•

•
•
•
•
 

= 

• 



 

Group Element Li Na K Rb Cs Fe
Zeff 1.30 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20 2.20
Period Element Be B C N O F
Zeff 1.95 2.6 3.25 3.90 4.55 5.20

•


M(g) ⟶ M+ (g) + e−





•
•

 − =  −

𝜒 Δ
 − = − − −  −

+
M(g) → M(g)
+
+ e−
 → 

→ →
→ →

1 2 3 4
H3C− CH = C = CH2
•

•

A
→
→ →

→ →

→
→ →
→ → Ne
N F
C

(IP)
Be O
B
Li
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Z

→  → 

⎯⎯⎯
→
⎯⎯⎯
→
 ⎯⎯⎯
H
→ 

 
→ →

→ →

→ →
→ →

→ →

→ →

→ →
⎯⎯
I
⎯
→ ⎯⎯⎯
II
→ → →
→

→ →

→ →
→ → → →

→ → → →

→ → → →

→ → → →
→ 
→ 
 Coordinate
bond

⎯→

⎯→
+2
Ca Ca Cl Cl
2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
One e
Cl Cl
One e 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8

⎯⎯→
 

⎯→


Cl > F > Br > I

Anion formation tendency
2 3
F > O > N

1

r




 
 1
Hydrated radii
 


•
−

•
H • H

• • •
• • •
•
•

•
•
•
•

•
•
• •• •
• O •• O
• N N

H2 molecule O2 N2
H H O=O NN
 ⎯→

⎯→

= − −
− −

1
2
1
2
1
2
I II


 


⚫




 

 
 

 

  
       

+
  
Molecule No.of No.of Arrangement of Shape Examples
type bonding lone electron pairs
pairs pairs

:
AB2E 2 1 A Bent SO2 ,O3
B B

:
3 1 A Trigonal NH3
AB3E
B B pyramidal
B

:
AB2E2 2 2
A Bent H2O
B
:

B
B
4 1 B
AB4E :– A See saw SF4
B
B
B
: T–shape CIF3
AB3E2 3 2
B– A
:

B
B
: – –
AB2E3 2 3 –A Linear I3 ,ICl2 ,XeF2
:

B
B
AB5E B B Square BrF5
5 1 A pyramidal
B B
:
:

B B Square
AB4E2 4 2 XeF4
A planar
B B
:
Molecule No.of bonding No.of lone Shape Reason for the
type pairs pairs shape acquired
4

:
AB2E 1 It is found to be bent or v-shaped.

:
S Bent
:O =
=
0 O: The reason being the lone pair-
119.5 S

:
bond pair repulsion is much more

:
O=
=
O as compared to the bond pair-bond
pair repulsion. So the angle is reduced
0 0
to 119.5 from 120 .

:
N
H Trigonal It is found to be trigonal pyramidal
H 0
pyramidal
AB3E 3 1 107 due to the repulsion between lp-bp
H (which is more than bp–bp repulsion)
the angle between bond pairs is
reduced to 1070 to 109.50 .

:
N
H H
: H
:

O Bent The shape is distored tetrahedral or

AB2E2 2 2 0 angular. The reason is lp-lp repulsion is
H 104.5 H
more than lp-bp repulsion. Thus , the
0 0
angle is reduced to 104.5 from 109.5 .
:

:
O
H H
:

F See- In (i) the lp is present at axial position 0

AB4E 4 1 (i) S saw so there are three lp-bp repulsion at 90 .
F In (ii) the lp is an equatorial position, and
F there are two lp-bp repulsions. Hence ,
F arrangement (ii) is more stable. The shape
shown in (ii) is called as a distorted
F tetrahedron, a folded square or a see-saw.
F
(ii) S (More stable)
F
F

AB3E2 3 2 F T–shape In (i) the lone pairs are at

: equatorial position (120º) so
Cl F there are less lp–bp
(i) : repulsions as compared
to others in which the lp
F are at axial positions.So
structure (i) is most
F stable. (T – shaped).
F
:

:
(ii) Cl F F Cl
(iii)
F F
:

I –
:
AB2E3 2 3 : –I Linear I3– ,ICl2– ,XeF2
:

I
 

 




 

− +

+ − −
 − − −

− +

− − − −

− − − + −

− − + −

− − −




− + −
   

   

   

NO+2 < NO2 < NO2− NO+2 < NO2− < NO2

NO+2 < NO2− < NO2 NO-2 < NO2 < NO+2
  = 
 
 


 = 

 
 
         

         


 

Molecular Antibonding sigma

orbitals molecular orbital
Atomic Atomic – + – + – – + – +
orbital orbital
*2pz 2pz 2pz *1s
Energy

Bonding sigma
molecular orbital
2pz 2Pz
– + + + – – + –
→ →

2pz 2pz 2pz 2pz

(b)
      (

*2pz

*2px = *2py
2p 2p
2pz

2px = 2py

s
2s 2s
N(AO) N(AO)

2s
N2(MO)
M.O. Energy level diagram for N2 molecule


        
 *2pz

2px 2py

2px =  2py

2pz

2s
O(AO) O(AO)

2s
O2(MO)
M.O. Energy level diagram for O2molecule

− −

− −

C2-
2
< He+2 < NO < O2− He+2 < O2− < NO < C22-

O2− < NO < C22- < He+2 NO < C2-

2
< O2− < He+2

− − − − − − − −

+
 + − −

− +

− + −

   

 

•
•
 →

+ –
H Cl 

−
O

+ H H+
 = 1.84D

+ Cl−
H
−
F −
− +
C C
F B
+ Cl − −
− H + H Cl
H +
F Cl −
      

 

     
−

12.
 

 



 





 F3− Br3− I 3− Cl3−


 

d
x2 − y2 d
z2
dxy d xz
 + + − −

+ −

− − −

−
+

− − −
 +

− +

− −




+
+

+ +

− − +

− − +

+ − +

+ + − −

+ −

− + + −

− + − +
 H H
N H N H
H H

OH
O
C H

O H

O N O
Cl H
O
Cl C C H
O
Cl H
  

SO 4–2
ClO3− PO34−

.. SO24− XeO3
O:
.. ..
:O—S—O
.. .. :
.. :
O

−
 −

 

−


     

     

− +

+
 ⎯⎯⎯
→ −

⎯⎯⎯
→ −

⎯⎯⎯
→ −

⎯⎯⎯
→ +

•
 Θ



   

− − −
 −

 

   
   

+ 
OH OCH3
COOH COOH

OH OCH3

COOH COOH
 

 


 

 

 

   

   

+ +
1s 1s

+ _
_ +
2Px 2Px
−


 Column -I Column -II
a C2 i -orbital
participate in
hybridisation
b − ii Hybrid orbitals
contain 25% s-
character
c − iii Only pi-bond

d − iv Permanent
dipole moment

− +

− − −

+ − −
  

 

 


− 
  
+

 
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
  −

− −

− − − −

− − − −
−
  + −
  +

−
  + −
  +

− +

+ − −

− − +

+ − −

− − +

− + −

+
 + − +

 

Column -I Column -II

(a) XeF6 (i) Distorted
Octahedral
(b) XeO3 (ii) Square planar
(c) XeOF4 (iii) Pyramidal
(d) XeF4 (iv) Square
Pyramidal
 −








 +


+

+
    
    
     
   
     
   
     
   



  ⎯⎯⎯→ +
+
Central metal ion Coordination sphere

[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 Ionization sphere

Ligand Coordination number


CH2 NH2 –O O–
C C CH3 C N O–
CH2 NH2 O O CH3 C N OH
Ethylenediamine Oxalate (ox) Dimethyl glyoxim ion (DMG)

CH2 NH2

C O– N N –O C O–
O O
Glycinato (Gly ) 2, 2'-Dipyridyl (Dipy)
Carbonate

NH2 NH2

H2C CH2

H2C NH CH2
Diethylene triamine (Dien)

CH2COO–
CH2COO–
N
CH2COO–
(Nitriloacetato)

.. H
CH2 N
CH2COO–
CH2COO–
CH2 N
..
CH2COO–
–3
(EDTA)
Ethylenediaminetriacetate ion
 –
.. CH2COO
CH2 N
CH2COO–
CH2COO–
CH2 N
..
CH2COO–

Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA)–4

2+
CH2 H2N NH2 CH2
Pt
CH2 H2N NH2 CH2

  −   −  −

     
  −
  −

−

−
  
 +


⎯⎯⎯→

⎯⎯⎯→


 3d 4s 4p 4d

× × × × × ×
3d 4s 4p 4d
2 3
d sp hydridisation
•
•
•

3d 4s 4p 4d

3d 4s 4p 4d
3 2
sp d
•
•

3d 4s 4p

× × × ×
3d 4s 4p
3
sp hybridisation

× ×× ×
3d 4s 4p
2
dsp hybridisation

3d 4s 4p

.. .. .. ..
   
NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3

3d 4s 4p
 .. .. ..

..
3d 4s 4p
3
sp hybridixation

−
 −

(



eg
eg
.6  or 6 Dq
  small   large
degenerate d-orbitals in
the free metal ion
.4  or 4 Dq
t2g
t2g
splitting of d-oritals is
presence of weaker splitting of d-oritals in
– –
ligands (F , Cl etc.) presence of stronger ligands
–
(CN , CO etc.)
    

( → )

⎯→ ⎯→
⎯→ ⎯→


   
a a a b
M M
b b b a
Cis-isomer Trans-isomer

a a
a c
M M
b c b a
Cis trans

H3N NH3 Cl NH3

Pt Pt
Cl Cl H3N Cl
Cis(Cis-platin) anti cancer Trans

NH3 Br NH3
Cl
Pt Pt

Br NH3 H3N Cl
Cis Trans

a b a d a c
M M M
d c c b b d
(i) (ii) (iii)

–
CH2 NH2 NH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 O CO
Pt Pt
– – –
CO O O CO CO O NH2 CH2
(cis) (Trans)
 Cl NH3
H3N NH3 H3N Cl
Fe Fe
H3N NH3 H3N Cl
Cl NH3
Trans Cis

b
b
a
a
b
a

a a
b b

a b
Facial (fac) Meridional (Mer)


 =

2+ 2+
py py
Cl py py Cl

Pt Pt

Cl NH3 Cl
H3N
NH3 NH3
Cis-d-isomer Mirror Cis--isomer

→
Br
Br NO2 py
py NO2

Pt
Pt

H3N Cl
Cl NH3
I
I
-isomer
d-isomer Mirror

→
3+ 3+
en
en en

Co Co
en

en en

d-form Mirror -form

→
2+ 2+
en
en
Cl Cl

Co Co

H3N
NH3
en en
Mirror
Cis-d-isomer 
Cis--isomer

→
 gly
gly
gly
Cr Cr
gly

gly gly

Cis or trans-d-isomer Mirror Cis or trans--isomer

Cl Cl
Cl Cl

en Fe Fe en

NH3 NH3
NH3 NH3
Cis--d-isomer Mirror Cis--isomer

en
en
Cl
Cl
Fe
Fe

Cl
Cl
en
Mirror en
Cis or trans-d-isomer Cis or trans--isomer
 R Zn R dialkyl zinc (Frankland reagent)
R Mg X Alkyl Magnesium halide (Grignards reagent)

O
Sodium acetate CH3 C ONa
Sodium ethoxide C2H5 O Na
Sodium Mercaptide H3C SNa

 


 

 
 R Cl Cl
Zeigler-Natta Catalyst R Al Ti
R Cl Cl


−
•

•
NH+4

 











 


   

   

 
 
 A
A B
M
B A

A
 


 

→
→
→
→
 →
→



⎯→
I II

III


 →



 
 ( ) 
 
 ( ) 


 ( ) 


 ( ) 
  ( ) 
 
 ( ) 
 
 ( )   

   ( ) 

 ( )( )


 ( ) 


 
− 
 ( ) 
 
− 
 ( ) 
 

−
 
−
 

−
 
−
 
−
 



 
 ( ) 


 ( ) 

( ) 
+



( ) 
+



( ) 
+



( ) 
+



( ) 
+



( ) 
+




−
 

− 

−
 −

−
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
•

 

I I

⎯⎯
→

⎯⎯→

•
   

 

→
 

 
• •
• •
• •
•

• •
• •
•

⎯⎯⎯

→ ⎯⎯⎯

→

⎯⎯⎯
→

 ⎯⎯⎯
→
III
 
→

→ 

 

•
−
       






  


  
•

•

 α
α
•
⎯→

 
 
 
 

⎯→ ⎯→ 
⎯→ ⎯→ 
⎯→


⎯⎯ →

 
 OH

|
N=N
HO
|

Hyponitrous acid

P 2.21Å
60
ºC
P P

→
 

Non metallic oxide

Anhydrides of oxyacids
 ⎯⎯→

⎯⎯→

⎯⎯⎯

→

⎯⎯⎯

→

 
 
 
 

⎯⎯→

⎯⎯⎯→ ⎯⎯⎯→ 
⎯⎯⎯⎯→


⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→
→ →
→ →
→ →



⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→

⎯⎯⎯

→ ⎯⎯⎯

→
⎯⎯⎯

→ ⎯⎯⎯

→
⎯⎯⎯

→ ⎯⎯⎯

→
⎯⎯⎯⎯
→
⎯→ 

 

→
 →

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→

   
 20 S S
S
4 pm S 205.7 pm
S S
107o
S S 102.2o
S
S S
S S (b)
(a) S

130−200ºC 200ºC
 ⎯⎯⎯
95.5ºC
⎯→   ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →

→
→
Θ

→
 ⎯→

⎯→

I– → I2

⎯→
⎯→ ⎯→
⎯→  ⎯→ 


 

 →
⎯⎯⎯

⎯→
OCl
Ca
Cl ⎯⎯⎯
→

⎯⎯⎯⎯
→
⎯→
⎯→

→
→

⎯→
 →
→
→

⎯→ ⎯→
⎯→ ⎯→
 
⎯⎯ →

⎯⎯ →

→ →
→ →
→ →
→ →
 →

+ −

+ −


→ →
→ →
→ →
→ →

 
 

 



⎯⎯⎯
→
⎯⎯⎯⎯
→
 

 

 

 
 

→

− − − −

− − − −
 1 3

4 2 1 3 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 4 4 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 1 2

4 4 1

3 1

1 3 3 3 4
  Θ

Θ
 →

 

   


→
→

 Θ
 
 

1
Δ0 
λ(Wavelengthof light absorb)

Ti+3 Purple Cr+3 Green Mn+2 Light pink Fe+2 Green

Fe+3 Yellow Co+3 Pink Ni+2 Green Cu+2 Blue
 
= +



(a) Bronze Cu (75 - 90 %) +Sn ( 10 - 25 %)
(b) Brass Cu ( 60 - 80 %) +Zn (20 - 40 %)
(c) German Silver Cu + Zn + Ni ( 2: 1: 1)
(d) Stainless steel Cr (12 - 14 %) & Ni (2 - 4 %)
 − + +
+ + → + +

⎯→

⎯→

⎯→

⎯→

⎯→

⎯→
 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →
Roasting
in air

⎯→

⎯→

3
⎯→
2

⎯→
 ⎯→

2−
7 ⎯→

2−
7  ⎯→ 

2−
7 ⎯→

2− 2− 2−
7 3 ⎯→ 4

2−
7 ⎯→

T70ºC
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→

⎯→ 
− − − − − −

− − − − − −
⎯→
1.

2.

3.
4.

+ + +
 −

− −

⎯⎯⎯→ ⎯⎯⎯
→

⎯⎯⎯
→
 I

IO3— IO4—
 24

⎯→
⎯→
⎯→
→
 
⎯⎯⎯→

⎯⎯⎯→
→
 
3MnO42– + 2H2O 2MnO4– + MnO2 + 4OH–
 →
→

⎯⎯⎯
→
→ 

− −


− −



− −