Hypophysis:
1. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
 Helps in the water absorption process, e.g. If the ADH is high, our urine will
lessen (works the other way).

2. Oxytocin
The hormone will rise when someone falls in love.
a. Falling in love emotions
b. When a mother is delivering, oxytocin will open up the uterus
c. After birth, it’ll stimulate the production of breast milk.
Anterior Hypophysis:
1. Human Growth Hormone (hGH)/Somatotropin
Helps in our body growth.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)/Thyrotropin
Involved in metabolism process and stimulates the thyroid gland.
3. Gonadotropin (LH & FSH)
Involved in reproduction process in testes and ovary.
- LH: Luteinizing Hormone
- FSH: Follicle Stimulating Hormone
4. Prolactin (PRL)
Involved in making breast milk (controls the amount, concentration, and
contents).
5. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)/Corticotropin
Involved in adrenal gland activites.
6. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Stimulate Melanin to protect skin from UV light.

ADRENAL GLAND
(Suprarenal Gland and Stimulated by ACTH)
- Located above the kidney (renal = kidney, supra = above)

- The capsule protects the structure

- Weighs from 3.5 – 5 gr
- Length: 2-3 cm, Height: 3-5 cm

Adrenal Cortex Hormones Adrenal Medulla Hormones

1. Glucocorticoids (spc. 1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
Cortisol) Both neurotransmitter and
Increases the: hormone, but mainly acts as
a. Glucose formation hormone.
b. Protein breakdown
c. Anti-inflammatory effects 2. Norepinephrine
(Noradrelaine)
 2. Mineralo corticoids (spc. Also a neurotransmitter &
Aldosterone) hormone.
Increases the: a. Fight or flight response
a. Reabsorption of Na+ and (when we are pressured
water or stressed)
b. Secretion of K+ and H+
c. Blood pressure (affected by
Renin)

3. Androgen
Forms testosterone and
esterogen conversion

PANCREAS
Act as Endocrine and Exocrine gland
- Endocrine: Penghasil hormone
- Length of Pancreas: 12,5-15 cm
 - Pancreatic Duct
Runs the length of the pancreas. It drains the pancreatic fluid from the gland
and carries it to the duodenum.

Endocrine Cells:
A few cells will form “Islets of Langerhans”
- Alpha cell
o Glucagon
o Increases blood glucose level
- Beta cell
o Insulin
o Decreases blood glucose level
- Delta cell
o Somatostatin
- F cell (Pancreatic Polypeptide)
o Controls secretion of somatostatin & digestive enzymes

Alpha cell and Beta cell are controlled by Delta cell.

 Delta cells are controlled by F cells.
o F cells controls exocrine cells.
o After the enzyme is secreted, it will flow out through the blood capillaries.

REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Homeostasis is a state of balance among all the body systems needed for the body to
survive and function correctly.
REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL
 THYROID GLAND

Located right above the Trachea

Function:
1. To decrease Ca2+ level in blood (using Calcitonin)
2. Stimulated by TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)

Sickness and Cause:

 Cretinism: Facial deformity (Small face)
 Hypocalcemia: Wrists bending downwards

PARATHYROID GLAND

Embroided in the surface of thyroid gland

Function:
1. Produce PTH (Parathromone)
2. Increase Ca2+ in blood.

Sickness:
 Goiter
o When too much Ca2+ reacts with molecules, cells, and tissues.
(It swells on the neck because it lacks iodine, and could enlarge
overtime)
  Osteitis fibrosa cystica (cracked bone)
o Body that has too much calcium and can’t no longer store them, so the
bones got rid of collagen and causes cracking.

PINEAL GLAND
Located inside the brain

- Weight: 0.1 – 0.2 grams

Function:
 Produces melatonin
 Uses melatonin to control the body’s
biological clock called Circadian
Rhythm.

 The more we stick to a routine, our

body produces a rhythm.
 Senses day and night from the 6
senses.

THYMUS GLAND

- Where T-cell develops, so it contains T-cell.

- Has Thymic Hormones
1. Thymosin
2. Thymopoietin
Helps in T-cell maturation.

- Gradually decreases in size as we get older, so the capacity to hold cells and others
decreases too (doesn’t recover as fast).

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Located inside the glands (hormones and messages)
Steps!
1. START DIVIDING
The cell dividing process starts along with the metabolism.
2. SYNTHESIZE A SPECIFIC PROTEIN
They would then start synthesizing/producing a protein.

3. SENDS THE MESSAGE ALONG

Brings information to other glands as a sign to start producing hormones.

THE STIMULOS REACTION

1. Humoral Stimuli (from bloodstream)

a. Some of our glands are aware due to our blood vessels.
b. Ex: PTH (parathyroid) gland controls Ca2+ in blood.

2. Neural Stimuli (from nerve fibers)

a. Spinal cord and brain
b. Adrenal gland (ex: adrenaline)
i. SYMPATIC NERVE SYSTEM! (catches signals and connects from
spinal cord to adrenal gland)

3. Hormonal Stimuli (by other hormones)

a. Can control other glands to work
b. Master of glands: Hypophysis

BRAIN ANATOMY
Starts developing since we’re an embryo to child
  1 month  Embryo at 5 weeks
1. 1. Forebrain
a. Telenc
ephalo
n
b. Dience
phalon

2. Midbrain
Forebrain a. Mesen
2. Midbrain cephal
3. Hindbrain on

3. Hindbrain
a. Metencephalon
b. Myelencephalon

 Child (4-5 y/o)

1. Telencephalon
a. Cerebrum (Cerebral cortex,
basal nuclei)

2. Diencephalon (Thalamus,
Hypothalamus, Epithalamus)

3. Mesencephalon
a. Midbrain (Part of
brainstem)
4. Metencephalon
a. Pons (Part of brainstem,
cerebellum)
5. Myelencephalon
a. Medulla oblongata (part of
brainstem)

CEREBELLUM

 Receives information (sensoric) from our nervous

system
 Controls body -> muscle coordination so it can
move ohericly (seimbang)
 Motion memory -> our motoric memory (ex:
baby’s first steps)
 CEREBRUM
“Pusat tercerdas”
The cerebrum is the biggest part of the brain, followed by cerebellum.

1. FRONTAL LOBE
Problem-solving, helps in speaking, emotions and
planning

2. TEMPORAL LOBE
Helps in hearing, smelling, speech and
memory.

3. PARIETAL LOBE
Controls the role of the 6 senses, very
sensitive towards touch and tasting.

4. OCCIPITAL LOBE
Involved in controlling the eyesight.

BRAIN STEM
Connects to spinal cord

 Midbrains: Breating
 Pons: Circulation (air, blood,
etc)
 Medulla oblongata: Digestion,
enzyme controlling

ABOVE THE BRAINSTEM

 Thalamus: Sorts the data (the
first gate for information sensor
system)
 Hypothalamus: Homeostasis
 Pituitary gland: Hormone
regulation and stimulates other
glands

 The sensory nerves will carry

information to somatosensory cortex,
but pass through thalamus first.
 Somatosensory cortex will then control
the motor cortex to motor nerves.
 Finally, the signal will reach the
targeted organ/cell.

Corpus Callosum!
A primary commisural region of brain with white matter tract that connects both
left and right hemispheres to communicate.

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Analytical thinking, logic numbers, Emotional intelligence, Imagination,
language, reasoning, science, etc. expression, art awareness, creativity.
Controls the right side of body Controls the left side of body

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nerve System and Peripheral Nerve System

CNS: Brain, spinal cords (helped by PNS) PNS: Cranial nerves, spinal nerves
 Connected to the brain  Connected to spinal cords
 Has 12 pairs of cranial nerves  Has 31 pairs of spinal cords

Definitions of “Nerve”

 Nervous = system

 Neuron = specialized cell composed

of an axon, body cell, and dendrite
(only one cell does this).

 Nerve = bundle of neurons that carry impulse to/from

CNS into effectors.

Glial Cells “Glue”

- Supporting Cells
Many functions are directing at helping neurons to
complete their function for communication.

- Without the glue, the neurons can’t work fully.

1. Signal from dendrite is sent to cell body,

then to nucleus.
2. It then flows to axon hillock (perbatasan
body cell and axon).

 Myelin Sheath (composed of Schwann

Cells), acts as an insulator to keep the
electrical signal fast flowing
(Repolarization & Undershoot)
 Node of Ranvier is a gap that will also keep the electrical signal fast-flowing
(second depolarization).

3 TYPES OF NEURON

1. Bipolar Neuron
a. Has 2 extensions from cell body (soma)
b. Ex: retina, olfac nerve, and ear

2. Unipolar Neuron
a. Has 1 axon
 b. Only in invertebrates (spiders, worms, snails)

3. Multipolar Neuron
a. Many dendrites and 1 axon.

NEURONS
1) Sensory Neuron (Sensoric)
a. Carry signal from sensory receptor (outer parts of body) and sends it to the
CNS.

2) Interneuron
a. The relationship between sensory and motoric nerves.
b. Intergrates signals by connecting neurons.

3) Motoric Neuron (Long nerve)

a. Reaction from sensoric neuron (aksi)
b. Carries out signal from CNS to effector (outer parts of body).

Functions of Neurons
1. Delivers electric signal
2. Transmits nerve impulse
To do this, action-potential is needed, and without it, we won’t be able to use the
neurons.

Action Potential

Resting
Potential Graded
Potential

RESTING POTENTIAL
When neuron does not receive signal at all, the volt is -70mV (millivolt)

Extracellular (+) Intracellular (-)

 Sodium: Na+ (most)  Potassium: K+ (most)
 Cloride: Cl- (many)  Negatively charged
 Calcium: Ca2+ (many) anions: A-

Potassium is more permeable, meaning that it easily enters and exits with a large
amount each time. It needs to pass through a gate, and not through a membrane.
 The Leak Channel
It stays open during resting potential, which is -70 mV (SPP Pump also helps while at
rest).

Voltage-Gated Channel
Only opens once the potential of the voltage is reached (-55 mV). The sodium one is
made up of activation and inactivation gate.

RESTING POTENTIAL
When dendrite receives a signal from an axon, it passes through the neuron and
changes the volt from action potential -> graded potential.

After axon hillock receives the electrical signal, the volt would change from -70 mV to
-55 mV (min. to open VGC). However, not all signals can reach -55 mV, that’s why
there’s no action.

GRADED POTENTIAL
Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential that vary according to the size
of the stimulus, as opposed to being all-or-none.

DEPOLARIZATION

After the threshold is triggered (-55mV), Na+ will

head in the intracellular, changing the volt into +30
mV.

Process when the volt spikes to +30 mV is called

depolarization! Extracellular is negative,
intracellular would be positive.

ACTION POTENTIAL
After it has reached the climax, the sodium voltage gated channel will close.
Potassium voltage gated channel will open instead, allowing (+) K ions to flow
out.

REPOLARIZATION

After the potassium VGC has

opened, K+ flows out, allowing the
intracellular to change back into
negative.

UNDERSHOOT
Membrane potential dips lower than
resting potential, and finally the
ions are retored back again using
the SPP.
  1st depolarization: Axon Hillock

 2nd depolarization: Node of Ranvier

 Repolarizations and undershoots: Myelin Sheath

Impulse Transmission Process

Sodium closes during climax of depolarization using inactivation gate first because it
is not permeable.
Impulse transfers through a synaptic
process.

To do so, presynaptic neuron should give

the impulse. While postsynaptic neuron
receives the impulse.

Synapse Process!!

1) In axon terminal, neurotransmitters exist

as a part of neuron (only there) and stored in
thin-walled sacs called synaptic vesicles.

2) After the impulse has reached the axon

terminal, it will trigger the opening of
calcium VGC and let Ca2+ flow in.

3) That calcium will “guide” the synaptic vesicles towards the presynaptic membrane
before bursting open.
4) After the neurotransmitters break free, it will head to the presynaptic membrane.
5) Neurotransmitters will bind with the ligand-gated ion channels in the
presynaptic membrane,
causing positive ions to flow
in.

A ligand-gated ion channel

could cause the pressure to
change and cause an impulse, AKA chemical transfer (Sodium comes in, potassium
goes out).

Electrical transfer is when electricity moves around the neuron.

A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another

cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal or target cell is another different
neuron.

The synaptic cleft is to ensure that the diffusion process is easier, and to make it
easier to clear the path from the used neurotransmitters.

NEUROTRANSMITTER REMOVAL

1. Degradation
Enzymatic breakdown.
ex: acetylcholinesterase enzyme

2. Reuptake
Uses active transport (effort to move from
low to high concentration) to go back to the
presynaptic neuron.

3. Diffusion
Diffuses away from the synaptic terminal