Chapter- 1

Prescription

Q1. Define prescription. Give example of typical prescription.

Prescription:
Prescription is an order written by physician/dentist or any other registered medical
practitioner to a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific medication for the
patient.

An example of typical prescription (Rx)

Udit hospital
Date: 18/1/2022
Name: Upasana
age: 20 years
Sex: Female
Address: OUOOHI Sonbhadra UP

Rx (superscription)
Potassium bromide 8gm
Tincture of nux vomica 8ml Inscription
Chloroform water qs 120 ml
Fiat Mistura (subscription)
Signa: Cochleare Magnum ter in die (Signature/Transcription)
Post-cibos summendum
Signature of prescriber
Dr Avi. Kumar (MD)
Regd No. 2022

Q2. Describe various parts of prescription.

• Parts of complete/ideal prescription:
i. Date
ii. Name, age, sex, address of patient.
iii. Superscription
iv. Inscription.

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v. V. Subscription.
vi. Signetura or transcription.
vii. Signature, address and registration number of prescriber.

1. Date
• Date must be written by the prescriber at the same time when it is written.
• Date helps the pharmacist to find out late purchase of drugs.
 • Date helps the pharmacist to find out late purchase of drugs.
~ legally required to avoid misuse of prescription for an indefinite period.

~ Age, Sex and Address of Patient

• These must be written on the prescription.
• If these are not written then the pharmacist should ask the patient, and write
them on the prescription.
• This helps in checking the medication and the dose and also for further
reference.

3. Superscription (Rx)
The superscription is represented by Rx which is written at the beginning of
prescription. It is also written as Rj and it is the symbol for Latin word "Recipe", i.e.
'you take' or 'take thou', i.e. prayer to Jupiter, i.e. the god of healing.
Superscription directs the pharmacist to compound the ingredient in a stated
dosage form .

4. Inscription
• It is the main part of prescription.
• It is also called body of prescription.
• It contains the names and quantities of prescribed ingredients.
• Each ingredient is written in a separate line and last item is generally vehicle.
• In complex prescription, inscription is divided into three parts:
i. Base or active medicament
ii. Adjuvant or additives
iii. The vehicle.

5. Subscription
• It contains directions to pharmacist regarding:
i. Compounding ingredients in a given dosage form .

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ii. How to prepare the dosage form.

iii. Quantity to send and manner of sending.

6. Slgnetura!Transcrlptlon.
• It gives instruction to the patient about:
i. Use of preparation.
ii. Method of administration or application.
iii. The dose of preparation.
iv. Time of administration or application.
v. The vehicle with which the dosage is to be taken.
vi. The part of the body to which the drug is to be applied.

7. Signature, Address and Regd. No. of Prescriber

• They are necessary for prescribers identity and for further reference.
Chapter- 2
Mixture

Q 1. Define mixture and draught. Give advantages and

disadvantages of mixtures.
Mixture
Mixture is a liquid medicine for internal use of which several doses are
contained in one bottle.

Draught
It is a liquid medicine for internal use which contains only single dose.

Advantages of Mixture
i. They are quickly effective than solid dosage forms.
ii. Absorption of drugs is faster as compared to other dosage forms like tablet
and capsule.
iii. Some substances can be stable in liquid form , e.g. castor oil, liquid
paraffin.
iv. Some substances are more effective in diffused form.
v. Some substances, if taken in dry state cause gastric irritation, can be given
in the form of mixture.
vi. Mixtures can be easily flavoured and are suitable of children.
vii. Mixtures are economical as compared to other dosage forms.

Disadvantages of Mixture
i. Some substances in liquid form undergo hydrolysis and produce harmful
substances. For example, aspirin on hydrolysis gives salicylic acid (toxic).
ii. Proper care should be taken during handling of mixtures to avoid
contamination and spoilage.
iii. Containers made of glass, plastic, etc. are plastic, etc. are required for
packaging.

Q 2. Enlist/give classification of mixtures.

Classification/Types of Mixtures

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i. Simple mixtures containing soluble substances only.

ii. Mixtures containing diffusible solids.
iii. Mixtures containing indiffusible solids.
iv. Mixtures containing precipitate-forming liquids.
v. Mixtures containing slightly soluble liquids/solids.
vi. Miscellaneous mixtures.
Chapter- 3
Emulsion

Q1. Define emulsion. Explain types of emulsion.

Emulsion
Emulsion is a biphasic dosage form in which two immiscible liquids are mixed, one
of which is distributed throughout the other in a minute globule and the system is
stabilized by addition of third substance known as emulsifying agent.

Types of Emulsion
a. Oil in water (o/w): In this type, the oil is dispersed phase (internal) and
water is dispersion medium (external phase).
b. Water In oil (w/o): In this type, the water is dispersed phase (internal) and
oil is dispersion medium (external phase).

Q2. What are various tests for identification of emulsion type? or

How will you identify emulsion type?
Tests for Identification of emulsion are:
i. Dilution test
ii. Staining test
iii. Electric conductivity test
iv. Fluorescence test.

1. Dilution Test
The principle behind this test is that unlimited addition of external phase into
emulsion does not break the emulsion but addition of internal phase will break the
emulsion.

2. Staining Test
This test can be performed by using either
i. Oil-soluble dye, i.e. scarlet red
ii. Water-soluble dye, i.e. saffranin.
During the preparation of emulsion triturate scarlet red dye with emulsion . Take a
drop of such emulsion on a glass slide and observe under microscope.
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Since scarlet red is soluble in oil therefore if:

i. Red dispersed globules are seen on colourless background then it is o/w
type of emulsion.
ii. Colourless dispersed globules are seen on red background, then it is w/o
type of emulsion. Opposite result will be observed when water-soluble dye
saffranin is used.
3. Electric Conductivity Test
The principle behind test is that water conducts the electricity while oil does not.
Thus o/w type emulsion will conduct the electricity, because water is the
continuous phase.
w/o type of emulsion will not conduct the electricity because oil is the
continuous phase.

4. Fluorescence Test
• Many oils when exposed to UV light, give fluorescence.
• If a drop of such emulsion is observed under microscope using UV light and if
entire field gives fluorescence then it is w/o type emulsion.
• If emulsion shows spoty fluorescence then it is o/w type emulsion.

Q3. Define and classify emulgents (emulsifying agents) with

examples.
Emulgents
The agents which stabilize the emulsion are called emulsifying agents.

Classification
I. Naturally Occurring
(a)Plant source: Acacia, tragacanth.
(b)Animal source: Beewax, gelatin.
(c)Mlneral source: Bentonite, magnesium oxide.

II. Semisynthetic
For example, Methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose.

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Ill. Synthetic
(a)Anionic: Soap of divalent metals, sodium lauryl sulphate.
(b)Cationic: Cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride.
(c) Non-ionic: Tweens.
(d) Ampholytics: Dodecyl alamine.
Q 4. Write a note on instability in emulsion. or What are various
problems in emulsion?
Instabilities in the emulsion are:
1. Creaming in emulsion.
2. Cracking of emulsion.
3. Phase inversion/phase reversal.

1. Creaming in Emulsion
• Creaming is nothing but the formation of relatively concentrated layer of
emulsion from the original.
• Creamed emulsions can be reformed by shaking because cream is relatively
concentrated layer of emulsion.
• This layer can be broken into small globules by shaking.
• The creaming will take place at the top or the bottom, depending upon density
of dispersed phase.

2. Cracking of Emulsion
• Cracking of emulsion means separation of dispersed phase as a separate
layer which is not redispersible upon shaking.
• Cracking of emulsion may be caused by changes in the nature of interficial
film of an emulsifying agent.
3. Phase Inversion/Phase Reversal

• The phenomenon of conversion of o/w type into w/o type of emulsion is called
phase inversion, i.e. conversion of dispersed phase into continuous phase
and continuous phase into dispersed phase.
• The addition of any substance that alters the solubility of emulsi tying agent
may cause phase inversion .

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• For example, bees wax produce w/o emulsion and addition of soap causes
inversion, i.e. produces o/w emulsion.
Chapter- 4
Monophasic Liquid
Dosage Forms

Q1. Define monophasic liquid dosage forms and classify them.

Monophaslc Liquid dosage forms
Monophasic dosage form is a one-phase system, in which two or more components
are mixed, one phase is solvent and other one is solute.

Classification of Monophasic Liquid Dosage Forms

Monophasic Liquid Dosage Forms

! i * i i
For oral use For external use For special use For parenteral use
Simple mixtures Lotions Gargles injections
Syrups Liniments mouthwashes IV fluids
Elixirs Collodions Throad paint
Draught Nasal drop
Drops Sprays
Linctus Douches
Tinctures Enemas
Spirits Eyedrops
Eye lotions
Inhalations
Aerosols

Q2. What are syrup? Give types and method of preparation of

syrup/write a note on syrups.
Syrups
Syrups are sweet, viscous, concentrated aqueous solutions of sucrose or other
sugars.

Types of Syrups
a. Medicated syrups: These contain a medicinal agent.
b. Non-medicated/flavoured syrups: These syrups do not contain
medicinal agent but contain flavouring agent.

Methods of Preparation of Syrup

I. Hot process.
ii. Cold process (percolation).
iii. Agitation without heat.
iv. Addition of medicating or flavouring liquid to syrup.

Explanation of Syrups
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• Syrups are used for administering the drugs with a disagreeable or bitter
taste.
• Syrups are mostly used in pediatric patients (children).
• Syrups are used in the formulations like antibiotics, anticough, vitamins,
antihistaminics.
• Syrups are good demulscents and soothing agents, hence used in cough
syrups.
• Sucrose is commonly used in syrups but may be replaced by dextrose.
 • Non-glycogenic substances like methyl cellulose can be used for preparation
of syrups suitable for diabetic patients.
• Dilute solutions of sucrose shows growth of microorganism, whereas
saturated solution may lead to crystallisation of sucrose. Hence 65% or more
of sucrose solution, i.e. syrups are useful to prevent above problems.
• Syrup IP is a 66.7% w/w solution of sucrose in purified water.
• Syrup containing lesser concentration of sucrose requires preservatives.

Storage
Syrups should be stored in well dried, completely filled and carefully stoppered
bottles in a cool and dark place.

Examples of Syrups
i. Citric acid syrup
ii. Orange syrup.
iii. Lemon syrup.
iv. Codeine phosphate syrup.
v. Piperazine citrate syrup USP.

Q3. Write a note on elixirs.

Elixirs
Elixirs are clear, sweetened, aromatic, hydroalcoholic liquids intended for oral use.

Types of Elixirs
a. Medicated elixirs: These contain medicinal agents like chlorpheniramine.
b. Non-medicated/flavoured elixirs: These do not contain a medicament and
may be used as flavouring agents, e .g. aromatic water.

Methods of Preparation

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Simple dissolution with agitation or by addition of two or more liquid components.

Explanation of Elixirs
• Elixirs are less sweet and less viscous than syrups.
• Elixirs may contain less or no sucrose.
• Elixirs are more stable than syrups.
• Elixirs contain alcohol and vary from 4 to 40% .
• Thev mav also contain flavourina and colourina aaents.
 • Elixirs do not contain preservative as their alcohol content is sufficient as a
self-preservative.

Storage
Stored in well dried completely filled and carefully stoppered bottles in cool dark
place.

Examples of Elixirs
i. Aromatic elixir USP
ii. Piperazine citrate elixir
iii. Benzaldehyde elixir NF.

Q4. Difference between syrups and elixirs.

Syrups Elixirs
1. These are concentrated solutions of 1. These are clear, pleasantly flavoured,
sugar. sweetened, hydroalcoholic solutions.
2. Concentration of sugar is high. 2. Concentration of sugar is low or
3. Alcohol is present in very small sometimes absent.
concentration or may even absent. 3. Alcohol is always present in
4. These are prepared by hot, cold or concentration of 4 to 40%.
agitation method. 4. These are prepared by agitation
5. Examples method only.
• Orange syrup 5. Examples
• Lemon syrup • Aromatic elixir
• Piperazine citrate elixir

QS. What are gargles? Give the label, container and uses of gargles.
Gargles
Gargles are aqueous solutions containing medicaments for their effect on pharynx,
nasopharynx, throat, etc.

Explanation
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• Gargles are used in the conditions like pharyngitis, tonsilitis, laryngitis, etc.
• Gargles are used to bring the medicament in contact with mucus surface of
the throat.
• Contact period of the gargle and mucous membrane is very short, therefore,
preparation must have acceptable organoleptic properties.
• Gargle preparations should be fast-acting .
• Many gargles are formulated in concentrated form and require specific
dilution before use.
 • Usually gargles may contain phenol, thymol, potassium chlorate, etc.

Label
• For external use only.
• Dilute with equal volume or specified volume of warm water before use.

Container
Gargles slhould be dispensed in clear flutted glass bottle, closed with a plastic screw
cap.

Examples
• Phenol gargle BPC.
• Phenol pot chlorate gargle BP.
• Thymol glycerin compound gargle BPC.

Q6. Write a note on mouthwashes.

Mouthwashes
Amouthwash is a aqueous solution like a gargle but used to wash the mouth cavity.

Explanation
• Mouthwashes are used for their deodorant refreshing or antiseptic effects.
• They may contain alcohol, glycerin, surfactants, sweeteners, flavouring and
colouring agents.
• Generally mouthwash contains:
i. Antibacterial agent: Phenol, hydrogen peroxide.
ii. Astringent: Zinc chloride, zinc sulphate.
iii. Simple preparation: Sodium chloride solution.

Label
• For external use only.
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• Dilute with equal volume or specified volume of warm water before use.

Container
Mouthwashes should be dispensed in a clear flutted glass bottles, closed with a
plastic screw cap.

Examples
• Alkaline phenol mouthwash BPC.
 • Hydrogen peroxide mouthwash BPC.
• Compound sodium chloride mouthwash BPC.
• Zinc sulphate and zinc chloride mouthwash BPC.

Q 7. Write a note on lotions.

Lotions
Lotions are fluid preparations intended for application to the skin without friction.

Explanation
• Lotions may be simple solutions, emulsions or suspensions.
• Lotions are used for soothing, cooling and softening effects on the skin.
• Lotions may contain ingredients such as copper sulphate, zinc sulphate,
salicylic acid.
• Lotions are used for protective, astringent and antiseptic action.
• Lotions when applied to the skin, spread easily on the surface of the skin and
n drying leave a thin coat, on the skin which may produce skin protective,

0
Label
ngent action.
hol is sometimes included in lotions, which produces cooling and soothing
cts on the skin.

• For external use only.

• Shake well before use.

Container
Narrow mouth, screw cap container.

Examples
• Calamine lotion IP.
• White lotion BPC.
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• Salicylic acid lotion BPC.

Q 8. Difference between liniments and lotions.

Liniments Lotions
1. These are fluid or semifluid 1. These are fluid preparations
preparations intended for application intended for application to the skin
to the sckin with friction. without friction.
2. Liniments may be alcoholic or 2. Lotions may be simple solutions,
hydroalcoholic or oily solutions or emulsions of suspentions, emulsions
emulsions. of suspensions.
3. Not applied to broken skin. 3. Can be applied to broken skin.
4. They contain volatile substances like 4. They contain simple salts like zink
alcohol, camphor, turpentine oil, etc. sulphate, copper sulphate, etc.
5. Official example: 5. Official examples:
. Turpentine liniment IP. . Calamine lotion IP.
. Camphor liniment IP, BP. . White lotion BPC.
. Soap liniment IP. . Salicylic acid lotion BPC.
Chapter- 5
Suspension

Q 1. Define suspension. Give the desirable/good/ideal/ properties

of suspension.
Suspension
It is a biphasic dosage form comprising a dispersion of solid fine particles in a
suitable solvent in which these are insoluble.

Desirable/Ideal Properties of Suspension

• It should have a uniform particle size.
• The viscosity of suspension should be such that it should be easily
pourable.
• It should be physically and chemically stable during its shelf life.
• It should be redispersible upon shaking to ensure correct quantity of
medicament in each dose.
• The sediment should be bulky in nature which gives elegant appearance.
• It should not form a cake (cement) upon settling of particles.
• The sediment produced on standing shall be easily redispersible upon
shaking.
• It should have good flavour and colour and should be palatable.
• It should not cause GIT irritation.

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Chapter- 6
Ointments

Q1 . Define ointments and ointment base. Give the ideal qualities of

an ointment base.
Ointments are semisolid preparations for application to the skin, usually containing
medicament.

Ointment Base
Ointment base is a vehicle or carrier for the medicament which helps for spreading,
absorption and penetration of the medicament.
• An ideal ointment base should possess following properties:
i. It should not interefere with wound healing.
ii. It should have a low sensitization index.
iii. It should be pharmaceutically elegant.
iv. It should release the medicament efficiently at the site of application.
v. It should have a low index of irritation.
vi. It should be non-dehydrating, non-greasy and neutral in reaction.
vii. It should possess good keeping qualities.
viii. It should be compatible with common medicaments.
ix. It should be easily washable with water.
x. It should have minimum number of ingredients.
xi. It should be easy to compound and remain stable on storage.
xii. It should be cheap.

Q 2. Give the classification of ointment bases.

Classlflcatlon of Ointment Base
a) Oleaginous bases: These are entirely lipophilic (oily). Example: Yellow
soft paraffin (YSP), coconut oil, beewax, lanolin.
b) Absorption bases: These are entirely hydrophilic, i.e. can absorb water.
Example: Wool fat, wool alcohol.

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c) Water miscible bases: Easily remove after application. Example:

Emulsifying ointment IP. Centrimide emulsifying ointment BP.
d) Water soluble bases (washable)
Example: Macrogol 200, 300, 400 : Viscous liquid.
Macrogol 1500 : Greasy semisolids.
Macrogol1540, 3000,4000,6000 : Waxy solids.
Q3. What are the methods of preparation of ointment?
Methods of Preparation of Ointment
1. Ointments prepared by fusion method.
2. Ointments prepared by trituration.
3. Ointments prepared by chemical reaction.
1. Fusion Method
a. For non-medicated ointment
• It contains all fatty substances without medicament.
• All ingredients are taken together and melted over water bath and then
cooled.
• If ointment base contains several ingredients of different melting points
then the ingredient of highest melting point is added first and then others in
descending order of melting point.
• After melting the ingredients should be stirred until the ointment is cooled.

b. For medicated ointment

• The solid medicaments are passed through sieve number added in small
amount into the melted base when it shows first sign of thickening.
• Each addition is thoroughly dispersed by stirring which is continued until
the preparation is thickened enough to prevent sedimentation.

2. Trituration Method
This method is applicable when the medicament is solid, insoluble.
• Stage 1 : Finely powder the solid and pass through sieve number 250.
• Stage 2 : Weigh the base and add a small portion of it in the mortar
containing powdered solid.
Triturate thoroughly until smooth product is formed .
• Stage 3 : Add remainder of the base and triturate until the homogeneous

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product is obtained.

Levigation method
Trituration of base with the powdered medicament may also be carried out by using
tile and spatula. This process is called levigation method.

3. Ointments Prepared by Chemical Reaction Method

Example: Iodine in ointment.
a. Ointment containing free iodine
• This type of ointment gives staining to clothes because of free iodine.
• Iodine is very readily soluble in the concentrated aqueous solution of
potassium iodide due to formation of polyiodides.
• This solution can be easily incorporated in the absorption type of ointment
base. Example: Rx Iodine Potassium iodide Wool fat Glycerin YSP

b. Ointment containing combined iodine

• Vegetable and fixed oils absorb iodine which combines with double bonds
of the unsaturated constituents and thus iodine does not remain in free
state.
• Such type of ointment is applied to the skin, does not give the stain of
iodine, therefore, it is called non-staining iodine ointment.
R-CH=CH:r-(CH2),.COOH + 12 Heated at so C
In a closed vessel
R- CH- CH-CH2)7COOH
I I
I I
Di-iodo derivative

Example: Rx
Iodine
Arachis oil
YSP

Q4. Difference between ointment and paste.

Ointment Paste
1. Ointments contain low 1. Paste contain high concentration
concentration of solids of solids.
2. They are soft and greasy in 2. They are stiffer, less greasy in
consistency. consistency.
3. They are less absorptive. 3. They are more absorptive.

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4. They flow more easily with 4. They resist to flow with increase
increase in force of application. in force of application.
5. They do not adhere to skin well 5. They adhere well to the skin.
as compared to paste.
Chapter- 7
Semisolid Dosage Forms

Ql. Write a note on creams.

Creams
There are viscous emulsions of semisolid consistency intended for application to skin or
mucous membrane.

Types of Creams
a. Aqueous creams (o/w type)
b. Oily creams (w/o type)

Difference between 'Cold Cream and Vanishing Cream'.

Cold cream Vanishing cream
1. It is usually w/o type of emulsion. 1. It is o/w type of emulsion.
2. It contains absorption type base such as 2. It contains o/w type of emulsion base,
wool fat, bees wax. e.g. emulsifying ointment.
3. It contains small portion of water. 3. It contains higher proportion of water.
4. Texture is greasy, semisolid. 4. Texture is white, shiny, semisolid, which
5. It is used as emollient and skin is cosmetically acceptable.
protective. 5. It is used as skin protective and as a
6. After application it gives oily stain. foundation cream for other cosmetics.
7. It is somewhat difficult to wash after ,6, After application it vanishes or
use. disappears.
7. It is easily washable.

Q2. Write a note on pastes.

Pastes
Pastes are semisolid preparations for external application containing large amount
of finely powdered solids (50%).

Explanation
• Paste contains large amount of solids, hence they are very stiffy in nature.
• Their base is usually non-greasy and washable.
• Pastes when applied to the skin, adhere well, forming a thick coat that
protects and soothes inflammed and rough surfaces and minimise the
damage done by scratching in itching conditions.
• "Pastes usually contain glycerin":

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- Because glycerin is non-volatile, hygroscopic solvant and thus it

acts as antidrying agent (humectant) for the paste.
- Glycerin has emollient and preservative properties.
• "Pastes are unsuitable in scalp condition" -
- Because they are very difficult to remove from the hairs (scalp}.
Classification of Paste
1. Paste with hydrocarbon base, e.g. comp. zinc paste BP.
2. Paste with water miscible base, e.g. magnesium sulphate paste BPC.
3. Paste with water-soluble base.
4. Paste with gelatin base, e.g. Unna's paste.
5. Paste with starch base.
6. Paste with tragacanth base.
7. Paste with cellulose derivative base.
8. Paste with pectin base.
9. Paste with solid colloid base.

Storage
They should be stored in airtight container so as to prevent evaporation of moisture
present in the paste.

Container
Wide-mouthed, glass or plastic containers and collapsible tubes.

Label
• For external use only.
• Replace the cap after use.

Q3. What are jellies? Give their types. Give the method of
preparation, containers and labelling of jellies.
Jellies
• Jellies are thin, transparent, non-greasy, semisolid preparations used for
external application to the skin or mucous membrane.

Types
(a) Medicated jellies.

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(b) Non-medicated jellies.

Uses
• They are mainly used on mucous membrane for their lubricant, antiseptic or
spermicidal purposes.
• Jellies are also used for lubricating surgical gloves, catheters and rectal
thermometers.
• Vaginal and contraceptive jellies are also commonly used.
 • Vasoconstrictor jellies, e.g. ephedrine sulphate, are used to arrest bleeding
from the nose.

Explanation
• Jellies are easy to apply and the evaporation of water content produces a
cooling sensation to the skin.
• After evaporation of water, contents remaining behind, stick well to the
applied area, giving a protection.
• Jellies can be removed easily after the treatment
• The jellies used as lubricant for articles to be inserted into the sterile regions
of body such as bladder, etc. must be sterile.

Preparation of Jellies
Phamaceutical jellies are usually prepared by adding a thickening agent such as
tragacanth, pectin in an aqueous solution to which drug is dissolved.

Container
Collapsible tubes are very for this purpose. Containers containing jellies should be
well filled to minimise evaporation of water, well closed and stored in a cool place to
prevent drying.

Label
• For external use only.
• Store in cool place.
• Replace the cap after use.

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Chapter- 8
Suppositories

Q1 . Define suppositories, pessaries, bougies.

Suppositories
Suppositories are solid or semisolid bodies, suitably shaped, containing medicament
for insertion into body cavities like rectum, vagina and urethra. They disintegrate or
melt at body temperature.

Pessaries
Suppositories intended for the vagina are called pessaries.

Bougles
Suppositories intended for the nose and urethra are called nasal bougies and
urethral bougies.

Q2. Give advantages and disadvantages of suppositories.

Advantages
• They are used to treat local infections like haemorrhoids in rectum (piles) and
infections of vagina.
• When oral administration of drug is not possible in case of infants,
unconscious patients or patients suffering from vomiting, nausea, the
suppositories are useful.
• The drug is absorbed from mucous membrane therefore, used for systemic
absorption.
• They have been used to obtain prolonged action of drugs.
• They provide faster onset of action than oral route.
• They save the destruction of drug in GIT.
• They are unit dosage forms therefore, there is no dose variation.

Disadvantages
• They should be stored at freeze conditions otherwise their shape may be
disturbed.
• There is a leaking problem hence feels unconfortable.
• Absorption of drug through rectum is irregular.
• Patient does not like this route for drug administration.

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• Administration requires a skill.

Q3. Define suppository base. Give ideal qualities of suppository
base.
The vehicle or carrier used in preparation of suppository is known as suppository
base.

Ideal Qualities of Suppository Base

• It should melt at body temperature.
• It should release medicament readily.
• It should be compatible with added medicaments.
• Its shape should not be changed during handling.
• It should be non-toxic and non-irritant to the mucous membrane.
• It should be stable on storage.
• It should be stable if heated above its melting point.
• It should be easily mouldable or compressible.
• It should not adhere to the mould.

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Chapter- 9
Powders

Ql. Define and classify powders.

"Powders are solid dosage forms which contain mixture of powdered substances intended
for both internal and external use.
Classification
Po~ders

Powders ff r internal use Powders for external use Special use

+
•
Divided pdrs
Simple pdrs
t
Bulk pdrs otsting pdrs Dentrtfice
♦
Eutectic
mixture
Compound pdrs Effe rve scent Effervescent
Cachets pdrs granules
Tablet triturate lnsufflation Snuff Powders to be
(moulded tab) reconstituted

Q2. What are advantages and disadvantages of powder as a dosage

form?
Advantages of Powder
1. Powders are convenient to prescribe, compound and administer.
2. Powders are more stable than liquids.
3. Powders can be easily swallowed and large quantities can be
administered with foods or drinks.
4. Powders provide accuracy of dose.
5. There are less chances of chemical reactions in the ingredient because
of absence of moisture.
6. Powders are available in a very fine state, hence provide rapid
dissolution and absorption.
7. Incompatibility is less in case of powders than liquids.
8. They are more easy to carry than liquids.
9. They are taken easily in bulk quantities with food or some drinks.
10. These are economical dosage forms since they do not require
large number of machineries or special technique.

Disadvantages

31 I P age

1. Certain drugs are sensitive to atmospheric conditions like air moisture and
light, are not suitable for dispensing in the form of powder.
2. Drugs which are bitter, nauseous, corrosive and unpalatable are not suitable
for dispensing in powder form .
3. Manufacturing of powders requires operations like milling, sieving, mixing,
drying, etc. Hence, it is time-consuming.
4. Powders are not suitable when they contain volatile, deliquescent,
hygroscopic or oxygen sensitive substance.
Q3. Write a note on "effervescent granules".
"Effervescent granules are specially prepared solid dosage form of a medicament,
meant for internal use."
• They usually contain a soluble medicinal agent mixed with tartaric acid, citric
acid and sodium bicarbonate.
• Before administration they are suspended, dissolved in water or mixed with
soft drinks.
• On mixing with water the CO, is released as a result of acid-base reaction
producing effervescence and mixture is taken wh ile effervesing.
• The carbonated H,O produced from the release of CO, serves to mask the
saline and bitter taste of drugs.
• The CO, is said to stimulate the flow of gastric juice and accelerate
absorption of medicament.

Mechanism
1. Sodium Bicarbonate
It reacts with citric and tartaric acid when granules are added in water and evolves
CO2 which gives effervescence.

2. Citric Acid
It gives palatable acidic taste and also neutralizes the excess of sodium
bicarbonate.
It provides moisture needed for granulation .

3. Tartaric Acid
It gives acidic palatable taste.

321 Page

Direction for Use

Before administration they are dissolved in water and mixture is taken while
effervescing.
Chapter- 10
Incompatibilities

Q1. Define and classify incompatibility.

"A pharmaceutical incompatibility may be defined as, result of prescribing or mixing
the substances which are antagonistic in nature and an undesirable product formed
which may affect the safety, appearance and therapeutic purpose of the product."

Classification
lncoipatibility
t t
Physical incompatibility Chemical in!ompatibility Therapeutic incompatibility
- Insolubility
- lmmiscibility lnte~tional Uninte~tional
- Liquification t
- Precipitation Toleratelincompatibility Adjustelincompatibility

Q2. Define the terms.

a . Intentional incompatibility: It is the incompatibility in which, the ingredients
are allowed to react purposefully, e.g. effervescent granules.
b . Unintentional incompatibility: It is the incompatibility which 7 occurs
because prescriber prescribes the drugs without knowing that there is
incompatibility in prescribed drugs.
c. Tolerated incompatibility: It is the type of incompatibility in which interaction
is allowed to occur among the ingredients of

Rx without addition of any substance, as it does not show any harmful effect.
d. Adjusted incompatibility: In this type, the reach is prevented by addition
or substitution of one of the reacting substances without affecting medicinal
action of preparation.

Q3. Write a note on physical compatibility.

Physical incompatibility is usually due to changes in physical form of product due to
insolubility, immiscibility, precipitation and
liquification of solid materials. .
• Physical incompatibility causes non-uniform, unpalatable mixtures, non-
uniform product.
• Physical incompatibility may be corrected by:
341 Page

- Changing order of mixing.

- Alteration of solvent.
- Changing the form of ingredients.
- Alteration of volume of emulsification.
- Addition of suspending agent, etc.
Types
a. lmmiscibility: Emulsion.
b. Insolubility: Suspension.
c. Precipitation: Resins in water produce precipitate.
d. Liquification: Certain low melting point solids when mixed together, liquify
due to formation of eutectic mixture. The product formed after combination has
low melting point than room temperature. Hence, they liquify due to physical
change. For example, camphor, menthol, thymol, etc. It can be
overcome/avoided by following methods:

i. Each ingredient is powdered seperately and mixed with absorbent

and then combined lightly and filled in suitable container.
ii. Each ingredient is packed in a separate packet and is mixed
immediately before administration.

Q4. Write a note on ~herapeutic incompatibility".

Therapeutic incompatibility may be the result of prescribing certain drugs to the
patient with the intention to produce a specific degree of action, but the nature or
intensity of action produced is different from intended by the prescriber.
Therapeutic incompatibility may be caused due to:
i. Overdose or improper dose.
ii. Wrong dose or dosage form.
iii. Contraindicated drugs.
iv. Synergistic and antagonistic drugs.
v. Prescribing drugs with wrong direction.

35 I Page
Chapter- 11
Parenterals/Sterile Dosage Forms

Q1. Define parenterals. Give essential qualities of parenterals.

Parenteral preparations are injectable or sterile solution or suspensions of drugs in
aqueous or oily vehicles meant for introduction into the body by means of an
injection under more layers of skin or mucous membranes.

Par: Means "other than'.

Enteron: Means intestinal tract.
Essential Qualities of Parenterals
The parenterals product must possess following properties:
1. The parenterals must be free from the living microbes as well as microbial
products.
2. They should be free from pyrogens.
3. They should be free from foreign particles such as dust, fibres, etc.
4. They should be free from chemical contaminants.

s. They should be isotonic with body fluids.

s. They should be compatible with some body fluids.
7. Multidose injection must contain preservative.
a. Container or closure must not affect the product.
9. The ingredients which are used must be of highest quality.

Q 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of parenteral

dosage forms?
Advantages
1. They produce rapid action.
2. They are useful in emergency cases.
3. They are useful in unconscious and uncooperative patients.
4. Smaller doses of drugs are required.
5. Useful in patients suffering from vomiting and diarrhoea.
6. 100% bioavailability can be given by IV route.
7. Drugs which are destroyed in GIT, can be given parenterally.
8. Larger quantity of drugs can be administered by IV route.
361 Page

9. Adverse effects can be reversed or controlled easily.

Disadvantages
1. Skilled person is required for administration.
2. Possibility of pains and edema at the site of injection.
3. Sterilization of syringe and needle is required.
4. Self-medication is difficult.
5. Freauent administration oossesses difficulties to the oatients.
 6. The treatment is costly.

Q3. Define dialysis. What is composition of dialytic fluids?

Dialysis
Dialysis may be defined as a process by which substances may be separated from
one another in solution by passing through membranes due to difference in their
diffusibility.

• Dialysis is of two types:

a. Peritoneal dialysis: It is employed in kidney failure renal transplants. In this
case, peritoneal dialytic fluids are allowed to flow into the peritoneal cavity and
the peritonium acts as a semipermeable membrane. Thus, they are used to
remove toxic substances excreted by kidney. lntraperitoneal dialytic solution
must be sterile and free from pyrogens.

b. Haemodialysis: It is used to remove toxins from blood. In this method,

arterial blood is passed through a polyethylene catheter through an artificial
dialysing membrane bathed in an electrolyte solution. Then the blood is
returned to the body circulation through vein.
Chapter- 12
Posology

Q1 . Define the terms 'posology' and 'dose'.

Posology
It is the branch of medical science which deals with the study of doses of drugs
required to produce a specific pharmacological action.
Posas: Means 'how much'.
Logus: Means Science. Dose (S. 97) The dose is defined as a quantity of drug
which is enough but not too much to produce specific pharmacological action.

Q 2. Enlist various factors affecting (influencing) the dose and

action of drug.
Factors influencing Dose of a Drug
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Body weight
4. Route of administration
5. Time of administration
6. Presence of disease
7. Genetic factor
8. Environmental factor
9. Acquired tolerance
10. Idiosyncrasy
11. Rate of elimination (excretion)
12. Synergism
13 .Antagonism
14. Dependance
15. Tachyphylaxis
Q3. Describe various factors affecting dose of drug.
a. Age
• Generally children and old people require small doses of drugs than adults.
• Age is concerned with the capacity of metabolising and excreting the drugs
from the body.

b. Body Weight
• Heavy weight persons require larger dose than normal weight persons.
38I Page

• Usually 70 kg is considered as a normal weight of adult for calculating

doses.
• According to weight, the dose of drug varies.

c. Sex
Female adults generally require smaller doses than males due to presence of more
fat.
d. Route of Administration
Rate of absorption depends upon route of administration thus dose differs according
to route. For example, IV dose<IM dose<SC dose< oral dose.

e. Time of Administration
• If the drugs are taken on empty stomach then absorp tion of drug is greater but
1

GIT irritation may occur.

• If the drugs are taken after meals (full stomach) absorption is lesser but no GIT
irritation.

f. Presence of Disease
In diarirhoea condition absorption of certain drug is lesser.

g. Genetic Factor
Deficiency of certain enzymes may produce hereditory disorders. For example,
diabetes mellitus.
Drug allergies are also heritable. For example, sulpha allergy and penicillin
allergy.

h. Environmental Factors
doses required to produce the actions during day and night may differ due to some
physiological changes in body functions. For example, dose of phenobarbitone
(barbiturates) required to producevsleep during day time is higher than dose
required to produce sleep at night.

i. Acquired Tolerance
It means a large quantity of a drug is required in order to obtain a desired effect on a
drug. For example, morphine, heroin produce tolerance.
39I Page

j. Idiosyncrasy
It is an abnormal or unsual response given by a drug . For example, in some
persons morphine causes asthma.

k. Rate of Elimination (Cumulation)

Cumulation means accumulation of drug in the body due to slow excretion, causing
toxicity. For example, digitalis, chloramphenicol.
j. Idiosyncrasy
It is an abnormal or unsual response given by a drug. For example, in some
persons morphine causes asthma.

k. Rate of Elimination (Cumulation)

Cumulation means accumulation of drug in the body due to slow excretion, causing
toxicity. For example, digitalis, chloramphenicol.

I. Synergism
The simultaneous administration of two or more drugs may result in increase of
action. This phenomenon is known as synergism. For example: Aspirin phenacetin
and caffeine as analgesic.

m. Antagonism
The opposite actions of two drugs on the same physiological system is called
antagonism. For example, morphine and naloxone.

n. Tachyphylaxis
Repeated administration of drug within short intervals of time decreases
pharmacological response progressively. This is known as tachyphylaxis. For
example, ephedrine in treatment of bronchial asthma.

Q4. Give the formulae for calculating doses in children (Paediatric

doses).

a. According to Age

1. Young's formula
. Age in yrs
Child dose = ---='----'---- X Adult dose
Age inyrs+12

2. WJ Dilling formula
. Age in yrs
Child dose = -=--------"-- X Adult dose
20

le for infants
i::
G
40I Page
ng to Body Weight
Child dose = Age
0 th5
n X Adult dose

1. Clerks formula
Child dose = Wt.of ch i l d i n kg X Adult dose
70

2. Clerks rule for infants

nd
Child dose = Weight i n pou X Adult dose
150

c. As per Surface Area

Su rface
_.......,_ ar ea of child (m 2)X 100 =
__________ percentage of aduIt dose
Surface area oradult ( m2)(173m3)
Chapter-13
Ophthalmic Products

Q1. Define ophthalmic products. Give their types.

These are the products which are to be instilled into the eye in the space between
the eyelids and eyeballs.

Types
1. Eyedrops
2. Eye lotions or eyewashes
3. Eye ointments
4. Contact lens solution
5. Ophthalmic insert
6. Eye suspensions

Q2. Define eyedrops. Give the ideal qualities of eyedrops.

"Eyedrops are sterile, aqueous or oily solutions or suspensions for instillation into
eye."
Ideal Qualities of Eyedrops
1. They should be sterile.
2. They should be free from foreign particles.
3. They should be isotonic with lacrimal secretions.
4. They should be free from irritant effect.
5. They should contain suitable preservative, e.g. chlorocresol.
6. They should contain buffering agent for adjustment of pH.
7. They should have adequate viscosity for longer contact of drug with the
coreal tissue, e.g. methyl cellulose.
8. They should be chemically stable.
9. They usually contain substances having antiseptic, anaesthetic,
mydriatic, miotic properties.

4ZI Page
Chapter-14
Dental and Cosmetic
Preparations

Q1. Define cosmetics. Classify them with suitable examples.

Cosmetics
The articles which are intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, sprayed, introduced
in or otherwise applied to any part of human body for cleansing, protecting,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness or altering appearance are known as
cosmetics.

Classification of Cosmetics
cosmetics.

•
Facial cosmetics
+
Eye makeup
+ *
Hair dressing
+
For skin
+
Special use

• Face power • Eyeshadow • Brilliantines • Antiperspirants • Dentifrice

• Compact powder • Eyebrow • Hair conditioners · Deodorants - Mouthwash
· Rouges pencils • Hair tonics · Creams
• cold cream - Muscara • Hair waving - Lotions
· Vanishing cream ·Eyeliner · Hair straightners - Oils
• Moisturiser • Shampooes
• Lipstick • Antidandruff
• Lip liner · Depilatories
• Shaving medias

Q2. Define dentifrice. Give ideal qualities. Write a note on

formulation of dentifrice.
Dentifrice Dentifrices are the preparations meant to be applied to the teeth such as
toothpaste and tooth powder.
• They are applied with a brush or finger for cleaning the accessible surface of
the teeth.
• They enhance personal appearance of teeth, reduce tooth decay, and bad
odour of mouth.
• They also make the gums healthy.
Qualities of Dentifrice {Toothpaste/Tooth powder)
1. It must remove foreign particles, food substances, plaques and clean the
teeth.
2. It must be non-irritant and nontoxic.
3. It must be properly flavoured and sweetened.
4. It should keep the mouth refreshing after use.
431 Page

5. It should have good keeping qualities.

6. It should be cheap.

Formulation of Dentifrice (Additives/Excipients/Adjuvants)

In the preparation of dentifrice the following ingredients are used:
a. Polishing agents (abrassives)
b. Surface active agents (detergents)
 c. Humectants
d. Binders
e. Sweetening agents
f. Flavouring agents
g. Preservatives
h. Therapeutic agents

a. Polishing Agents
These are used to remove debris and residual stain from the teeth and for polishing
the tooth surface, e.g. calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesium
trisillicate.

b. Surface Active Agents (Detergents)

These are added to enhance the action of polishing agent by wetting the teeth, food
particles, etc. e.g. sodium lauryl sulphate, dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate.

c. Humectants
These are added to keep the toothpaste moist and will not allow to dry, e.g.
glycerin, sorbitol, propylene glycol .

d. Binders
A binder is added to keep the solids and liquids in united form and also maintain
consistency, e.g. gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose.

e. Sweetening Agents
These are added to impart sweet taste of the preparation, e.g. saccharin. f.
Flavouring Agents It give good flavour to the preparation and is important for
selection of preparation, e.g. peppermint, cinnamon.

g. Preservatives

441 Page

These are added to prevent microbial growth and to maintain quality and stability,
e.g. methyl paraben, propyl paraben.

h. Therapeutic Agents
These are included in medicated toothpastes, e.g. fluorides, urea, dibasic
ammonium phosphate.
Formula for Dentifrice

For toothpaste For tooth powder

Dicalcium phosphate 35gm Precipitated calcium carbonate 93.5 gm
Calcium carbonate 14gm Hard soap powder 50gm
Glycerine 20gm Saccharin 2gm
Gum tragacanth 1.2 gm Peppermint oil 4ml
Saccharin 50mg Cinnamon oil 2ml
SLS 10gm Methyl salicylate 7ml
Water 19.8 ml
Flavour 9.5qs

Q 3. Define face powder. Give the qualities of face powder.

"A face powder is a cosmetic preparation which is applied to the face by means of a
powder puff."
• Face powder is generalty applied at the end of the make up process as a
finishing touch.
• Face powders may be coloured and flavoured.
The raw materials used in powder should be of highest quality.
Qualities/Characteristics of Face Powder
1. It should be very fine and should not have gritty particles.
2. It should be non-toxic and non-irritant to the skin.
3. It should be chemically and physically stable.
4. It should be spread easily and adhere to the skin .
5. It should have good absorbing property.
6. It should remove shine from the face.
7. It should look natural
8. It should cover minor imperfections of the face.
9. It should not appear as a paint.
IO.It should not dust off in a few minutes and make repowdering necessary.

45 I Page
Q 4. Write a note on antiperspirants and deodorants.
Antiperspirants
The agents which reduce perspiration (sweating) are called antiperspirants.

Deodorants
These are the agents which inhibit the formation of bad odour in perspiration by
suppressing bacterial growth.
• Bad odour emitted by the body of men and women is a great problem.
Women are more particular about it.
• Antiperspirants and deodorants are cosmetic preparations which are used to
reduce under arm and body odour.
• Antiperspirants inhibit the flow of perspiration and deodorants inhibit
formation of malodour in perspiration by suppressing bacterial growth.

Mechanism of Antiperspirants
Antiperspirants contain substances which have astringent action and react with
protein of skin causing coagulation along with swelling at the opening of sweat
glands, thus blocking the opening and reducing the flow of sweat.
• Deodorants reduce axillary odour without affecting any body function and act
by neutralizing the odours after secretion and therefore, they are classified
as cosmetics and not drugs.
• Antiperspirants are classified as drugs because they affect the body function,
i.e. closure of sweat ducts by protein precipitation.
• Antiperspirants and deodorants are available in clear liquids by direct spray
for aerosol application, powders, sprays, creams and lotions. Deodorant
sticks are available. For example:
- Antiperspirants: Aluminium chloralhydrate, aluminium chloride,
buffered aluminium sulphate.
- Deodorants: Trichlorocarbonilide (TCC), hexamethylene
tetramine.

Q5. Define shampoo. Give ideal qualities of shampoo.

Shampoo
• Shampoos are the preparations containing surface active agents which when
used will remove excess oil dirt, and debris from the hair and scalp, without
seriously affecting the hair, scalp and other parts of the body.
• Shampoos must leave hair fragrant, lustrous, soft and manageable.

461 Page

Good Properties of Shampoo

1. It should be effective in small amount.
2. It should remove grease, dirt and skin debris from the hair and scalp.
3. It should be non-toxic, non-irritant.
4. It should not damage the skin and sensitive organs like eyes.
5. It should produce adequate foam in soft as well as hard water.
6. It should give pleasant flavour after its use.
7. It should be easily washable with water.
8. It should leave hair lustrous, soft and manageable.
Q 6. Explain various additives used in shampoo.
1. Opaclfler
They are used to make the shampoo opaque. For example, glycol, cetyl and stearyl
alcohol.
2. Solubilizing Agents
These are used to increase solubility of poor soluble substances. For example,
ethyl alcohol, glycerol.

3. Thickening Agents
These are used to increase the viscosity of the shampoo and provide desired
consistency. For example, methyl cellulose, sodium alginate.
4. Conditioning Agents
These are used to improve the manageability and the texture of hair. For example,
lanolin, mineral oil.
 PHARMACEUTICS- II Time: 3 Hours/ Full marks-SO

Instructions for Candidates

• Write your Roll No. on the top immediately on receipt of this question
paper.
• Attempt any five questions.
• All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Define Posology. Discuss various methods for calculation of dose.

(b) Given in the adult dose of Paracetamol 500 mg. Calculate the dose of
childwhose age is 5 years.
2. Write a short note on:
a) Therapeutic incompatibility
b) Prescription
3. (a) Explain Dusting powder. How will you handle Deliquescent
substanceswhile dispensing powder.
b) Differentiate any two
(i) Syrup and Elixir (ii) Liniment and Lotion
(iii) Mouth washes and Throat Paints
4. Define suspension Discuss in detail the formulation of suspension with
suitable example. How will you differentiate between flocculated and
deflocculated suspension.
5. What are the different types of ointment bases? Discuss preparation,
packaging, labelling and storage of ointments.
6. (a) Define suppositories with their merits and demerits.
(b) Discuss briefly the factors responsible for instability of emulsions.
7. (a) Write a short note on sterility testing and particular matter
monitoring.
(b) What are the additives used in opthalamic formulation.
8. Write a brief note on any two:
(i) Pastes (ii) Deodorants
(iii) Shampoos (iv) Dentifrices
48I Page
 PHARMACEUJICS- II Time:3Hours/Fullmarks-80

Note: Answer any TEN questions from Section-A and THREE from Section-
Bincluding Question No. 14, which is compulsory

SECTION-A
1. Define and classify powders with examples.
2. Convert the following latin terms into English:
a) Statim b) Charta
c) Tussi urgente d) Utendus
3. Write short notes on
a) Linctus b) Enema
4. Define with two example for each
a) Sweetening agent b) Preservative
5. Write a note on Dentifrice.
6. Differentiate between flocculated and deflocculated suspension.
7. Describe the different tests to identify the type of emulsions.
8. Define posology. lfthe adult dose of the drug is 200mg, what will be the
dosefor a child of 8 years.
9. Define mixtures. Write the advantages and disadvantages of liquid dosage
form.
10. Define suppository. Classify suppositories with their definition.
11. Explain therapeutic incomputability with two examples.
12. Write the requirements of Ophthalmic preparations.
13. Discuss Geometrical method of dilution giving an example.

SECTION-8

14. a) Define and classify emulsifying agents with examples.

b) Discuss creaming and cracking of emulsions.

OR
a) Classify Ointment bases with examples.
b) Explain dermatological factors to be considered in the selection of an
58I Page

ointment base.
c) Write a note on paste.
15. a) Define incomputability. Classify with examples.
b) Discuss the incompatibility in the following prescription and suggest a
suitable method for correcting the same.
i) Sodium salicylate, caffeine citrate and water
ii) Strychnine HCI solution , Aromatic spirit of ammonia and water
iii) Sodium bicarbonate, borax, phenol, glycerine and water
16. Write notes on:
a) Dusting powder b) Shampoo c) Depilatories
17. a) Explain sterility tests for parenterals.

b) Define prescription. Describe the various parts of prescription.

c) Write a note on cocoa butter as a suppository base.

 PHARMACEUTICS - II Time:3Hours/Fullmarks-
80

NOTE: Answer any TEN questions from Section -A and THREE from
Section - Bincluding question No. 14, which is compulsory.

SECTION-A
1. Write a note on any two factors influencing calculation of child dose.
2. Write a note on eutectic mixtures.
3. Define: a) Elixir b) Liniment c) Mouth wash d) Throat paint.
4. How do you dispense a suspension containing diffusible solids?
S. Write a note on types of emulsions.
6. Write a note on Jellies.
7. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of suppositories.
8. Define cold cream. Explain with example.
9. Explain the pyrogen test.
10.Translate the following Latin terms to English.
a) Anti cibos
b) Cochleare magnum
c) Unguentum
d) Collutorium
11. Write a note on eye drops.
12. Classify emulsifying agents with examples.
13. Write a note ondeodorants.
SECTION- B
14. Write a note on handling of prescription.
a) Define effervescent granules. Explain the method of preparation of
effervescent granules.
OR
b) Define and classify incompatibility. Explain physical incompatibility
with
examples.

15. a) Differentiate flocculated and de-flocculated suspension.

56 I Page

b) Write a note on formulation of emulsions.

16. a) Discuss any two methods for preparation of suppositories.

b) Write a note on formulation of parenteral preparations.

17 Write a note on:

a) Cachets b) Tooth paste c) Eye

ointment