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Julius Caesar | Context
The Power of Words
Much of the appeal of Julius Caesar lies in the author's use of language. Development of the
English language, in fact, owes a great deal to Shakespeare's coining of words and phrases and
the standardization of vocabulary, spelling, and grammar that occurred through the printing and
distribution of his plays. Shakespeare expanded English vocabulary largely by borrowing from
other languages and forming new words by changing parts of speech, such as changing a verb to
a noun or a noun to an adjective—a process known as a functional shift. An example appears
in Antony's funeral speech, where he uses two adjectives as nouns: "The evil that men do lives
after them. The good is oft interred with their bones." Phrases from Julius Caesar that have
entered common usage include "a dish fit for the gods," "[it's all] Greek to me," "an itching
palm," "give up the ghost," "the dogs of war," and "Et tu, Brute?"

Rhetoric
Throughout the play Shakespeare makes use of rhetorical devices, and the manipulative use of
words is central to the drama. Antony's funeral speech provides a powerful example. His
repetition of statements, such as " Brutus is an honorable man," sticks in his listeners' minds.
Brutus's rhetoric relies on rational arguments. During his funeral speech, he asks listeners
questions with obvious answers: Would they rather be enslaved or free? He appeals to common
desires, such as liberty and a unified Rome. Antony remembers what Brutus forgot—people
listen to arguments with their hearts as well as with their heads.

Manipulation also appears in the form of flattery. Decius convinces Caesar to go to the Senate
by praising his authority. Brutus is manipulated by Cassius and Antony, who both openly
admire him.

Rome's Influential History

Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BCE in a democratic Rome. An admired soldier, he rose to
the rank of military tribune. In 60 BCE, with Pompey (106–48 BCE) and Crassus (115–53
BCE), he formed Rome's first triumvirate of leaders. A triumvirate is a group of three
individuals who share public authority. Roman politics was divided between the Populares (the
common people, or plebeians) and their supporters, and the Optimates (the wealthy people, or
patricians). Caesar sided with the Populares.
After Crassus died in battle, Pompey and Caesar feuded over the right to rule supreme. Caesar
famously crossed the Rubicon River to defeat Pompey in 49 BCE. He then declared himself
Roman dictator for life.

Under Caesar, Rome prospered. Caesar redistributed land to veterans and to the poor. He
eliminated the tax system and relieved debt. One of his best-known changes was the reformation
of the Roman calendar; the new Julian calendar had 365 days divided into 12 months.

Caesar was notoriously stubborn. Though he appointed more Roman senators, ostensibly to
include the people's voices in government, he constantly passed laws without their input.
Senators feared he would eliminate their jobs entirely.

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As many as 60 senators conspired to assassinate Caesar. Among them were Cassius (d. 42 BCE)
and Brutus (85–42 BCE). They killed Caesar on the Senate floor on March 15, 44 BCE. But the
assassins made a crucial mistake: they didn't plan what to do after Caesar's death.

Antony (83–30 BCE)—Caesar's right-hand man—united with Caesar's great-nephew and

heir, Octavius, and Caesar's friend Lepidus (d. 13 BCE) as the second triumvirate and defeated
Brutus and Cassius in the 42 BCE Battle of Philippi. Later, the second triumvirate divided.
Lepidus lost power. Antony—who was involved with Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (69–30
BCE)—took his own life. Left as sole ruler, Octavius became Rome's first emperor in 27 BCE.
He ruled as Augustus Caesar and enjoyed the absolute power that Rome's Senate feared Julius
Caesar would achieve.

Elizabeth I and England's "Golden Age"

Queen Elizabeth I ascended the English throne in 1558 and made it her first priority to establish
religious order. Although the Protestant faith was restored as the official religion, the country's
Catholics were allowed to worship in private.

Elizabeth sought to improve social and financial conditions. Laws enacted during her reign
alleviated poverty through taxes levied on each parish and regulated apprenticeships in various
occupations. Additional laws were passed to improve agricultural production. Elizabeth
reformed the nation's currency to bolster its worth and increased England's overseas trade by
giving charters to organizations such as the East India Company, which colonized India. With
Elizabeth's encouragement, English explorers claimed land in North America.

England became a powerful force in world affairs. Culture flourished, and Shakespeare,
Christopher "Kit" Marlowe (1564–1593, an English playwright who was one of Shakespeare's
contemporaries), and other authors, musicians, and artists reaped the benefits.

However, after England's 1588 defeat of the invading Spanish Armada, which cemented
England's role as a world power and naval force, Britain's economy plummeted. Unemployment,
inflation, and a series of poor harvests caused havoc. As poverty increased, people grew
resentful. Leaders like the Earl of Essex fostered rebellions. Elizabeth I never married and had
no heirs. She would not name a successor, leaving the situation unsure regarding the next
monarch. With military might came foreign enemies, and the English worried for their safety.

Leadership Changes
Conflicts between Catholic and Protestant rulers in Elizabethan England mirrored conflicts
between Populares and Optimates in ancient Rome. Tension affected every citizen.
England's sense of identity was wrapped up in the Church of England and in Queen Elizabeth.
Her reign is known as the Elizabethan Age. Similarly, for many historians, Julius Caesar's social
and political reforms made him one of the most influential leaders in history.

Shakespeare interested his audience in politics by making Julius Caesar an intensely personal
drama, revealing the characters behind the icons.

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Julius Caesar | Characters

Character Description

Julius Caesar is the Roman leader and general whose assassination provides the play's
Julius Caesar
conflict.

Brutus Brutus is a respected Roman senator and friend of Caesar.

Cassius Cassius is the senator and general who organizes the assassination plot against Caesar.

Antony Antony is a politician close to Caesar. He stages a coup to seize power after Caesar's death.

Octavius Caesar is Julius Caesar's heir and adopted son. He appears in the final two acts of
Octavius
the play.

Artemidorus, a teacher of rhetoric, writes a letter to Caesar warning him about the
Artemidorus
assassination plot, but he is rebuffed when he tries to deliver the letter.

Caesar's wife, Calphurnia, tries and fails to dissuade him from visiting the Capitol on the Ides
Calphurnia
of March.

Casca Sarcastic and superstitious, Casca is the first of the conspirators to attack Caesar.

Cicero—a Roman senator known for his wisdom and intelligence—is killed by the
Cicero triumvirate of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, despite the fact that he did not participate in
the conspiracy.

One of the conspirators in the plot to assassinate Julius Caesar, Cinna delivers Cassius's fake
Cinna (conspirator)
letters to Brutus.

Cinna the poet wants to go about his business, independent of mob mentality; however, he is
Cinna (poet)
killed by the townspeople when they mistake him for Cinna the conspirator.

Claudius Claudius is one of Brutus's servants and soldiers at Philippi.

Clitus Clitus, one of Brutus's servants and soldiers at Philippi, refuses to kill Brutus.

The Cobbler speaks to Flavius in the first scene; he seems unconcerned with the danger of
The Cobbler
Caesar's rule.

Dardanius, one of Brutus's servants and soldiers at Philippi, refuses to kill Brutus when
Dardanius
asked.

Decius Brutus is the manipulative conspirator who volunteers to convince Caesar to go to the
Decius
Capitol.

Flavius Flavius is a tribune, or public official, who—representing a growing contingent of officials

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dissatisfied with Caesar—chides the Roman plebeians for their praise of Caesar in the
opening scene and pulls the decorations off Caesar's public images.

Lepidus is a good soldier and the third member (with Antony and Octavius) of the
Lepidus
triumvirate that comes to power after Caesar's death.

Ligarius Ligarius is a conspirator in the assassination and shares Cassius's desire to eliminate tyrants.

Lucilius is a friend of Brutus who fights alongside him at Philippi; pretending to be Brutus,
Lucilius
he encourages the enemy to capture him in order to let the real Brutus live.

Lucius Lucius is Brutus's reliable servant, appearing in his orchard and at the Sardis camp.

Marullus is a tribune, or public official, who points out the hypocrisy of the public's worship
Marullus
of Caesar.

Messala is Brutus's friend who fights alongside him in the Battle of Philippi and reluctantly
Messala
serves Octavius after Brutus dies.

Metellus Cimber, a conspirator in the assassination, presents the first plea to Caesar, giving
Metellus Cimber
the rest of the assassins their opportunity to act.

Pindarus Pindarus is a devoted servant of Cassius who is freed by his master when Cassius dies.

Popilius Lena is a senator in Rome who doesn't take part in the conspiracy but appears to
Popilius Lena
support it.

Stoic and noble Portia is Brutus's wife; distressed by the chaos in Rome, she commits suicide
Portia
in the last half of the play.

Publius Publius is a senator and loyal friend of Julius Caesar.

The Soothsayer, similar to a prophet or fortune teller, warns Caesar to "beware the Ides of
The Soothsayer
March" in the first and third acts.

Strato is a soldier in Brutus's army and the only one to accept Brutus's request to kill him; he
Strato
is with Brutus at his death.

Titinius—a servant of Cassius and a soldier in the Battle of Philippi—is at the center of a
Titinius
tragic misunderstanding that affects the story's outcome.

Trebonius Trebonius is a conspirator in the assassination.

Varro is one of Brutus's servants who appears in the camp at Sardis, but he mentions that he
Varro
does not see Caesar's ghost.

Volumnius, a friend of Brutus and a soldier in his army, refuses to kill Brutus after their
Volumnius
defeat at Philippi.

Young Cato Young Cato is a soldier with Brutus's forces at the Battle of Philippi and dies there in

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Julius Caesar | Character Analysis

Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar is ambitious and shows tendencies toward tyranny. He is a strong
military and civic leader whose reforms have benefited Rome, but many
senators fear he will keep the Romans enslaved to his whims. His inflexibility,
even in the face of death, causes conflict with those who want to protect him.

Brutus
Brutus is the play's tragic hero. His moral conflicts provide the main ethical
dilemma of the play. He is manipulated by Cassius into agreeing to take part in
the plot to assassinate his friend Caesar. Brutus is the last person to participate
in the attack, and his wound is the one that finishes the act. Caesar seems hurt
more by Brutus's betrayal than by the wound itself. The play's other characters,
even Brutus's enemies, respect his loyalty and wisdom.

Cassius
Cassius is devious and cunning. His morality is primarily practical, and he
makes tough moral decisions based on whatever will lead to the best outcome
for himself—killing a leader or protecting greedy officials. He's also choleric,
or easily angered. Honor and loyalty have meaning to Cassius, though, which
he shows by releasing his slave Pindarus on the battlefield.

Antony
Antony is first shown to be a devoted follower of Caesar who has little power
himself. As the play progresses to its climax, the audience realizes that Antony
has been hiding his true skills as a speaker, tactician, and soldier. His bid for
power is successful because he's willing to undertake daring political moves.
He is emotional and passionate.

Octavius
Octavius is Julius Caesar's great-nephew and is a skilled soldier. Following the
assassination he seeks vengeance for Caesar's death. Octavius doesn't have
Antony's way with words or gift for long-term planning, but he has Caesar's
political acumen and respect for ritual. With Antony and Lepidus, he forms the
new triumvirate that leads Rome.
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Julius Caesar | Character Map

Brutus
Senator and
conspirator

Cassius Calphurnia
Senator and
Wife of Caesa
conspirator Julius Caesar
Roman political
andmilitary leader

Antony Octavius
Great-nephew
Government official
andadopted son of
Caesar

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Julius Caesar | Plot Summary

Summary

In 44 BCE the general Julius Caesar returns to Rome victorious after defeating his
rival Pompey. Roman citizens cheer for him as he parades through the streets. But
he's not welcomed by everyone. Two tribunes, Flavius and Marullus, fear Caesar
has become too idolized; they strip Caesar's statues of their ceremonial adornments.
As Caesar prepares to greet the public at the Festival of Lupercal, a soothsayer
approaches. "Beware the Ides of March [March 15]," he warns. Caesar ignores him.

Caesar's friends Cassius and Brutus discuss the leader's quest for power. Cassius is
concerned that Caesar will become a dictator. He fears that the Roman republic
would thus be destroyed, taking the freedom of its citizens with it. Brutus shares
Cassius's concerns but remains loyal to Caesar.

Cassius concocts an assassination plot to kill Caesar. He enlists Casca, Decius,

Trebonius, Ligarius, Metellus Cimber, and eventually Brutus as conspirators. They
contemplate killing Antony, a close associate of Caesar, but decide against it.
Meanwhile, Caesar's wife, Calphurnia, has an ominous dream that she believes
predicts Caesar's death. Caesar dismisses her misgivings and goes to the Senate
anyway on the Ides of March.

On the Senate floor, Caesar refuses Metellus Cimber's petition to repatriate a

banished brother. On cue the conspirators rise up and attack Caesar. When Brutus
strikes, Caesar—shocked at his friend's betrayal—says, "Et tu, Brutè?" ("You too,
Brutus?")

Antony discovers the conspirators with Caesar's body. Antony grieves but
convinces the conspirators he will take their side in public.

At Caesar's funeral Brutus speaks first. He tells the crowd he killed Caesar out of
love for Rome and fear of Caesar's dangerous ambition. The crowd believes Brutus
and agrees with him. Antony speaks next. He addresses the crowd as "Friends,
Romans, countrymen," gaining their favor, and says that Caesar was a good ruler
who died a cruel death. He gives multiple examples of Caesar's lack of dictatorial
ambition, unveils Caesar's body, and reads the crowd Caesar's will, which
bequeaths money to every citizen. Antony's speech and actions rile the crowd
against the conspirators—just as Antony planned. Cassius and Brutus are forced out
of the city and build armies to fight Antony's forces.

Octavius Caesar arrives in Rome. Octavius is Julius Caesar's great-nephew and

adopted son. He has also been named as his great-uncle's successor. Following the
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funeral he meets with Antony and the general Lepidus. The three plan to overtake
Brutus and Cassius's forces and rule Rome themselves.

Brutus and Cassius quarrel while in camp preparing for battle. Cassius refuses to
punish a soldier who accepts bribes; Brutus fears they will all descend into
corruption if they don't act honorably, and Caesar's death will be in vain. Eventually
the two reconcile. Brutus confesses that his wife, Portia, committed suicide after
Brutus's long absence.

Later that night, Brutus receives a visit from Caesar's ghost. The ghost says Brutus
will see him again the next day—at Philippi, the site of the battle with Antony,
Octavius, and Lepidus's forces.

In Philippi the battle begins. Cassius's forces quickly lose ground. Cassius sends his
servant Pindarus to see how Brutus's troops are faring elsewhere on the battlefield.
Pindarus brings back bad news—Cassius's friend and fellow soldier Titinius has
been captured. Titinius is actually celebrating a victory with his troops, but Pindarus
and Cassius are watching from too great a distance to see this. Cassius, in despair,
asks Pindarus to kill him.

Brutus continues to fight but loses to the opposition. Antony has called for Brutus's
capture, dead or alive. Brutus falls on his sword rather than return to Rome as a
slave. He claims (as did Cassius when he died) that Caesar is avenged.

Antony and Octavius, now victors, come upon the fallen Brutus. Antony praises
Brutus's nobility and decides to bury him as a war hero.

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‫‪Julius Caesar Plot Diagram‬‬

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Scene Summary

Act 1, Scene 1 Roman general Julius Caesar is returning home in triumph. He has
defeated the general Pompey in war. It's the Feast of L...
Act 1, Scene 2 Julius Caesar enters for his celebratory parade through Rome. His
entourage includes his wife, Calphurnia, and his frien...
Act 1, Scene 3 Thunder and lightning fill the sky in Rome. Cicero meets Casca on
the street, and Casca describes the terrifying sights ...
Act 2, Scene 1 Brutus is in his orchard, where he's spent the night awake and
worried. His servant Lucius tells him it's March 15. He r...
Act 2, Scene 2 Caesar, in his home, prepares to go to the Capitol. The storm is still
raging, and Calphurnia had cried out "They murder...
Act 2, Scene 3 Artemidorus, a teacher of rhetoric, reads a letter aloud on the street
near the Capitol. The letter names all the conspi...
Act 2, Scene 4 Portia asks the servant Lucius to go to the Senate and report back
on Brutus and Caesar. She wants to know which men sur...
Act 3, Scene 1 Caesar and the senators/conspirators, along with others, enter the
Capitol. Caesar asserts, "The Ides of March are come,...
Act 3, Scene 2 The Roman people (the plebeians) fill the Forum, the public
gathering space, crying for answers about Caesar's death. Br...
Act 3, Scene 3 As he walks to Caesar's funeral, Cinna the poet thinks of a dream
he had earlier. He dreamed that he dined with Caesar a...
Act 4, Scene 1 Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus meet privately at a house in Rome.
They review a list of Romans and mark the names of indi...
Act 4, Scene 2 Brutus has fled Rome and is in a camp near Sardis, preparing for
battle. He wants to speak to Cassius, but fears Cassius...
Act 4, Scene 3 Brutus and Cassius talk in Brutus's tent. Cassius is upset with
Brutus for condemning a soldier (Lucius Pella) who took ..
Act 5, Scene 1 Octavius and Antony arrive at Philippi. Octavius is surprised to see
the opposing forces advance. Antony thinks they adv...
Act 5, Scenes 2–3 Brutus and Messala charge into battle. Brutus plans to attack
Octavius, in whom he perceives a lack of spirit. Cassius a...
Act 5, Scene 4 Battle begins again. When Brutus's servant Lucilius meets the
enemy, he claims to be Brutus. He wants to be taken prison...
Act 5, Scene 5 Brutus regroups with the soldiers Dardanius, Clitus, Strato, and
Volumnius after a harrowing day on the battlefield. Whe...

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Julius Caesar | Act 1, Scene 1 |

Summary
Roman general Julius Caesar is returning home in triumph. He has defeated the
general Pompey in war. It's the Feast of Lupercal, a celebratory time. Commoners fill
the streets of Rome. Flavius and Marullus, two tribunes (public officials), chide the
commoners for being outside doing nothing on a workday. Flavius questions a cobbler,
who tells the tribunes everyone is celebrating Caesar.

Marullus becomes angry, calling the people who now admire Caesar ungrateful and
senseless. He says that when Pompey was in power and rode by in his chariot, the
commoners cheered. Now they're praising Pompey's death.

Flavius sends the commoners home. He tells Marullus to strip the ceremonial
decorations and trophies from any public images of Caesar. Marullus asks if they are
permitted to do so; Flavius doesn't care. He hopes removing the decorations—and
chasing the people from the streets—will help lofty Caesar realize he's only an
ordinary man.

Analysis
In the opening scene, Shakespeare doesn't introduce the drama's major players; instead
he introduces the everyday working men of Rome. He shows the scope of Caesar's
influence at once. Everyone's talking about this heroic (and, judging by Flavius and
Marullus's reaction, controversial) leader. But why? What's he really like? Is he a
threat? Even before the audience meets Caesar, they're curious. Others' opinions and
images of Caesar—as a dictator, as a hero, as a regular man—will become a constant
theme. The town, for instance, is filled with icons of Caesar's physical image.

The power of a great leader to bend a crowd to his will, and the strong influence of
that crowd, also recur as themes. Flavius's and Marullus's public anger masks a private
fear that the people will thoughtlessly worship whoever is in charge. They aren't
concerned with morals, honor, or loyalty—which means they'll easily follow a corrupt
ruler. And though tribunes and senators can restore order and enforce rules, the
working people outnumber them, and the dictatorial leader outranks them all. A leader
fresh from a battle victory is especially likely to become a tyrant. His rise to power
will be easier if the public worships him.

Flavius speaks directly to this fear at the end of the scene. He voices his worry that if
no one reminds Caesar of the limits of his power, Caesar will "keep us all in servile
fearfulness." Flavius is willing to defy custom and put himself at risk to stand up to

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Caesar. He foreshadows the other characters who will take more drastic actions at
greater cost.

Julius Caesar | Act 1, Scene 2 |

Summary
Julius Caesar enters for his celebratory parade through Rome. His entourage
includes his wife, Calphurnia, and his friends Antony, Brutus, Cassius, Casca,
and Cicero. Caesar tells Antony to touch Calphurnia during the parade, since
elders say a touch during the holy chase can cure her infertility. A soothsayer
loudly cautions Caesar to "Beware the Ides of March." Caesar brushes off the
warning and leaves.

Brutus and Cassius stay behind. Cassius mentions that Brutus seems troubled,
and reminds Brutus how much the Romans admire and respect him. They hear
three separate shouts from the public, whom they think have chosen Caesar as
king. Brutus admits that although "I love him well" he doesn't want Caesar
crowned. Cassius doesn't either. Cassius tells Brutus that he's saved Caesar from
drowning and seen him through a violent fever. Would the public, Cassius
wonders, worship this man if they knew how vulnerable he really is? Brutus
would be a better ruler, Cassius thinks. Brutus thanks him and says he will think
about what Cassius has said.

Caesar and his entourage return. Caesar confides to Antony that he doesn't trust
Cassius; he's too thin, too cynical, and he "thinks too much."

Brutus and Cassius ask Casca what happened at the parade. Casca relays that
Caesar, strangely, refused the crown Antony offered three times. The crowd
cheered his refusals. The third time Caesar refused, he fainted and fell down.
Brutus points out that Caesar has epilepsy ("the falling sickness"). Casca thinks
Caesar uses his infirmity to explain away anything odd he does in public. He also
mentions that Flavius and Marullus have lost their jobs for desecrating Caesar's
images.

Casca and Brutus leave, promising to meet with Cassius the next day. Cassius
tells the audience his plan to send Brutus forged letters, which Cassius will write
as if they're from Roman citizens. The letters will praise Brutus's ability and hint
at Caesar's dangerous ambition.

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Analysis
Here Shakespeare sets the wheels of conspiracy in motion. Brutus and Cassius
reveal their character and intentions. Cassius doesn't directly discuss
assassination, but he's clearly restless for a change. The audience, Brutus, and
possibly Casca see what's coming.

The scene also introduces Caesar to the audience, though they're not yet sure
what to make of him. He's smart not to trust Cassius, and he's quick to give
commands—an efficient ruler so far but liable to make enemies. And if he's so
ambitious, why did he refuse the crown three times? Perhaps the refusal was a
publicity stunt to appeal to the crowd. The people would think Caesar was too
modest even to accept the crown he'd earned, and they'd cheer his good nature.

Or was he putting on a show? Casca says that the people clapped for Caesar "as
they use to do the players in the theater." This sentiment echoes the tribunes' dim
view of the crowd in Scene 1. The crowd's emotions are easy to toy with; first
they wanted a hero, and now they simply want to be entertained. Casca clearly
despises the theatrical aspect of Caesar's character and believes Caesar doesn't
mean to refuse power; he just wants the people to think he's humble. He's happy
to give orders to Marc Antony and others in private.

Cassius and Brutus sense the deeper consequences of Caesar's rule. This is the
first scene where Cassius slyly edges a colleague toward becoming a conspirator
by appealing to that person's desires and character. Brutus wants to think of
himself as a wise man who values honor and loyalty. Cassius is probably right
that most Romans respect Brutus, but he's laying the flattery on pretty thick. He
even mentions as an aside that all the Romans see Brutus's worth "except
immortal Caesar."

Brutus, on some level, knows Cassius is flattering him for a purpose. Like most
people, though, Brutus appreciates hearing the praise of a friend. And Brutus
does want the ability to be a great ruler, even if he doesn't want the job. He loves
Rome, and like Cassius, he laments the lost age of Rome's nobility. Though
Brutus never tells Cassius his specific worries, Cassius guesses that the current
political situation isn't helping. The audience wonders if Brutus will fall for
Cassius's fake letters of praise or see through the ruse.

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Caesar applies flattery, on a smaller scale, with Antony. When Caesar tells
Antony why Cassius makes him uncomfortable, he says, "He loves no plays, as
thou dost, Antony." By contrasting sensitive Antony with brutish Cassius, Caesar
praises Antony's character and further cements his loyalty. This manipulation
technique—us versus them—will resurface as other characters use it, including
Antony himself."

Men at some time are masters of their fates," Cassius says to Brutus, bringing up
the play's theme of free will versus fate. In times like these, Cassius believes,
men shouldn't merely let life happen to them—they should take life by the reins
and change their destinies. Will Cassius still hold to this belief once he's done the
deed and seen its consequences? The audience isn't sure.

Julius Caesar | Act 1, Scene 3 |

Summary
Thunder and lightning fill the sky in Rome. Cicero meets Casca on the street, and
Casca describes the terrifying sights he's seen during the storm—men on fire but
unburned, a lion walking the streets, a "bird of night" (an owl) shrieking in daylight.
Casca thinks these are clear omens of doom, but Cicero isn't convinced.

Afterward, Casca runs into Cassius. Hoping to enlist frightened Casca as a conspirator,
Cassius says Casca is clearly overlooking that the omens point to "the lion in the
Capitol." Casca's heard that the senators will crown Caesar king the next day. They
both refuse to bow to tyranny, and resolve to defeat Caesar. Cassius says he's already
gathered several Romans for this cause.

The two meet Cinna, a fellow conspirator who implores Cassius to convince Brutus to
join them. Cassius gives Cinna the letters to deliver to Brutus, remarking confidently,
"three parts of him is ours already."

Analysis
When do bizarre events and strange sayings become omens? Many ancient Romans
believed otherworldly events—like men shooting fire from their fingers and lions
roaming the streets—reflected the future. A recurring theme in the play is the
interpretation, and misinterpretation, of omens by people who see the same event
differently.

Cicero remarks that men often invent symbolism to explain strange events to
themselves. The idea of invented versus actual meaning—a person or an event

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
becoming larger than life—recurs with Caesar and the circumstances surrounding his
death.

While Cassius played on Brutus's loyalty, here he plays on Casca's fear. He says Casca
should have expected the heavens to wreak this kind of havoc, and "those that have
known the earth so full of faults" aren't surprised. Cassius even seems pleased about
the storm, as its timing confirms his mounting suspicions about danger to Rome.
Cassius is an Epicurean, a follower of a branch of philosophy that believes the gods
don't intervene in human affairs (by sending omens, for instance). Cassius is taking
advantage of Casca's clear belief that the storm means something. Casca, with his own
concerns about the monarchy, is easier than Brutus to convert to the conspiracy.

Julius Caesar | Act 2, Scene 1 |

Summary
Brutus is in his orchard, where he's spent the night awake and worried. His servant
Lucius tells him it's March 15. He reads Cassius's letters and decides they mean he's
called upon to save Rome from danger. Lucius admits the six conspirators to Brutus's
orchard. Cassius, Casca, and Cinna are joined by Metellus Cimber, Decius, and
Trebonius. Brutus welcomes them. He knows why they're there. He refuses to swear
an oath, but he agrees to help.

The conspirators discuss involving Cicero. When Brutus says to leave him out, they
change their minds. Decius asks if any man other than Caesar poses a danger and
should be killed. Cassius says yes—Antony. Cassius fears Antony's shrewd and
scheming mind will cause them all harm. Brutus, again, disagrees. He thinks they
should strive for as little bloodshed as possible; besides, he believes Antony will be
powerless without Caesar. Cassius is still concerned about Antony, but Brutus and
Trebonius offer assurances and convince him not to worry. After planning the
specifics of getting Caesar to the Capitol at the right time, the conspirators leave
Brutus.

Portia, Brutus's wife, enters the orchard worried and upset. She knows Brutus hasn't
been sleeping, but he won't tell her what's wrong. She protests that she's noble and
devoted, and deserves to know her husband's secrets. She has even cut her thigh to
prove it. A knock at the door interrupts them. Brutus, gently, says he'll tell Portia
everything in due time.

The visitor is Ligarius, whom Brutus has enlisted as a conspirator. Ligarius doesn't
speak directly of Caesar, but strongly implies that he knows about the assassination

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
plot. He says he trusts Brutus enough to follow him anywhere. They leave Brutus's
house together for the Capitol.

Analysis
Brutus's first monologue reveals his motivations clearly. He admits Caesar might
change, becoming an unrecognizable version of the friend he once knew. Power
corrupts—Brutus knows this cliché; he's seen it happen before. In this frame of mind,
Brutus believes the fake letters from Cassius that reinforce what he's already thinking.
He's still concerned, comparing his moral dilemma to "a phantasma, or a hideous
dream." The audience may discern that despite Brutus's convictions, he never really
figures out the right thing to do in this situation.

The audience has heard that Brutus is a good man, and this scene shows repeatedly
how well regarded he is by all he meets. Twice Brutus sways the conspirators easily to
his side. He's right about Cicero, whose indifference to omens shows he's not easily
persuaded. But Brutus is catastrophically wrong about Antony. After Caesar's death
Antony will make a grab for power that endangers all the conspirators and puts Rome's
future at risk. No one onstage knows that yet. But since Shakespeare is dramatizing
real events, the audience knows the outcome, and this conflict creates dramatic irony
on the stage.

Cassius, ever the skeptic, wants to err on the side of the worst in human nature—
Antony loves Caesar, therefore Antony will punish Caesar's killers. Brutus plans on
the best in human nature, believing the Romans will call Caesar's killers purgers
(healers). Brutus is being tactical, not naïve. He understands the importance of keeping
the public's goodwill. Protecting reputation in the face of the public, and winning the
public's hearts, intertwine with themes of political manipulation throughout the play.

Brutus's respect for Caesar shows through when he implores the conspirators to treat
Caesar as a sacrifice, a "dish fit for the gods." Brutus is also working to justify the
assassination to himself. He's become the manipulator now, telling himself what he
wants to hear. His inner turmoil continues to be a driving force.

Portia's anguish shows that the assassination of Caesar will come at a greater human
cost than is anticipated. The audience doesn't hear her opinion on Caesar's regime, but
they know she is distressed by her current situation—a husband entangled in a murder
plot and a country in peril. Brutus is, naturally, conflicted. His loyal wife is upset at his
evasion, and he wants to confide in her. But he can't make her an accomplice by
revealing the plot. Nor does he want to burden Portia with more worries.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 2, Scene 2 |
Summary
Caesar, in his home, prepares to go to the Capitol. The storm is still raging, and
Calphurnia had cried out "They murder Caesar!" in her sleep the night before.
Calphurnia begs Caesar not to leave the house. She's alarmed by the storm—which she
sees as directly related to death, with ghosts shrieking in the streets and warriors
drizzling blood on the Capitol. Caesar counters that he can't avoid his fate. If the gods
say he's going to die, then he will, and he might as well do his job in the meantime.
Besides, as he points out, every man dies, but only cowards worry about death. He
won't waste time in fear.

A servant enters with bad news. When the priests sacrificed an animal to ensure
Caesar's success, they found no heart in the animal. Caesar reiterates that he's
invincible, and he's still going to the Capitol. Calphurnia continues to beg, and Caesar
agrees to stay home to pacify her.

Decius comes to bring Caesar to the Capitol. Caesar refuses to go, and Decius says
he'll need a reason. Caesar tells him Calphurnia had a dream that Caesar's statue ran
with blood, which the Romans bathed in. Decius says the dream's a good sign—
Caesar's blood will revive Rome, and men will wear it honorably like armor. He also
tells Caesar the senators plan to give him a crown, but only if he shows up at the
Capitol.

Convinced to attend, Caesar dresses and meets with the senators/conspirators. They
exchange friendly dialogue and go to drink wine together. To the audience Brutus
regrets that Caesar thinks the senators are his friends, when in fact they're his enemies.

Analysis
While Cicero merely holds omens in disregard, Caesar mocks them, despite the fact
that he asked Antony to bless Calphurnia during the parade. Supposedly he and
Calphurnia don't believe in divine intervention, although a bewildered Calphurnia is
changing her mind. The omen Calphurnia sees—the conspirators bathing their hands
in Caesar's blood—foreshadows his death as clearly as any image could. If the gods
are speaking, they're getting more specific.

Like Brutus, Caesar tries to spin a nobler version of himself into truth. While Brutus
spoke with doubt and self-awareness, Caesar speaks with unshakable faith. Caesar's a
clear believer in fate, despite his rejection of omens, so long as fate flatters him.
Caesar knows he's going to die, but that knowledge seems only to embolden him.
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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Now that the audience knows Caesar better, they can form an opinion on the
assassination that's about to happen. Caesar discards the beliefs of others, even the
priests who are experts in their field—unless, like Decius with his dream
interpretation, they play to Caesar's ego. Decius has anticipated this situation: Caesar
refusing to go, perhaps citing a vision. There's no artifice in the soothsayer or
Calphurnia's words—they are more honest than any manipulator. Caesar doesn't care.

Yes, Caesar is proud. This pride leads Caesar to his death, but another aspect of
pride—self-confidence—helps make him an effective leader. Self-confidence,
fearlessness, practicality—all these traits help a general in battle or a ruler leading a
country through strife. However, Caesar's detractors do not care for his ruling style.
Here Shakespeare poses a question: Would the assassination be a courageous act after
all? Cautious Brutus makes reasoned (if flawed) decisions, and he includes others in
the decision-making process, suggesting that he might make a better ruler than Caesar.

As Caesar greets his friends, the audience may wonder how unaware he really is about
the conspiracy. Does he know he's going to his death? Shakespeare never answers this
question but includes the ambiguity in a larger exploration of how much an individual
can do to avoid his fate.

Julius Caesar | Act 2, Scene 3 |

Summary
Artemidorus, a teacher of rhetoric, reads a letter aloud on the street near the Capitol.
The letter names all the conspirators and warns Caesar to beware of each one. The
letter's signed "Thy lover, Artemidorus."

Artemidorus tells the audience that he plans to give the letter to Caesar as a petition.
He laments the fact that friends turn into traitors and rivals. If Caesar reads the letter,
he says, he will live; if not, the fates will see him dead.

Analysis
This brief scene takes a break from the dramatic action and introduces the audience to
an apparently omniscient observer. How did Artemidorus learn about the conspiracy?
Again, Shakespeare isn't interested in providing the details; he simply injects an air of
mystery and authority. The letter seems to raise more questions than it answers. Here
is a citizen, a teacher, invested in keeping Caesar alive. If Caesar is such a tyrant, it is
unclear why someone like Artemidorus would love and respect him. Artemidorus
detests treachery and evil. His presence is a sort of rational portent, another sign that
Caesar can choose to accept or decline.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 2, Scene 4 |
Summary
Portia asks the servant Lucius to go to the Senate and report back on Brutus and
Caesar. She wants to know which men surround Caesar with requests, and how well
Brutus looks, since he was sick that morning. She claims she's heard a rumor from the
Capitol but doesn't reveal what it is.

Later Portia talks to the soothsayer. She asks the soothsayer about Caesar and whether
there are any threats against him. The soothsayer says he doesn't know for sure, but he
fears there might be. The soothsayer plans to find a place along the road where he can
speak to Caesar as he passes by. After the soothsayer departs, Portia wishes for Brutus
to have luck in his enterprise.

Analysis
From this scene the audience can tell Portia knows about the assassination plot. They
don't know how she reacted to the news. But she's suddenly become more significant,
even strategic. She knows her own presence, as a woman, might be unwelcome at the
Capitol. But no one would think twice about seeing a servant boy.

Is she, like Artemidorus, trying to prevent events from unfolding? Or has she, like
Caesar, accepted that fate is fate and she can't change anything? The audience isn't
sure. She has a chance to ask the soothsayer to warn Caesar, but she doesn't do it (not
directly, at least). The soothsayer seems to already know what will happen. These
hints, combined with the scene with Artemidorus, might make the audience wonder
how many Romans know Caesar is going to his death.

Portia's last lines reveal the depths of her caring for Brutus. Like her husband, she's a
conflicted but good person at heart, and her devotion to principle will prove to be her
undoing.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 3, Scene 1 |
Summary
Caesar and the senators/conspirators, along with others, enter the Capitol. Caesar
asserts, "The Ides of March are come," implying that despite the soothsayer's earlier
warning, he's still alive. The soothsayer points out that the day's not over. Artemidorus
attempts to give Caesar his letter. However, Caesar will not read it. Meanwhile
Popilius wishes Cassius success in his endeavor. Cassius fears that the conspiracy's
been revealed. Brutus assures him Caesar knows nothing.

Caesar prepares to hear petitions. Metellus Cimber, as the conspirators planned,

presents the first request—for Metellus's banished brother to return to Rome. Brutus
and Cassius join in the request, to Caesar's surprise. Caesar refuses to grant the
petition. He made the banishment decree and he stands by it. His consistency and
steadfastness are a matter of pride, which is odd given the way he changed his mind
with Calphurnia in the earlier scene.

Just as Caesar tells the senators their pleas are in vain, Casca (as planned) strikes first
with his sword. The rest of the conspirators follow. Caesar protests only once, when
Brutus strikes: "Et tu, Brutè?" ("You too, Brutus?")

After Caesar is dead, the conspirators rejoice and plan to tell all of Rome the news.
Brutus urges them to wait. He tells them to kneel and wash their hands in Caesar's
blood and to "besmear [their] swords." They have done Caesar a favor, Brutus states,
as he will no longer fear death.

A servant enters and says Antony pledges his loyalty to Brutus and wants to speak
with the conspirators. Brutus allows Antony to enter, though Cassius still doesn't trust
him. Antony grieves Caesar openly. He asks the conspirators to kill him too, but they
refuse. Cassius and Brutus say Antony will have a role in the new government. Antony
shakes each of their hands as an ally. When Antony asks to speak at the funeral, Brutus
agrees. Cassius pulls Brutus aside and says letting Antony speak is a bad idea, since
his speech may prejudice the people against the conspirators. Brutus says he himself
will speak first and explain the conspirators' reasoning.

Antony stays with Caesar's body after the conspirators leave. He asks Caesar's pardon
for allying with the "butchers," indicating that Antony is putting on a front for Brutus
and Cassius. He laments the war and havoc that he's sure will follow as Caesar's death
is avenged. A servant enters to announce that Octavius Caesar—the great-nephew and
adopted son of Julius Caesar—is on his way to Rome. Antony tells the servant to send
word to Octavius to wait, since Rome will be dangerous in the assassination's
aftermath.
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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Analysis
This scene, along with the scene that follows, provides the climax and cements the
traumas and loyalties that drive the falling action.

Caesar shows the audience his inflexible, unsympathetic leadership style. He brushes
off two warnings (possibly three, since we don't know what Popilius told him). When
he insults Metellus Cimber, Caesar starts to lose any audience sympathy he may still
have. It seems that Caesar truly is callous. The audience members will have to decide
for themselves to what extent his death is deserved.

The critical characters to follow during this scene are Brutus and Antony. Both have
difficult decisions to make quickly, and both struggle with where their allegiances lie.

Antony knows he's a marked man. To save his own life, he agrees to cooperate with
the conspirators. Even though he's vulnerable in (seemingly genuine) grief, the
audience senses that Antony is a master manipulator. When Antony tells the
conspirators to kill him too, he knows they won't do it—he has already pledged his
loyalty. Like Cassius, he appeals to Brutus as an honorable, respected leader. Antony
knows, as the conspirators do, that if there's one senator to have on your side, it's
Brutus. He's proven correct. After Brutus gives Antony his trust, even skeptical
Cassius follows along. Antony has also figured out that the conspirators have no real
plan in place for a new government. Leadership is up for grabs. Senators may have
floated Brutus's name as the new Caesar, but he has not formally accepted the position.

Still, Antony lets his real bewilderment at their actions escape. He claims he's affected
by the sight of Caesar's dead body. That claim makes sense—anyone whose friend is
murdered might say things they don't mean out of emotion. Cassius is right to be
concerned because none of them know what he will say at the funeral.

Brutus decides to handle Caesar's death with nobility and ceremony. He prevents
Cinna and Cassius from running into the street with the news, encouraging everyone to
wait and walk together. Brutus falls easily into the role of leader, giving confident
orders in a time of distress. He chooses to trust Antony, again against Cassius's advice.
Brutus thinks reason will win and clear heads will carry the day. If he explains the
conspirators' actions to the people, of course they will understand! Given both the
number of portents of Caesar's death and the number of people who believed them, his
attitude is naïve.

Antony has darker thoughts. He foreshadows the dogs of war that will soon upend the
lives of all the major characters. Antony has joined the many characters who give
warnings and predictions. Although Caesar did not listen, the warnings were still
accurate, hinting that the audience should give some credence to Antony's suspicions.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
With such animosity rankling on the stage, the audience suspects more deaths to come.
They also wonder how Octavius's presence will change the dynamic. What kind of
leader will he be?

Julius Caesar | Act 3, Scene 2 |

Summary
The Roman people (the plebeians) fill the Forum, the public gathering space, crying
for answers about Caesar's death. Brutus calms the crowd, saying he loved Caesar as
much as they did. But he loves Rome more. "Had you rather Caesar were living, and
die all slaves ... [than] live all free men?" he asks. He praises Caesar's good qualities
but says Caesar had to die due to his ambition. Brutus claims that he too will die if his
country needs him to do so. The plebeians are visibly moved by this speech and call
for Brutus to be named the new ruler. They agree Caesar was a tyrant and his death
was best for Rome.

Brutus leaves after introducing Antony. Antony claims he won't praise Caesar, who
had many faults. He begins to address Caesar's alleged ambition. Caesar, he says,
offered faithful friendship, provided for Rome by bringing in captives, wept when his
people wept, and refused the crown three times. "But Brutus says [Caesar] was
ambitious," Antony repeats after each example, "and Brutus is an honorable man." He
stops his speech to weep, and the crowd grows sympathetic, agreeing that Caesar was
wronged.

Antony then reveals he has found Caesar's will, which he won't read. The crowd
shouts for him to read the will. Antony protests that if the crowd knew what Caesar
left them in his will, how much Caesar loved them, they'd become angry. He doesn't
want to wrong the "honorable men" who killed Caesar. Now firmly on Antony's side,
the crowd says those men were traitors. Antony leads the crowd to Caesar's body. He
shows each of Caesar's stab wounds and names each of the conspirators. The crowd
weeps and calls for revenge. Antony tells them to wait, and apologizes that he's not a
great orator like Brutus. Undeterred, the crowd vows to burn Brutus's house. Antony
says they still haven't heard the will, and reveals that Caesar left each citizen 75
drachmas and left all his private lands to the people.

The crowd, now a riotous mob, leaves to find the conspirators. Antony watches them
go with pleasure, saying "Mischief, thou art afoot." A servant then tells Antony that
Octavius is now in Rome and that both Cassius and Brutus have left town. Antony
leaves to meet with Octavius.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Analysis
The audience is reminded of a pivotal force that was on stage at the start of the play—
the townspeople, or the court of public opinion. In one sense the scene at the Forum is
a funeral for a beloved leader; in another it's a trial for the conspirators. Brutus argues
his defense concisely and logically, and the jury understands. Then Antony argues
passionately for the prosecution. The townspeople, earlier proven to be easily swayed
by a triumphant victory or a strong personality, ultimately side with the best
performer, the last voice in their ear.

Antony's funeral speech is one of the most famous examples in literature of rhetoric's
power over the listener. Although he claims to be an inferior orator, Antony speaks
with far more skill than Brutus. Brutus speaks plainly and honestly. Antony says one
thing, that the conspirators are "honorable," while obviously intending another. He
also deliberately withholds the will so the citizens clamor to hear it. His entire speech
is a blatant emotional manipulation, including when he shows the people Caesar's
body. It proves that Antony has an important skill for a politician—he knows how to
work a crowd.

Brutus's thoughtful speech and selfless reasoning—"Not that I loved Caesar less, but
that I loved Rome more"—appeal to the crowd's patriotism and desire for unity. He
keeps his diction sparse, his ideas simple and vague enough to apply to any out-of-
control leader. His sensible stance rubs off on the crowd, for a little while. After the
first portion of Antony's speech, the plebeians discuss reasonably among themselves
whether or not a worse evil will come after Caesar.

In contrast to Antony's funeral speech, Brutus isn't as specific in giving examples of

Caesar's actions, and Brutus doesn't weep. Not only that, but he tells the crowd what's
best for them. Antony leaves more room to let them decide for themselves—or to think
they're deciding for themselves. Cassius employed a similar tactic when convincing
conspirators, letting them come to their own conclusion that Caesar should die.

In his speech Antony is careful not to deliberately defame the conspirators. On the
surface he respects them. He says the opposite of what he means. Many statements he
makes have a double meaning, particularly "Brutus is an honorable man," a phrase that
becomes more sarcastic and caustic upon each repetition. When he calls himself a
"blunt man" in contrast to the senator Brutus, seemingly insulting himself, Antony is
masterfully appealing to class anxieties. He's just a man who loved a friend. He's
ordinary, like the plebeians. Everyone in the crowd can relate to him in a way they
can't to the aristocratic Brutus, whose experience is suddenly a liability.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 3, Scene 3 |
Summary
As he walks to Caesar's funeral, Cinna the poet thinks of a dream he had earlier. He
dreamed that he dined with Caesar and, though he feels drawn to the funeral, his
dream makes him uneasy. He wonders if the dream is an omen.

Cinna runs into four plebeians who ask him his name and business. When he says his
name is Cinna, the plebeians call for his death, crying, "He's a conspirator!" Cinna
protests that they have the wrong man; he's Cinna the poet, not Cinna the conspirator.
The plebeians say the name is sullied to them. They attack Cinna and run with
firebrands to the homes of Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators.

Analysis
This brief scene shows mob mentality at its worst. It's also a tragicomic interlude
before the main action picks up again. The plebeians in the crowd are now fueled by
one another and by their own adrenaline. They'll willingly execute an innocent man for
having the wrong name at the wrong time. "Tear him for his bad verses" is a bit of
dark comedy on Shakespeare's part, in which he makes fun of himself as the author of
a rhyming play, as well as a reminder of the crowd's thirst for violence.

As the crowd heads to the conspirators' homes with firebrands (burning torches), the
audience wonders what will happen to the characters they've come to know. Will
Brutus survive? Cassius? Portia? Rome itself? How much mischief has Antony
instigated?

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 4, Scene 1 |
Summary
Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus meet privately at a house in Rome. They review a list
of Romans and mark the names of individuals who will be killed. They also decide to
divide the assets in Caesar's will so there's money left for the state.

Lepidus leaves. Antony tells Octavius that he doesn't think Lepidus, a "slight
unmeritable man," should be one of the three leaders of the new Roman empire.
Octavius agrees that Lepidus isn't bright but says he's a good soldier. Octavius and
Antony discuss their plans to form new alliances and deal with their enemies.

Analysis
Antony leverages his newfound favor in the eyes of the Romans to join forces with
Octavius, the next in line to succeed Caesar. According to Roman history, these three
are the triumvirs who will jointly rule Rome in its new empire. A triumvir is one of
three officials forming a triumvirate to share public office in ancient Rome. The
audience gets a glimpse of what their rule will be like in this scene.

Their deliberations are brief, to the point, and menacing. They don't think twice about
marking a man to die if it benefits them, or of turning on Lepidus once he's out of the
room. Antony even agrees to condemn his own nephew. An over-promising politician,
he takes the money he just offered the crowd and uses it to further his own ends. He
doesn't need their favor anymore—he's already won, and he knows it.

By contrast, Brutus, Cassius, and the other senators repeatedly referenced friendship
and love and sought moral justifications for their choices. The men in this scene act
differently, as politicians and warriors, willing to be coldhearted. This is Rome's new
ruling class: steadfast and filled with ambition, like Caesar, only without Caesar's
fervor to please the people.

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 ‫اعداد هيثم صادق حميد‬
Julius Caesar | Act 4, Scene 2 |
Summary
Brutus has fled Rome and is in a camp near Sardis, preparing for battle. He wants to
speak to Cassius, but fears Cassius's distant formality toward Brutus's servant is a sign
that their friendship is cooling.

He's right. Cassius, who enters the camp with his soldiers, is angry and claims Brutus
has done him wrong. Brutus denies this claim. The two generals go to talk privately.

Analysis
The audience knows that Brutus and Cassius have lost the battle before they've begun
to fight. Brutus and Cassius know this too. For the rest of the play, they'll focus less on
idealism and more on battle strategy.

As the characters deal with the chaos after Caesar's death, Shakespeare focuses on a
turning point in Brutus's and Cassius's friendship and prepares the audience for
changes to come. Cassius is growing tired of Brutus's insistence on always doing the
right thing. Brutus's calm façade is crumbling under anxiety. Nevertheless, Brutus
maintains his resistance to showing emotion by refusing to argue in front of his
soldiers. He wants them to see the noble Brutus he's trying to be.

Julius Caesar | Act 4, Scene 3 |

Summary
Brutus and Cassius talk in Brutus's tent. Cassius is upset with Brutus for condemning a
soldier (Lucius Pella) who took bribes from the Sardinians. He feels that in such
turbulent times, a bribe is a minor offense and should be overlooked. Brutus insists he
did the right thing. Why did they assassinate Caesar, he asks, if they're only going to
condone bribes and endorse corruption? The two argue spiritedly over who is the
superior soldier and leader. Cassius says Caesar would never insult him the way
Brutus does; Brutus replies that Cassius was too afraid to provoke Caesar. Cassius
claims that a friend would never see the faults that Brutus sees in him, and asks Brutus
to kill him. Brutus, calming down, asks Cassius to sheathe his dagger. They apologize
and reconcile. A poet tries to enter the tent, saying the quarreling generals shouldn't be
alone. Brutus and Cassius laugh him off.
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Cassius points out that Brutus's worry is out of character, since he is a stoic, a member
of a school of philosophy that discourages emotion and promotes acceptance of life's
ills. Brutus confesses to Cassius the reason he's so upset: Portia is dead. Distressed
over the encroaching power of Octavius and Antony, and over her husband's absence,
Portia choked herself on hot coals like a true Roman stoic.

Titinius and Messala enter the tent with news. Antony and Octavius have killed a
hundred senators in Rome and are marching toward Philippi. Brutus thinks they should
go to Philippi and meet them. Cassius disagrees, saying the enemy will expend more
resources seeking them instead. Brutus counters that if they wait, the enemy forces
will only grow stronger. By fighting them at Philippi, Brutus and Cassius will have the
advantage. Cassius consents.

Brutus settles in his tent for the night. He doesn't get much rest, because the ghost of
Caesar appears to him. Brutus demands the spirit say what it is (god, angel, or devil),
and Caesar's ghost replies, "Thy evil spirit, Brutus." The ghost says Brutus will see
him at Philippi.

Alarmed, Brutus asks if anyone else has seen the ghost, but no one has. He tells
Cassius's forces to march ahead of him to Philippi. He will meet them there.

Analysis
Brutus and Cassius grapple with their guilt at killing Caesar, the meaning of their
friendship, and their own mortality. Each man's insecurities are thrown into sharp
relief, giving the audience greater insight into their private selves.

Cassius is temperamental, theatrical, and accusatory—"choleric," one of the four

humors, or fluids in the body, believed in ancient times to determine the personality.
Choleric people were thought to be prone to rage and mood swings. Cassius is a
practical leader, as demonstrated by his willingness to look the other way at the bribes.

In this he and Brutus are opposed. As a stoic Brutus insists on purity in all things.
Brutus worries that the assassination has been in vain; what was the point, if Rome is
just going back to the status quo? Cassius is resentful, not wanting to follow Brutus's
lead any longer, and aware that if not for Brutus, Antony would be dead. The men's
long-standing friendship wins out, but Cassius's feelings haven't gone away.

Shakespeare reduces the simmering tension on the stage by letting the poet enter. This
gives the audience a much-needed break. Its members have just learned that Portia, a
blameless character who has earned their sympathy, died in one of the most painful
ways imaginable. Portia, like her husband, is devoted to principle. Earlier she cut
herself to prove her loyalty to Brutus; now she commits suicide rather than live under
the new regime.
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Caesar's ghost is both omen and warning. The ghost tells Brutus, obliquely, that he
will die at Philippi. Will Brutus accept this fate? The depth of what Brutus has done
sinks in—maybe he deserves to die. He sacrificed his morals for a deed he's realizing
was not a crime for the good of Rome but just a crime. As Brutus explains in his
speech to the generals, though, he must "take the current when it serves"; he can't turn
back.

Julius Caesar | Act 5, Scene 1 |

Summary
Octavius and Antony arrive at Philippi. Octavius is surprised to see the opposing
forces advance. Antony thinks they advance to show their bravery. The two discuss
their battle strategy, and Octavius challenges Antony's plan, questioning his authority
in the process.

The generals of the two sides meet and trade insults. Antony reminds Brutus and
Cassius of the brutal way they killed Caesar. Octavius vows revenge. Cassius mocks
Antony's reputation for revelry and Octavius's youth.

After Octavius, Antony, and their troops leave, Cassius tells the soldier Messala that
ravens and crows fly in the air, scavenger birds casting shadows on the battlefield.
Cassius thinks the birds are omens of a loss for their army. Nevertheless, he says he's
ready to fight.

Cassius and Brutus exchange final goodbyes. Brutus is determined to accept whatever
fate has in store for him. However, he refuses to return to Rome as a slave if captured.
Brutus says, "This same day must end that work the Ides of March began." The two
men and their armies march to the battlefield.

Analysis
Foreshadowing is thick in this scene—the first prickles of tension between Antony and
Octavius, the depth of Octavius's ambition, Brutus's resignation, and Cassius's
uncharacteristic fear.

When Octavius challenges Antony, Antony seems surprised. Here's a young man
(Octavius was 21 at the time) asserting his authority over an established leader. When
chastised, Octavius responds with a vague threat. He appears to be as stubborn as the
first Caesar.

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Brutus's line "Words before blows" reinforces the power of words to signify what
force cannot. Antony, fearless now, tells the conspirators for the first time what he
really thinks of them: "villains" and "flatterers." Cassius even gets in a bitter shot at
Brutus, saying of Antony, "This tongue had not offended so today if Cassius might
have ruled"—Brutus, if you had let us kill Antony as I advised, we wouldn't be here
today.

Both Brutus and Cassius depart from long-held beliefs under stress, signaling character
change. Cassius abandons his Epicurean belief that the gods don't send omens. He
even compares himself to Pompey, who went to battle against his will with his
freedom at stake. This battle is a consequence of his actions, and he can only hope the
gods will be friendly.

Although Brutus is a stoic (a branch of philosophy that views the world with often
negative realism and practicality, and that sometimes acknowledges suicide as a viable
option to moral questions), he doesn't believe in suicide: he calls it "cowardly and vile"
and submits himself to fate. Brutus will waver from this belief later.

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Julius Caesar | Act 5, Scene 2-3 |
Summary
Brutus and Messala charge into battle. Brutus plans to attack Octavius, in whom he
perceives a lack of spirit. Cassius and Titinius are soon encircled by Antony's forces.
Titinius fears Brutus attacked too early.

Cassius sees tents on fire from a distance. He sends Titinius to the tents to see if they
belong to a friend or an enemy. Meanwhile, Cassius is convinced he has lost and
prepares to die. At his request the servant Pindarus goes to check on Titinius. Pindarus
reports that Titinius has been taken captive. Grieving Titinius, Cassius asks Pindarus to
kill him, saying as he dies, "Caesar, thou art avenged." Pindarus, now a free man, runs
from the battlefield.

Titinius and Messala approach with good news—Brutus's forces have conquered
Octavius. They see Cassius on the hill, dead. Titinius figures out that Cassius didn't
trust his success. The gathering Cassius saw was not Titinius being taken captive but
Titinius in the middle of a celebration. Titinius puts the crown of victory on Cassius's
head and slays himself in grief.

Brutus sees the two men dead. He says sorrowfully that Julius Caesar's spirit is still
mighty, turning men against themselves. He resolves to fight again the next day.

Analysis
The tragic misunderstandings that mark these scenes show fate's power—Brutus and
Cassius are destined for failure.

Scene 2 gives the important information that Brutus is attacking Octavius, leaving
Cassius vulnerable to Antony. Brutus continues the aggressive strategy he began by
marching to Philippi. This time it's a mistake. Why this change in the formerly
cautious Brutus? Again, the acceptance of fate plays a role. Brutus can't afford to take
the long view, as he did when contemplating the good of Rome in Act 2. He knows
now that things won't end well. His new priority is saving himself, even if it means
leaving Cassius's forces open to attack.

Cassius, meanwhile, abandons his previous belief in man's ability to change his fate.
The misinformation he receives from Pindarus—that he has lost against Antony—
leads him to suicide. The irony is that by believing this loss to be true, Cassius actually
creates it: had he stayed alive, he would have had a chance at overcoming Antony's
forces and joining in Brutus's victory. Once he dies, his troops are vulnerable—leading
to defeat for his troops and for Brutus.
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Messala's lament, "O hateful error ... Why dost thou show to the apt thoughts of men
the things that are not?" harkens back to the misinterpretation of omens and warnings
throughout the play.

Julius Caesar | Act 5, Scene 4 |

Summary
Battle begins again. When Brutus's servant Lucilius meets the enemy, he claims to be
Brutus. He wants to be taken prisoner in the real Brutus's place. Soldiers bring the
captive Lucilius to Antony (who, of course, knows he is not Brutus), and Lucilius
declares Antony's forces will never take a noble man like Brutus alive. Antony
instructs that Lucilius be treated well and orders his soldiers to search for Brutus. Is
Brutus dead, or is he still alive?

Analysis
The men ride into battle shouting their names, indicating the importance of family
lineage and patriotism in Roman culture. Lucilius resists being taken as a prisoner of
war, even after his capture, indicating the importance of pride.

Brutus is going down fighting. Cassius's death shocked him and made him think
victory was nearly impossible. But he puts on a brave face for his troops, and they
respond with unswerving loyalty. When Lucilius says Brutus will be found "like
Brutus, like himself," he means that Brutus's actions will be honorable in any situation.

Antony knows the importance of loyalty, too. Like any good politician, he's building
allies.

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Julius Caesar | Act 5, Scene 5 |
Summary
Brutus regroups with the soldiers Dardanius, Clitus, Strato, and Volumnius after a
harrowing day on the battlefield. When another man of their company is captured,
Brutus whispers a request in Clitus's ear. Clitus refuses, and later he and Dardanius
confide to each other that Brutus has asked them both to kill him.

Brutus confesses to Volumnius that he has seen the ghost of Caesar two times—once
at Sardis and once at Philippi. He asks Volumnius to kill him, but Volumnius also
refuses. Clitus urges Brutus to run, as the enemy will soon overtake him. Brutus stays
where he is. He says quiet goodbyes to his men and sends all away but Strato, who
agrees to help him die.

Antony and Octavius enter with their armies and two of Brutus's former servants. They
find Brutus dead. Antony praises Brutus's nobility and virtue, saying he was the only
conspirator to act for the common good. Octavius promises to give Brutus honorable
burial rites. Antony and Octavius exit to divide their victory spoils, and the war is
over.

Analysis
As the final dramatic event, Brutus's death symbolizes the conclusion the play has
been working toward—the fall of a tragic hero, and the rise of an antihero in Antony.
Brutus is determined to do the right thing. Now that circumstances have changed
radically, this is the last noble action he can take.

For stoics death brings rest. The motif of Brutus's exhaustion runs throughout many of
his major scenes. He was tired in his orchard, tired in the camp at Sardis, and tired as
he approached his death. His exhaustion comes with worry. Shakespeare emphasizes
the weight of responsibility, and the punishing toll it takes.

While Antony's elegy for Caesar was grandiose and full of flourishes, his elegy for
Brutus is simple, eloquent, and heartfelt. The tribute indicates that Brutus, not Caesar,
was in many ways the true leader of Rome.

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Julius Caesar | Quotes

Beware the Ides of March.

The Soothsayer, Act 1, Scene 2

The Ides of March is a date on the Roman calendar. Certain days of the month were
given special names based on the lunar cycle (the original Roman calendar followed
the lunar year). The Ides denoted the full moon phase of the cycle and fell on the 13th
or the 15th day of each month. By the time Shakespeare wrote Julius Caesar, March 15
had become infamous as the date of the historical Julius Caesar's assassination in 44
BCE. In the play Caesar ignores the soothsayer's warning. But Shakespeare's audience
would have known the significance of the date. This is an instance of dramatic irony,
where the audience knows something the character does not.

2.

The eye sees not itself But by reflection, by some other things.

Brutus, Act 1, Scene 2

Brutus refers indirectly to a dilemma he shares with Julius Caesar: neither man can see
himself as he truly is. Each relies on others to provide, by reflection, his identity.
Caesar views himself as an invincible leader who always makes the right decision,
because the Roman plebeians see him that way. Brutus is also susceptible to the praise
of others, particularly his friend Cassius.

3.

Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonorable graves. Men
at some time are masters of their fates. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, But in
ourselves, that we are underlings.

Cassius, Act 1, Scene 2

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Cassius makes a case for free will triumphing over fate. At first, he alludes to the
ancient Greek Colossus of Rhodes—a statue that stood more than 100 feet (30 meters)
tall. Comparing Caesar's power to a physically gigantic Colossus creates an indelible
image in the audience's mind. Then Cassius argues that fate (our stars) has not forced
the Romans to serve Caesar. Instead the Romans are servants only because they
choose to be—they haven't risen up against Caesar yet. Casca echoes this sentiment
when he says "every bondman ... bears the power to cancel his captivity."

4.

It was Greek to me.

Casca, Act 1, Scene 2

This phrase has become famous as an expression for not understanding something
written or spoken. In this scene the scholar Cicero was actually speaking Greek. But
since Casca doesn't understand the Greek language, he relates that he did not
understand what Cicero said. In essence he says, "It was all gibberish to me."

5.

But 'tis a common proof That lowliness is young ambition's ladder, Whereto the
climber-upward turns his face; But when he once attains the upmost round, He then
unto the ladder turns his back, Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees By
which he did ascend.

Brutus, Act 2, Scene 1

As Brutus tries to justify joining the conspiracy, he contemplates Caesar's ambition.

Humility (lowliness) may be an admirable trait that makes a leader compassionate. But
the more authority the leader earns, the less humble he may be. Once the leader
reaches his goal, he doesn't need the leadership skills that got him there in the first
place—he's proven himself and now has power. Brutus fears that authority has gone to
Caesar's head and that Caesar doesn't want to put the effort into being a wise ruler any
longer.

6.
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Cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once.

Julius Caesar, Act 2, Scene 2

Explaining to his concerned, skeptical wife why he doesn't fear death, Caesar doesn't
shirk the inevitable. He refuses to think about or imagine his death before it happens—
to "die many times." This determined stance causes Caesar to ignore warnings that
could have saved his life, but it helps him face his death without anxiety.

7.

I could be well moved, if I were as you: If I could pray to move, prayers would move
me. But I am constant as the northern star, Of whose true fixed and resting quality
There is no fellow in the firmament. The skies are painted with unnumbered sparks;
They are all fire, and every one doth shine. But there's but one in all doth hold his
place.

Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1

Before the advance of navigation tools, travelers determined direction by the stars.
Caesar compares himself to the one fixed star in the sky—the north star that guides
wanderers home. The metaphor shows both Caesar's lofty self-image ("There is no
fellow in the firmament": There's no one else like me) and the inherent danger in his
style of leadership. He takes pride in his inflexibility, even when others suffer. Using
the stars as a metaphor also recalls discussions about fate in the play, since many
people in Roman times thought the position of celestial bodies determined the course
of events. Caesar's reference to the unchanging star may be an indication that he's
accepting his fate.

8.

Et tu, Brutè?—Then fall, Caesar.

Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1

"You too, Brutus?" Caesar asks. The man he most trusted has turned against him, and
this blow finally kills him. Shakespeare writes the phrase in Latin for added emphasis.
The phrase Et tu, Brutè has become shorthand for betrayal by a formerly loyal friend.
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9.

And Caesar's spirit, ranging for revenge, With Ate by his side come hot from hell,
Shall in these confines with a monarch's voice Cry 'Havoc!' and let slip the dogs of
war, That this foul deed shall smell above the earth With carrion men groaning for
burial.

Antony, Act 3, Scene 1

Antony predicts that Caesar will rule even after his death. "The dogs of war" is a
famous phrase that evokes wild animals to describe the chaos of warfare. The imagery
in this passage activates multiple senses—hot from hell and the smell of flesh—to
depict the horror to come. Ate is the Greek goddess of ruin, mischief, and havoc.

10.

Not that I loved Caesar less; but that I loved Rome more.

Brutus, Act 3, Scene 2

Brutus justifies his killing of Caesar in a succinct, eloquent phrase. His patriotism is
strong enough that he will put to death a friend he loves dearly if that death is best for
the country. The other conspirators may have claimed they acted out of concern for
Rome, but as Antony points out later, Brutus is the only conspirator with pure
motivations.

11.

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise
him. The evil that men do lives after them; The good is oft interred with their bones.

Antony, Act 3, Scene 2

The opening line of Antony's funeral speech ("Friends, Romans, countrymen") is

designed as a personal entreaty. The phrase is well-known, being widely used as a

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speech introduction today. Antony's statement about the legacies of dead men—only
the evil deeds they've done are remembered—is a wry commentary on the way the
audience remembers historical figures, such as Caesar himself. It's also in line with
Antony's cynicism, implying that evil actions have a greater impact than good ones.

12.

This was the most unkindest cut of all. For when the noble Caesar saw him stab,
Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms, Quite vanquished him.

Antony, Act 3, Scene 2

Although Caesar was stabbed multiple times by men he trusted, Antony says the
wound that really killed him was psychological. When Brutus stabbed him, the loss of
Brutus's loyalty ended Caesar's life. When the plebeians hear this, they become
enraged at Brutus on Caesar's behalf.

13.

There is a tide in the affairs of men Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;
Omitted, all the voyage of their life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. On such a
full sea are we now afloat, And we must take the current when it serves Or lose our
ventures.

Brutus, Act 4, Scene 3

Brutus, like Cassius, desires to be a master of his fate. He isn't interested in waiting for
omens to predict the future. As he prepares for war against the triumvirate, he tells his
allies that there are times when men need to take action. If they don't, Brutus says,
they'll regret it for the rest of their lives. The action he's preparing to take—
confronting the opposing forces at Philippi—will have far-reaching consequences. The
extended metaphor refers to a sailor's journey—taking the tide "at the flood" and
floating on "a full sea."

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14.

This was the noblest Roman of them all. All the conspirators save only he Did that
they did in envy of great Caesar. He only, in a general honest thought And common
good to all, made one of them. His life was gentle and the elements So mixed in him
that nature might stand up And say to all the world, 'This was a man.'

Antony, Act 5, Scene 5

Antony's elegy for Brutus comes at the end of the play, and may surprise the audience.
After all, Antony turned the Romans against Brutus and fought against his armies at
Philippi. Yet once Brutus is dead, Antony can praise him sincerely and provide final
thoughts on which the audience can reflect. In a play where no one is purely good or
purely evil, where characters are manipulative and their motivations are complex,
Shakespeare provides a clear, if tragic, hero in Brutus. "The elements so mixed in him"
refers to the four humors that Elizabethans believed made up personalities. Brutus's
humors or elements were balanced, making him an ideal man.

The elegy acknowledges Brutus's journey from morally upstanding senator to reluctant
murderer to expelled pariah to battle martyr. Shakespeare, through Antony, quietly
acknowledges the fallen hero.

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Julius Caesar | Symbols

Shakespeare and other Elizabethans believed in "the great chain of being," a symbiotic
relationship between their divinely appointed ruler, the people, and all of nature. Any
actions against the ruler, whether contemplated or carried out, could be foreshadowed
or followed by disturbances in nature, such as the storm in Act 5, Scene 1.

Storms
When the battle begins, Cassius says, "blow wind, swell billow ... the storm is up, and
all is on the hazard [and everything is at risk]." Bad weather is a metaphor for
devastation, a time when humans must take initiative and act. The conspirators also
discuss the weather in Act 1, Scene 3, when they meet to discuss Caesar's presumed
coronation planned for the following day. Speaking of the recent storm, Casca states
that the gods must be angry: "When the most mighty gods by tokens send/Such
dreadful heralds to astonish us."

Animals and Insects

A lion is used several times in the play to signify various omens: In Act 1, Scene 3,
Cassius describes Caesar as a destructive storm and as a roaring "lion in the Capitol."
Both symbols represent a dangerous ruler.

Caesar likens himself to a lion in Act 2, Scene 2: "Caesar is more dangerous than
he./We were two lions littered in one day,/And I the elder and more terrible."

In Act 5, Scene 1, the honeybee Cassius and Brutus compare to Antony stands for
duplicity—sweetness without and sting within.

The serpent Brutus speaks of in Act 2, Scene 1 symbolizes Caesar and his possible
evolution into a tyrant. Here the serpent represents not only Caesar, but also evil and
power. Readers learn that Brutus believes such potential evil should be destroyed:
"Think him as a serpent's egg/Which, hatched ... would grow mischievous/And kill
him in the shell."

The eagles Cassius speaks of in Act 5, Scene 1 represent strength and victory. The fact
that the birds desert the soldiers at Philippi is seen as a bad omen.

Cassius also speaks of ravens and crows in Act 5, Scene 1. These are scavengers that
feed on dead animals—and fallen soldiers. Several crows and ravens arrive at Philippi
and circle above Cassius's and Octavius's troops. Cassius views these birds as omens
of defeat and death.

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Supernatural Elements
The ghost of Caesar materializes once (Act 4, Scene 3) and is mentioned by Brutus
once again (Act 5, Scene 5). Its brief appearance, when Brutus is exhausted and
everyone else is asleep, almost seems like a figment of Brutus's imagination. A symbol
of Brutus's guilt and of revenge for Caesar's murder, the ghost also foreshadows the
military blunders that will lead to Brutus's downfall the following day.

Julius Caesar | Themes

Shakespeare's Julius Caesar explores the characteristics of good leadership. Power, the
ability to speak well, wisdom in lawmaking, strategy on the battlefield, bravery—these
characteristics are all required. Characters in Julius Caesar show all of these traits. Yet
none of them are perfect leaders; they're all flawed. The audience is left to decide for
themselves who would have been the ideal leader for Rome.

Tyranny and Power

Shakespeare explores the theme of tyranny throughout the play and through the central
question of the work: Is Caesar a tyrant, and is his murder justified? Although the
audience is presented with no direct evidence of Caesar's tyranny, Cassius uses
figurative language to convince first Casca and then Brutus that Caesar is indeed a
tyrant who must be executed for his own good and for that of Rome. Cassius likens
Caesar to a wolf that views the Romans as sheep. He states that were Caesar to
become king and thus tyrant, Cassius would consider himself a slave, and he would
rather take his own life than live enslaved.

The pursuit of power—fueled by ambition—is closely related to the theme of tyranny.

Caesar's much-discussed ambition earns him the leadership spot. As Antony points out
in his funeral speech, Caesar's rule kept Rome stable economically. Senators who envy
Caesar or disagree with his methods all show some form of ambition themselves.
Although he accuses Caesar of ambition, Cassius pursues power himself. He sends
false evidence regarding Caesar to trick Brutus into believing ill of his friend. Using
this falsehood and peer pressure, he persuades Brutus to accept the de facto role of
conspiracy leader in Caesar's assassination. Ambition leads Caesar, and later Antony,
to disregard the needs of others. Once his great-uncle is dead, Octavius begins his
climb toward power, defying Antony regarding battle strategies at Philippi.

Communication and Persuasion

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Communication in Julius Caesar is often a life-or-death affair. Shakespeare's
characters communicate, or attempt to communicate, in several different ways:
through private conversation, public speeches, and written messages. Even character
interactions viewed from afar are interpreted as messages. In Act 5, for example,
Pindarus mistakenly reports that Titinius has been killed, and this miscommunication
results in Cassius's death.

Earlier, in Act 2, Scene 1, Cassius uses rhetoric in conversation and in his forged
letters to persuade Brutus to join the conspirators. Throughout the play Shakespeare
demonstrates the power of public speech and rhetoric to motivate groups of individuals
to readily act as one. Marullus describes this phenomenon in Act 1 when he berates the
Romans for celebrating Pompey's defeat.

In Act 3, Scene 2, Brutus and Antony demonstrate the ease with which public opinion
can be manipulated. During the funeral, under Antony's influence, the people grow
from an angry crowd into a pitchforks-and-torches mob willing to kill the innocent.
The mob drives Brutus and Cassius from Rome, instigating a war and paving the way
for Antony and Octavius to seize power.

Free Will versus Fate

Can humans employ free will to control the dates or manners of their deaths? The play
revolves around a major death, that of Caesar, and questions whether it was inevitable
or justified. Caesar himself believes firmly in fate. The strength of this belief may be
what kills him—if he'd heeded the intervention of omens, he may not have gone to the
Capitol.

Cassius, by contrast, believes he can change his destiny. And this belief starts a chain
of events that leads to his death. Cassius, Brutus, Titinius, and Portia all commit
suicide. They take death into their own hands, on their own terms—a demonstration of
free will, but perhaps in the face of a death that fate has carved out for them.

Shakespeare's characters repeatedly try to seize control of events beyond their control,
with mixed results. Flavius and Marullus try to curb Caesar's soaring self-image by
desecrating his statues. Brutus attempts to manage public perceptions at Caesar's
funeral. Cassius sets in motion the events leading to Caesar's downfall, in the name of
achieving liberty for Rome.

Despite the frequent failures of their bold actions, the main characters often endorse
free will as imperative, the only way out of a powerless, miserable life. Brutus, for
instance, grows bolder throughout the play. In the first act, he's unhappy with Caesar's
coronation but unconvinced that he can change anything. By the fourth act, he's
confidently giving commands in war.

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Honor
A person's honor—that is, integrity or high moral standards—is a concept that
Shakespeare uses throughout the play. Brutus thinks of himself as an honorable man,
one who serves the general good of the people. Cassius uses honor as a tool to
manipulate Brutus into joining the assassination conspiracy. He flatters Brutus's sense
of honor, saying he wishes Brutus could see himself in the same praiseworthy light as
others see him. Once Cassius convinces Brutus that Caesar has become dishonorable,
Brutus agrees to take part in the assassination. In his funeral speech, Antony uses
honor as a means to discredit Brutus and the other conspirators and set the mob against
them.

Force and Brutality

Shakespeare illustrates that Roman culture, especially for men, dictated that physical
force was proof of worth just as much as intellectual acumen or political savvy.
Arguments were solved through battle. Characters willing to show force end up on top,
as in the case of Antony's and Octavius's killing 100 senators (or 70, depending on
which report is accurate). Characters reluctant to show force get taken advantage of, as
when Brutus resists killing Antony.

Shakespeare doesn't present it that simply, of course, and allows each major character
to define in his own way what it means to be a leader. They each struggle to prove
their worth: Caesar by overturning his wife's argument, for instance, and Brutus by
holding back his emotions.

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