1) Define philosophy explain the nature and scope of philosophy

Philosophy originates from two Greek words: “Philos,” meaning “love,” and “sofia,” meaning
“wisdom,” thus literally meaning “love of wisdom”. In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity
people undertake to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world, and their
relationships to the world and each other. It involves asking, answering, and arguing. In the
context of research, philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and assumptions about the
development of knowledge.

Several distinguished philosophers have defined philosophy:

• Kant: Philosophy is the “science and criticism of cognition”.

• Fitche: Philosophy is the “science of knowledge”.

• Plato: Philosophy aims at the “knowledge of eternal”.

• Comte: Philosophy is the “science of sciences”.

• Aristotle: Philosophy is the “science which investigates nature of being as it is in virtue of

its own nature”.

Philosophy is also described as a way of thinking about subjects like ethics, thought, existence,
time, meaning, and value, which involves responsiveness, reflection, reason, and re-
evaluation.

Nature and Characteristics of Philosophy

The nature and characteristics of philosophy encompass several key aspects that define its
essence and scope:

• Systematic Inquiry: Philosophy involves a systematic investigation into fundamental

questions concerning existence, knowledge, ethics, and other aspects of the world and human
experience. It aims to understand the underlying principles and assumptions that shape our
understanding.

• Critical Thinking: Philosophers rigorously examine arguments, concepts, and beliefs,

questioning assumptions and evaluating evidence to reach conclusions.

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Philosophy is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing insights

from various fields such as science, mathematics, literature, and art.
• Open-ended Inquiry: It deals with questions that may not have definitive answers,
characterized by ongoing dialogue and debate, exploring different viewpoints and refining
understanding over time.

• Reflective Exploration: Philosophy encourages the reflective exploration of abstract and

complex ideas, delving into fundamental concepts like truth, reality, consciousness, and justice,
often challenging conventional wisdom and fostering intellectual curiosity.

• Clarity and Precision: Philosophers strive for clarity and precision in language and
argumentation, using precise terminology to avoid ambiguity and confusion when expressing
ideas logically.

• Philosophizing as Analysis: Philosophical activity is reflective and curious, guided by

experience and reasoning, utilizing methods such as induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis,
and dialectical methods. It begins with wonder and curiosity, and its real nature is intellectual
and purely logical. A philosopher knows every problem from its root and interprets it through
a rational basis. Philosophy is considered the mother of all sciences, forming the foundation
and touchstone for subjects like physics, mathematics, technology, and humanities.

Scope of Philosophy

The scope of philosophy is vast and wide, serving as an intellectual exercise to understand the
basic nature of phenomena encountered in daily life. It demands a method to acquire knowledge
about a subject and fulfill its purpose. The basic method of philosophy is “Rational Enquiry,”
which aids in realizing the reality of various life events and circumstances.

Philosophy is concerned with all ethical, political, psychological, economical, scientific, and
academic problems in our lives, academic areas, and society. The scope of philosophy can also
be understood by examining its broad branches:

• Metaphysics: The study of reality, the nature of existence, being, and the universe. It
questions fundamental truths like the origin of the universe, supernatural phenomena, the
existence of human beings, the concept of God, mind-body relationships, and the purpose of
life.

• Epistemology: The theory of knowledge, studying what knowledge is, how it is acquired,
and the criteria for it. It evaluates how beliefs are formed, evaluated, and justified.
• Ethics: Deals with questions about what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, just and
unjust, and the principles that should govern human conduct.

• Logic: The study of the “art of reasoning” or “art of thinking,” concerned with the correctness
of reasoning processes.

• Aesthetics: Deals with questions about art, beauty, and taste, exploring concepts such as the
nature of beauty and the role of art in human experience.

• Axiology: A branch that studies values, encompassing both ethics and aesthetics.

• Political Philosophy: Explores fundamental questions about political life, including the
nature of political authority, principles of justice, and the legitimacy of government.
 2) Briefly explain the concept of philosophy and ethics

Philosophy originates from two Greek words: "Philos," meaning "love," and "sofia," meaning
"wisdom," thus literally meaning “love of wisdom”. In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity
people undertake to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world, and their
relationships to the world and each other. It involves asking, answering, and arguing. In the
context of research, philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and assumptions about the
development of knowledge.

Distinguished philosophers have offered various definitions:

• Kant defined philosophy as the "science and criticism of cognition".

• Fitche called it the "science of knowledge".

• Plato stated that philosophy aims at the "knowledge of eternal".

• Comte described it as the "science of sciences".

• Aristotle saw philosophy as the "science which investigates nature of being as it is in virtue
of its own nature".

Philosophy is also considered a way of thinking about subjects like ethics, thought, existence,
time, meaning, and value, which involves responsiveness, reflection, reason, and re-
evaluation.

Ethics, derived from the Greek word "Ethos" meaning customs, character, usages, or habits, is
a branch of philosophy that deals with questions about what is morally right or wrong,
good or bad, just and unjust. It analyzes and determines right and wrong in human relations.
Ethics is concerned with discovering the principles that should govern human conduct and with
the investigation of normative issues involving value judgment. It addresses how individuals
should behave and how societies ought to be structured to promote moral values and principles.

While values refer to a person's set of beliefs, ethics are the rules framed by a group or society
that act as guidelines for people.

The main types of ethics include:

• Meta Ethics: Explores the nature of moral language and thought, such as what it means to
call something "good" or whether moral values are objective.
• Normative Ethics: Focuses on developing and evaluating ethical theories and principles that
guide moral action, prescribing how people should act.

• Descriptive Ethics: Describes and analyzes how people morally behave without making
judgments about the correctness of their beliefs or practices.

• Applied Ethics: Deals with the application of ethical principles to specific real-world issues
and dilemmas, such as medical ethics, environmental ethics, and publication ethics.
 3) Define ethics briefly explain moral philosophy in research

Ethics is derived from the Greek word "Ethos," which means customs, character, usages, or
habits. It is a branch of philosophy that deals with questions about what is morally right
or wrong, good or bad, just and unjust. Ethics analyzes and determines right and wrong in
human relations. It is concerned with discovering the principles that should govern human
conduct and with the investigation of normative issues involving value judgment. Ultimately,
ethics addresses how individuals should behave and how societies ought to be structured to
promote moral values and principles. It is important to note that while values refer to a person's
set of beliefs, ethics are the rules framed by a group or society that act as guidelines for people.

Moral Philosophy in Research The field of ethics, also known as moral philosophy,
investigates theories that systematically describe what makes acts right or wrong. It is the
rational study of the meaning and justification of moral claims, where a moral claim
evaluates the rightness or wrongness of an action or a person's character. Moral philosophy is
typically divided into three areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.

In the context of research, moral judgment pertains to the ethical considerations and
decisions made by researchers regarding the conduct, methods, and implications of their
research. It is a judgment of value that evaluates the rightness or wrongness of actions. A
moral judgment involves:

• A subject being judged.

• An object being judged.

• A standard in conformity to which the action of the subject will be judged.

• A power of judging the action.

Actions are judged as right, good, or fair if they conform to moral standards, and wrong, bad,
or unfair if they deviate from these standards. Moral judgment is considered active and social
in nature. Researchers must assess the potential consequences of their actions on various
stakeholders, including participants, communities, and society. The nature of moral judgment
in research is influenced by cultural, societal, and disciplinary norms, as well as legal and
institutional regulations. It is active in nature because it is based on voluntary actions or
habitual acts, rather than passive experiences.
 4) Nature of moral judgements and reactions in Publication ethics

Moral judgment is a judgment of value that evaluates the rightness or wrongness of an action.
It pertains to the ethical considerations and decisions made by researchers regarding the
conduct, methods, and implications of their research. In the context of publication ethics, this
means making ethical decisions about how research is reported, shared, and managed in
academic and scientific publishing.

A moral judgment involves four key components:

• A subject which will be judged.

• An object which will be judged.

• A standard in conformity to which the action of the subject will be judged.

• A power of judging the action.

Actions are judged as right, good, or fair if they conform to moral standards, and wrong, bad,
or unfair if they deviate from these standards. In research, including publication, researchers
must assess the potential consequences of their actions on various stakeholders, such as
participants, communities, and society. The nature of moral judgment in research is influenced
by cultural, societal, and disciplinary norms, as well as legal and institutional regulations.
Moral judgment is considered active in nature because it is based on voluntary actions or
habitual acts of a person, rather than passive experiences.

Ethical Reactions in Publication Ethics

Ethical reactions in research refer to the responses and behaviors of researchers and other
stakeholders when faced with ethical challenges or violations. In publication ethics, these
reactions would arise from situations involving misconduct or dilemmas in academic
publishing.

Researchers may experience various ethical reactions, including:

• Moral distress

• Guilt

• Conflict when their actions or decisions clash with their ethical principles or professional
standards.
These reactions can differ based on individual values, beliefs, personal experiences, and
contextual factors such as power dynamics, institutional culture, and external pressures. When
facing ethical challenges in publication, researchers may:

• Seek guidance from ethical review boards.

• Consult colleagues or mentors.

• Engage in ethical deliberation and reflection.

In cases of ethical misconduct or breaches in publication, ethical reactions might involve

reporting violations to relevant authorities, initiating investigations, or advocating for
corrective actions to prevent future harm. These ethical reactions are crucial for maintaining
the integrity and trustworthiness of research, as they shape accountability, transparency, and
the ethical culture within the research community.

Publication ethics itself is a field of applied ethics, which deals with the application of ethical
principles to specific real-world issues and dilemmas. It specifically refers to the principles and
standards that guide the conduct of individuals and organizations involved in academic and
scientific publishing. Therefore, the general principles of moral judgments and ethical reactions
described above apply directly to the specific domain of publication ethics.

5) Define philosophy explain the nature and characteristics of philosophy

Philosophy originates from two Greek words: "Philos," meaning "love," and "sofia," meaning
"wisdom," which literally translates to “love of wisdom”. In a broad sense, philosophy is an
activity undertaken to comprehend fundamental truths about oneself, the world, and one's
relationships to the world and others. This activity involves asking, answering, and arguing. In
the context of research, philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and assumptions concerning
the development of knowledge.

Distinguished philosophers have defined philosophy in various ways:

• Kant called it the "science and criticism of cognition"

• Fitche referred to it as the "science of knowledge".

• Plato stated that philosophy aims at the "knowledge of eternal".

• Comte described it as the "science of sciences".

• Aristotle saw philosophy as the "science which investigates nature of being as it is in virtue
of its own nature".

Philosophy is also a way of thinking about subjects such as ethics, thought, existence, time,
meaning, and value, involving four key aspects: responsiveness, reflection, reason, and re-
evaluation.

The nature and characteristics of philosophy encompass several key aspects that define its
essence and scope:

• Systematic Inquiry: Philosophy involves a systematic investigation into fundamental

questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and other aspects of the world and human
experience. It aims to understand the underlying principles and assumptions that shape our
understanding of the world.

• Critical Thinking: Philosophers rigorously examine arguments, concepts, and beliefs,

questioning assumptions and evaluating evidence to arrive at conclusions.

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Philosophy is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing insights

from diverse fields like science, mathematics, literature, and art.

• Open-ended Inquiry: Philosophy is characterized by open-ended inquiry, dealing with

questions that may not have definitive answers. Philosophers engage in continuous dialogue
and debate, exploring different viewpoints and refining their understanding over time.

• Reflective Exploration: It encourages reflective exploration of abstract and complex ideas,

delving into fundamental concepts such as truth, reality, consciousness, and justice. This often
challenges conventional wisdom and fosters intellectual curiosity.

• Clarity and Precision: Philosophers strive to express ideas clearly and logically, using
precise terminology to avoid ambiguity and confusion in language and argumentation.

• Philosophizing as Analysis: Philosophizing is the activity of analysis. A philosophical

attitude is reflective and curious, guided by experience and reasoning. Philosophical methods
include induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, and dialectical methods.

• Origin from Wonder and Curiosity: Philosophical activity begins from wonder and
curiosity, which can be individual or social, performed alone or in a group. The real nature of
philosophy is intellectual and purely logical.
• Study of Wisdom: Philosophy is the study of wisdom, and a philosopher, who loves this
wisdom, knows every problem from its root and interprets it through rational basis. Philosophy
is considered the mother of all sciences, serving as the foundation and touchstone for every
other subject, including physics, mathematics, technology, and humanities.
6) Explain the terms asiology metaphysics ethics philosophy logic philosophy and political
philosophy

Axiology Axiology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of values, including
both ethics and aesthetics. It explores questions about what is valuable or worth pursuing in
life and the criteria used to make judgments about value. Axiology encompasses two main
subfields: ethics (the study of moral values) and aesthetics (the study of aesthetic values).

• Metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies reality, the nature of
existence, the nature of being, and the universe. It is an old branch of study that always
drives curiosity and is regarded as the queen of all sciences. Metaphysics questions
fundamental truths of existence such as the origin of the universe, evidence of supernatural
phenomena, the existence of human beings, the concept of God, mind-body relationships, and
the purpose of life. Examples of metaphysical inquiries include:

◦ Ontology, which is the study of being and existence, debating if concepts like numbers
have an objective existence.

◦ Cosmology, which studies the origin, structure, and evolution of the universe, exploring
theories such as the Big Bang.

◦ Mind-body relationships, questioning if the mind and body are distinct or two aspects of
the same substance.

◦ The nature of time, asking if time is real or an illusion and whether it has a direction.

◦ The existence of God, involving arguments for and against a divine being.

◦ The ultimate nature of reality, questioning if it is material, mental, or something else

entirely, and if multiple realities exist.

• Ethics Philosophy Ethics, derived from the Greek word "Ethos" meaning customs,
character, usages, or habits, is a branch of philosophy that deals with questions about
what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, just and unjust. It analyzes and determines
right and wrong in human relations. Ethics is concerned with discovering the principles that
should govern human conduct and with the investigation of normative issues involving value
judgment. It addresses how individuals should behave and how societies ought to be structured
to promote moral values and principles. While values refer to a person's set of beliefs, ethics
are the rules framed by a group or society that act as guidelines for people. The main types of
ethics include:

◦ Meta Ethics: Explores the nature of moral language and thought, such as what it means to
call something "good" or whether moral values are objective or subjective.

◦ Normative Ethics: Focuses on developing and evaluating ethical theories and principles
that guide moral action, prescribing how people should act.

◦ Descriptive Ethics: Describes and analyzes how people morally behave without making
judgments about the correctness of their beliefs or practices.

◦ Applied Ethics: Deals with the application of ethical principles to specific real-world
issues and dilemmas, such as medical ethics, environmental ethics, and publication ethics.

• Logic Philosophy Logic, derived from the Greek word "logos" meaning "reason," is a
branch of philosophy that deals with the study of the "art of reasoning" or "art of
thinking". Logicians are concerned with the correctness of the completed reasoning process,
not how the mind arrives at its conclusions. The central issue of logic is distinguishing correct
from incorrect reasoning. The two main types of reasoning are:

◦ Inductive reasoning: Starts from specific observations and moves to broader

generalizations and theories. It is also called a "bottom-up" approach.

◦ Deductive reasoning: Works from general principles to specific conclusions. It is also

called a "top-down" approach.

• Political Philosophy Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy that explores

fundamental questions about political life, including the nature of political authority, the
principles of justice, the legitimacy of government, and the rights and responsibilities of
individuals and societies. It addresses issues such as the origins of political power, the
organization of political institutions, the goals of political action, and why governments are
needed, along with their roles and constituents.
 7) Mention some philosophical objectives behind research

The philosophical objectives behind research are often embedded within the various
philosophical approaches or paradigms that guide the inquiry into knowledge development.
These approaches dictate what researchers aim to achieve and how they understand the nature
of knowledge and reality.

Here are some philosophical objectives behind research, as understood through different
paradigms:

• Pragmatism The objective of research guided by pragmatism is seeking solutions for a

problem in the real world through generating useful knowledge. Pragmatic research is
more interested in practical outcomes than abstract distinctions. It follows a reflexive
process of inquiry, initiated by doubt, and aims to resolve problems by re-creating a new belief.

• Positivism A primary objective of positivist research is to assert that knowledge should be

based on empirical observation and scientific methods. Researchers aim for empirical
observation by collecting quantitative data and performing objective measurement using
validated instruments. The ultimate goal is generalization and prediction, seeking to establish
general laws or principles based on observed regularities in data.

• Realism The objective of realist research is the idea that scientifically based theories
provide descriptions of the world that are approximately true. Realism asserts the existence
of an objective reality independent of human perception, and research aims to discover the
laws and principles governing this world through observation, reason, and empirical
investigation.

• Interpretivism Interpretivist research aims to differentiate social sciences from natural

sciences, recognizing that human beings and social worlds cannot be studied in the same way
as physical phenomena. The objective is to understand that the significance of phenomena is
not fixed or universal but varies among community members based on individual
experiences, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds. This often involves qualitative inquiry to
explore how individuals interpret and make sense of their experiences.

• Empiricism The objective of empirical research is to ensure that all hypotheses and theories
should be evaluated by a process of observation and experience, emphasizing evidence-
based knowledge. Researchers aim to draw a clear distinction between facts and
propositions that have been verified by experience and experiment.
• Post-Positivism Post-positivist research objectives include using logical reasoning in social
research and critically reflecting on the assumptions underlying the study. Researchers aim to
acknowledge that their own background, values, and biases may influence their research
questions, methods, and interpretations. It also involves recognizing that individuals'
attitudes and behaviors are influenced by subjective factors and understanding that findings
are not absolute truths but rather probabilistic in nature.
 8) Write a note on ethics and hence explain moral philosophy Mutta ethics normal ethics
applied ethics

The term "Ethics" is derived from the Greek word "Ethos," which means customs, character,
usages, or habits. It is concerned with discovering the principles that should govern human
conduct and with the investigation of normative issues involving value judgment. Ethics
analyzes and determines right and wrong in human relations. It addresses how individuals
should behave and how societies ought to be structured to promote moral values and principles.
While values refer to a person's set of beliefs, ethics are the rules framed by a group or society
that act as guidelines for people.

Moral Philosophy Moral philosophy is the rational study of the meaning and justification
of moral claims. The field of ethics is also known as moral philosophy, and it investigates
theories that systematically describe what makes acts right or wrong. A moral claim evaluates
the rightness or wrongness of an action or a person’s character. Moral philosophy is usually
divided into three distinct subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.

Meta Ethics Meta ethics is the study of moral languages and moral thoughts. It delves into
fundamental questions such as "What does it mean to say that something is 'good'?" or "Are
moral values objective or subjective?". Examples include debating whether staying out late at
night is good or bad, or whether abortion is inherently good or bad, considering different
justifications.

Normative Ethics Normative ethics focuses on developing and evaluating ethical theories
and principles that guide moral action. This type of ethics prescribes "do's and don'ts" about
the moral rules to be followed, essentially outlining how people should act. Examples of
normative ethical considerations include:

• A doctor deciding to save five patients over one, as utilitarianism suggests maximizing overall
happiness.

• A person returning a lost wallet out of honesty and integrity, as virtue ethics would suggest.

• Following traffic laws for the greater good of society.

• Pursuing one's career advancement, which is considered morally right in ethical egoism as it
contributes to one's own happiness and success.
Applied Ethics Applied ethics deals with the application of ethical principles to specific
real-world issues and dilemmas. It involves using ethical theories to address practical
problems in various fields. Examples of areas where applied ethics is crucial include:

• Medical Field: Issues such as informed consent, organ transplantation, genetic testing, end-
of-life care, and the allocation of medical resources.

• Business Ethics: Concerns like fair labor practices, environmental sustainability, corporate
social responsibility, bribery and corruption, product safety, and ethical marketing.

• Environmental Ethics: Topics including climate change, biodiversity conservation,

pollution control, and sustainable development.

• Engineering Ethics: Encompassing safety standards, environmental impact assessments,

whistleblowing, professional accountability, and the responsible development of new
technologies.

• Animal Ethics: Addressing issues related to the treatment of animals.

• Publication Ethics: Principles and standards that guide the conduct of individuals and
organizations involved in academic and scientific publishing