Practical #1

Aim: To study the hardware devices required to establish a computer network.

Router

A router is a piece of hardware that receives, analyses, and forwards incoming packets to another
network. Routers examine incoming packets to determine the correct target IP address and send the packet
to that address. A router connects two or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It serves two
primary functions: managing traffic between these networks by forwarding data packets to their intended IP
addresses, and allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet connection. There are several types of
routers, but most routers pass data between LANs (local area networks) and WANs (wide area
networks). Routers typically connect LANs and WANs and use a rapidly updating routing table to make
routing decisions for data packets. Edge routers, core routers, virtual routers, wireless routers, and various
other types of routers are available, and they operate at the Network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.They
determine the best path for data to travel and forward packets accordingly. Routers often include features
like firewall, NAT (Network Address Translation), and DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
server.

The top three advantages of the router network device are:

• Connects various network architectures such as ethernet and token ring, among others.
• Reduces network traffic by establishing collision domains as well as broadcast domains.
• Chooses the best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing algorithms.
The top three disadvantages of the router network device are:
• They work with routable network protocols.
• More expensive than other network devices.
• They are slower because they must analyze data from layer 1 to layer 3.

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Switch

A switch is a device that forwards data to specific devices based on the source and destination
addresses. Switches are used to connect devices within a local area network (LAN). They operate at the data
link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and use MAC addresses to forward data packets to the appropriate
destination device. Switches are essential for creating efficient and high-speed LANs. A switch is a physical
circuitry part that controls the flow of signals in networking (network devices switch). A switch enables you
to open or close a connection. When the switch is opened, a signal or power can pass through the
connection. When the switch is closed, the flow is stopped, and the circuit connection is broken. Switches
are more secure because they only forward data to the device that the data is intended for.
The top three advantages of the switch network device are:
• Increases the available bandwidth of the network.
• It helps in reducing the workload on individual host PCs
• Increases the performance of the network
The top three disadvantages of the switch network device are:
• They are more costly than network bridges.
• Broadcast traffic can be problematic.
• Network connectivity problems are challenging to track down via the network switch.

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Hub

Hubs are simple devices that connect multiple Ethernet devices together. Unlike switches, hubs do not
differentiate between devices and simply broadcast data to all connected devices. They operate at the
physical layer (Layer 1) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and are less efficient than
switches. A hub is one of the simplest networking devices that connects several computers or other network
devices when referring to networking (network devices hub). In layman’s terms, a hub is a hardware device
that allows multiple devices or connections to connect to a computer.
A USB hub, for example, allows multiple USB devices to connect with one computer, even if that computer
only has one USB connection. Depending on the hub, the number of ports on a USB hub can range from 4 to
over 100. Hubs are less secure than switches because they forward all data to all connected devices.
The top three advantages of the hub network device are:
• Easy to install
• Inexpensive
• It does not affect the performance of the network seriously
The top three disadvantages of the hub network device are:
• Can not filter information
• It can not reduce the network traffic
• Broadcast of the data happens to all the port

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Repeater

Repeaters are used to extend the range of a network by amplifying and regenerating signals. They receive
incoming signals, amplify them, and retransmit them to extend the reach of the network. Repeaters are
commonly used in wireless networks and can help overcome signal attenuation and coverage issues. With
regards to networking (network devices repeater), a repeater is an item that boosts the strength of a signal so
that it can travel longer distances without losing quality. These devices are commonly used in networks to
help data reach further destinations.
A range extender or wireless repeater, for example, is a repeater that extends the range and strength of a Wi-
Fi signal. A repeater is effective in office buildings, schools, and factories where a single wireless router
cannot reach all areas. A repeater operates at the OSI model’s physical layer (Layer 1).
The top three advantages of the repeater network device are:
• Repeaters are simple to set up and inexpensive.
• Repeaters do not necessitate any additional processing.
• They can connect signals with various types of cables.
The top three disadvantages of the repeater network device are:
• Repeaters are unable to connect disparate networks.
• They are unable to distinguish between actual signals and noise.
• They will not be able to reduce network traffic.

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Modem

Modems (Modulator-Demodulator) are devices that modulate digital data into analog signals for
transmission over communication lines (e.g., telephone lines, cable lines). In regards to networking (network
devices modem), a modem is a piece of hardware that enables a computer to transmit and receive data over
telephone lines. In a nutshell, a modem is a piece of hardware that connects a computer or router to a
broadband network. At the receiving end, modems demodulate the analog signals back into digital data.
Modems are commonly used to connect to the internet over DSL, cable, or fiber-optic connections.
When a signal is sent, the device converts/modulates digital data to an analog audio signal and sends it over
a phone line. Similarly, when an analog signal is received, it is converted/demodulated back to a digital
signal by the modem. Onboard modems, internal modems, external modems, and removable modems are all
examples of modems. A modem operates at the OSI model’s physical layer (Layer 1) or Data link layer
(Layer 2), depending on the type.
The top three advantages of the modem network device are:
• Easily allows connecting LAN to internet
• Converts digital signal into an analog signal
• When compared to the hub, the speed is slow
The top three disadvantages of the modem network device are:
• It only serves as a bridge between the LAN and the internet.
• It cannot maintain its network traffic.
• The modem is unaware of its destination path.

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Bridge

In regards to networking (network devices bridge), a bridge is a device that connects two LANs or two
segments of the same LAN. Networking bridges are also known as network bridges and bridging. There
are two types of bridges: the Transparent bridge and the Source Routing bridge.
Bridges, unlike routers, are protocol independent in that they can forward packets without analyzing and re-
routing messages. Bridging, in a nutshell, connects two smaller networks to form a more extensive network.
Bridges are particularly useful in breaking up large collision domains (areas where collisions can occur) in
Ethernet networks, thereby improving network performance and reducing collision-related delays. By
segmenting the network into smaller domains, bridges also help to reduce the overall broadcast traffic and
increase the overall network efficiency.
Bridges’ primary function in network architecture is to store and forward frames between the various
segments that the bridge connects. They transfer frames using hardware Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses. Bridges can forward or prevent data crossing by analyzing the MAC addresses. A bridge operates
at the OSI model’s Data Link layer (Layer 2).
The top three advantages of the bridge network device are:
• Reduces collisions
• Reduces network traffic with minor segmentation
• Connects similar network types with different cabling
The top three disadvantages of the bridge network device are:
• Does not filter broadcasts
• More expensive compared to repeaters
• Slower compare to repeaters due to the filtering process

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Access Point (AP)

In terms of networking, an access point (AP) is a wireless network device that acts as a portal for devices to
connect to a local area network. Access points can extend an existing network’s wireless coverage and
increase the number of users who can connect. Wireless access points (WAPs) are devices that combine a
transmitter and receiver (transceiver) to form a wireless LAN (WLAN). The access point operates at the OSI
model’s Data Link layer (Layer 2). These devices are used to create wireless networks (Wi-Fi) by providing
connectivity between wireless devices and a wired network infrastructure. They allow devices such as
laptops, smartphones, and tablets to connect to the network wirelessly.
The top three advantages of the access point network device are:
• Installing is easier and faster.
• Allows data transmission even when the user is moving.
• It is simple to extend to places where wires and cables are inaccessible.
The top three disadvantages of the access point network device are:
• The range of network devices is limited, which causes issues for many users.
• Installing this network device is difficult and time-consuming.
• Because these network devices are susceptible to interference, fog and radiation can cause them to
malfunction.

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 Practical #2
Aim: To study about LAN and to learn how to make LAN connection using RJ-
45.
Description:
Local Area Networks (LANs):
1. Definition: LAN is a network that connects computers and other devices in a limited geographical area,
such as within a building, office, or campus. It allows users to share resources like files, printers, and
internet access.
2. Topology: LANs can be set up in various topologies, including bus, star, ring, and mesh. The most
common today is the star topology, where all devices connect to a central switch or router.
3. Protocols: LANs typically use Ethernet as the communication protocol. Ethernet operates on the data
link layer of the OSI model and defines how data is transmitted over the network.
4. Speeds: LANs can operate at different speeds, commonly 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps
(Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps, and even higher. The speed depends on the capabilities of the networking
equipment and the type of Ethernet cable used.
5. Applications: LANs facilitate various applications, including file sharing, printer sharing, email, web
browsing, video conferencing, online gaming, and more.
6. Security: LANs require security measures to protect data and resources from unauthorized access. This
includes using firewalls, encryption, access controls, and implementing security best practices.

Components of a LAN:
1. Computers/Devices: These are the endpoints that are connected to the LAN, such as desktop computers,
laptops, printers, servers, etc.
2. Network Cables: LANs typically use Ethernet cables to connect devices. These cables are terminated
with RJ-45 connectors at each end.
3. Networking Devices: These include devices like routers, switches, and hubs, which facilitate
communication between devices on the LAN.

RJ-45 Connectors:
1. Definition: RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45) is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking. It
has eight pins and is often associated with twisted pair cables.
2. Termination: RJ-45 connectors are used to terminate the ends of Ethernet cables. The cables are typically
twisted pairs of copper wires enclosed in a protective sheath. Proper termination ensures a reliable
connection.
3. Wiring Standards: There are two main wiring standards for RJ-45 connectors: T568A and T568B. Both
standards define the order in which wires should be arranged within the connector. It's essential to use
the same wiring standard on both ends of the cable for compatibility.
4. Crimping: Once the wires are arranged correctly inside the RJ-45 connector, a crimping tool is used to
secure the connector onto the cable. This process ensures that the wires make proper contact with the
pins inside the connector.
5. Compatibility: RJ-45 connectors are widely used in Ethernet networking and are compatible with
various networking devices such as switches, routers, computers, and networked devices like printers
and IP cameras.
6. Categories of Ethernet Cables: Ethernet cables are categorized based on their performance and
specifications. Common categories include Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a. Higher categories support higher
data rates and better performance over longer distances.

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Making LAN Connections using RJ-45:
To make LAN connections using RJ-45 connectors, we'll need the following equipment:

1. Ethernet Cable: This is the cable that carries the network signal between devices. It consists of
twisted pairs of copper wires enclosed in a protective sheath.
2. RJ-45 Connectors: These connectors are used to terminate the ends of Ethernet cables. They have
eight pins that correspond to the eight wires inside the cable.

Steps outlining the process of making a LAN connection using RJ-45

connectors:
1. Prepare the Cable: This involves stripping away the outer sheath of the Ethernet cable to expose the
twisted pairs of wires inside. The outer sheath is usually made of PVC or another durable material to
protect the inner wires. Care must be taken not to damage the inner wires while removing the sheath.
Once the outer sheath is removed, untwist and straighten the wires for termination.

2. Arrange the Wires: The next step is to arrange the wires in the correct order according to the
chosen wiring scheme (T568A or T568B). Both ends of the cable should follow the same wiring
scheme to ensure proper connectivity. The arrangement of the wires determines how the signals are
transmitted and received between devices.

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 3. Insert Wires into Connector: After arranging the wires, they are inserted into the RJ-45 connector.
It's essential to ensure that each wire reaches the end of the connector and is in the correct order
according to the chosen wiring scheme. The connector typically has small channels for each wire to
fit into. Proper insertion ensures good contact between the wires and the connector pins.

4. Crimp the Connector: Once the wires are inserted into the connector, a crimping tool is used to
firmly secure the connector onto the cable. The crimping tool applies pressure to the connector,
ensuring that it grips the cable securely. This step is crucial for creating a reliable connection that can
withstand movement and tension without coming loose.

5. Test the Connection: After both ends of the cable are terminated with RJ-45 connectors, it's
essential to test the connection. This involves plugging the cable into devices with Ethernet ports,
such as computers, switches, or routers, and checking for connectivity. Testing ensures that the cable
is properly terminated and can successfully transmit data between devices.

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 Practical #3
Aim: To study the basics of Cisco packet tracer simulator.
Description:
What is Cisco Packet Tracer:

Cisco Packet Tracer as the name suggests, is a tool built by Cisco. It is a powerful network simulation
tool that allows users to design, configure, and troubleshoot network scenarios in a virtual environment. It's
widely used in educational settings to teach networking concepts and prepare for Cisco certification exams
as it provides a network simulation to practice simple and complex networks.

As Cisco believes, the best way to learn about networking is to do it.

The main purpose of Cisco Packet Tracer is to help students learn the principles of networking with
hands-on experience as well as develop Cisco technology specific skills. Since the protocols are
implemented in software only method, this tool cannot replace the hardware Routers or Switches.
Interestingly, this tool does not only include Cisco products but also many more networking devices.
Using this tool is widely encouraged as it is part of the curriculum like CCNA, CCENT where Faculties
use Packet Tracer to demonstrate technical concepts and networking systems.
Engineers prefer to test any protocols on Cisco Packet Tracer before implementing them. Also, Engineers
who would like to deploy any change in the production network prefer to use Cisco Packet Tracer to first
test the required changes and proceed to deploy if and only if everything is working as expected.This
makes the job easier for Engineers allowing them to add or remove simulated network devices, with a
Command line interface and a drag and drop user interface.

How to download and launch Packet Tracer:

1. Downloading and Installing: You can download Cisco Packet Tracer from the Cisco Networking
Academy website. It's available for Windows, macOS, and Linux platforms. Once downloaded, follow
the installation instructions provided by Cisco.

2. Launching Packet Tracer: After installation, launch the Packet Tracer application from your
computer's programs or applications menu.

Interface Overview:

1. Workspace: The main area where you build and simulate network topologies. It contains devices,
connections, and networking components.
2. Device Palette: A sidebar containing a variety of networking devices, including routers, switches, PCs,
servers, and more. You can drag devices from the palette into the workspace to add them to your
topology.

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3. Toolbar: Contains icons for various tools and functions, such as device selection, connection creation,
simulation mode, etc.

4. Physical Workspace: Represents the physical layout of devices and connections in your network
topology.

5. Logical Workspace: Provides a logical view of your network topology, showing device configurations
and connectivity.

Modes of Operation of Packet Tracer:

Cisco Packet Tracer offers several modes to help users design, configure, and troubleshoot network
topologies effectively. These modes provide different functionalities and perspectives within the Packet
Tracer environment. Here are the main modes of Packet Tracer:
1. Realtime Mode:
• This mode is the default mode when you launch Packet Tracer.
• In Realtime mode, you can design and configure network topologies in a live environment.
• Changes made to the network topology take effect immediately.

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2. Simulation Mode:
• Simulation mode allows users to simulate network behavior and test configurations without affecting
the live environment.
• You can run simulations to test routing protocols, examine packet flow, troubleshoot network issues,
and more.
• Simulation mode offers features like packet capture, event-listening, and time-based simulation.

3. Hybrid Mode:
• Hybrid mode combines elements of both Realtime and Simulation modes.
• In this mode, users can design and configure network topologies in a live environment while also
being able to run simulations to test configurations.
• It allows for a seamless transition between designing and testing network configurations.

Building a Network Topology:

1. Adding Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. You can add
routers, switches, PCs, servers, and other networking devices.

2. Connecting Devices: Use the connection tool from the toolbar to create connections between devices.
Click on a device's interface and drag to another device to create a connection.

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3. Configuring Devices: Double-click on a device to open its configuration window. Here, you can
configure settings such as IP addresses, subnet masks, routing protocols, VLANs, etc.

4. Saving Topologies: Save your network topology by selecting File > Save or using the shortcut Ctrl + S
(Cmd + S on macOS).

Simulating and Testing:

1. Simulation Mode: Switch to simulation mode using the toolbar or by pressing the simulation mode
shortcut. Here, you can test your network configuration by sending packets, examining traffic, and
troubleshooting issues.

2. Packet Tracer Activities: Packet Tracer includes pre-built activities and labs to help you practice
networking concepts. You can access these activities from the 'Activities' tab in the toolbar.

Additional Resources:

1. Tutorials and Documentation: Explore Cisco's official documentation and tutorials to learn more about
Packet Tracer's features and capabilities.
2. Online Courses: Many online platforms offer courses specifically designed to teach networking
concepts using Packet Tracer. Look for courses on platforms like Cisco Networking Academy, Udemy,
Coursera, etc.
3. Practice Labs: Create your own network scenarios or practice labs to reinforce your understanding of
networking concepts.

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 Practical #4
Aim: To implement bus topology in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
Cisco Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation tool that allows users to design, configure, and
troubleshoot network scenarios in a virtual environment. It's widely used in educational settings to teach
networking concepts and prepare for Cisco certification exams.
A bus topology is a type of network topology where all devices are connected to a central cable called the
bus or backbone. In a bus topology, data is transmitted along the bus in both directions, and each device on
the network receives the data but only processes data intended for it.
Here are the key characteristics and considerations of a bus topology:
1. Physical Layout:
• The central bus is a single cable that runs through the entire network.
• Devices such as computers, printers, and servers are connected directly to the bus through drop
lines or T-connectors.
2. Data Transmission in a Bus Topology:
• In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication channel (the bus).
• When a device wants to transmit data, it sends the data onto the bus.
• The data travels along the bus to all devices connected to it.
3. Addressing and Data Reception:
• Each device on the network has a unique address (like a MAC address in Ethernet networks).
• When data is transmitted along the bus, all devices receive the data packets.
• However, devices are designed to process only the data packets that are addressed to them
specifically.
4. Filtering Data:
• When a device receives a data packet, it checks the destination address in the packet header.
• If the destination address matches the device's own address, the device processes the data packet
and takes appropriate actions (e.g., forwarding the packet to the application it's intended for).
• If the destination address doesn't match the device's address, the device ignores the packet and
does not process it further.
5. Efficient Data Handling:
• This addressing and filtering mechanism ensures that devices in a bus topology efficiently handle
data transmissions.
• Devices don't waste processing resources on data packets not intended for them, reducing
unnecessary network traffic and improving overall network efficiency.
6. Topology Advantages:
• Simplicity: Bus topologies are relatively simple to set up and require less cabling compared to
other topologies like star or mesh.
• Cost-effective: Because less cabling is needed, a bus topology can be cost-effective for small to
medium-sized networks.
• Scalability: It is easy to add or remove devices from a bus topology without affecting the entire
network.
7. Topology Limitations:
• Single Point of Failure: The central bus acts as a single point of failure. If the bus cable is
damaged or breaks, the entire network segment connected to that bus can be affected.
• Limited Bandwidth: Data transmission in a bus topology can be limited by the bandwidth of the
central bus. As more devices are added to the network, the available bandwidth is shared among
them.
• Network Congestion: Since all devices share the same communication medium (the bus),
network congestion can occur if multiple devices attempt to transmit data simultaneously.

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8. Collision Detection:
• In a bus topology, devices use a protocol such as CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection) to manage access to the bus.
• CSMA/CD helps devices avoid data collisions by listening to the bus before transmitting data. If
a collision is detected (i.e., two devices transmit data at the same time), a backoff algorithm is
used to retry transmission after a random delay.

Steps for implementing a bus topology in Cisco Packet Tracer:

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. For a basic bus
topology, you can use PCs or laptops.

3. Connect Devices in a Bus:

• Use the connection tool to connect each device to a common bus. Click on a device's interface
and drag to create a connection to another device, simulating a linear bus topology.
• Repeat this process for all devices, ensuring they are connected linearly along the simulated bus.

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4. Configure Devices (Optional): You can configure IP addresses, subnet masks, and other settings on the
devices if needed. Double-click on a device to open its configuration window.

5. Test Connectivity: Use the simulation mode in Packet Tracer to test connectivity between devices. Send
pings or use network applications to verify that devices can communicate with each other through the
bus topology.

6. Save and Document: Once your bus topology is set up and tested, save your Packet Tracer project. It's
also a good practice to document the topology, including device configurations and connection details.

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 Practical #5
Aim: To implement star topology in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
A Cisco packet tracer is a simulation tool that is used for understanding the networks. The best part of
the Cisco packet tracer is its visualization as we can see the actual flow of the message and understand the
workflow of the network devices. Implementation of Star Topology using Cisco Packet Tracer is done
using Switch.
A star topology is a network layout where each device is connected directly to a central switch or hub. In
this configuration, all data transmissions pass through the central switch, which manages the flow of data
between devices. Star topologies are commonly used in LANs (Local Area Networks), especially in small to
medium-sized networks where the benefits of centralized management and scalability outweigh the
drawbacks. They are less suitable for large-scale networks or networks requiring high fault tolerance and
redundancy.

Here are the key characteristics and considerations of a star topology:

1. Physical Layout:
• Devices (such as computers, printers, servers) are connected to a central switch or hub using
individual cables (usually Ethernet cables).
• The central switch acts as the focal point of the network, facilitating communication between
devices.

2. Topology Advantages:
• Centralized Management: The central switch provides centralized control and management of
network traffic.
• Scalability: It's easy to add or remove devices from a star topology without affecting the entire
network.
• Fault Isolation: If a cable or device fails in a star topology, only that specific connection is
affected, not the entire network.
• Performance: Star topologies can provide good performance because each device has a dedicated
connection to the central hub, reducing collisions and traffic congestion.
• Security: It's easier to implement security measures like access control and monitoring at the
central hub in a star network.

3. Topology Limitations:
• Dependency on Central Device: The functionality of the network depends on the central switch
or hub. If it fails, the entire network may be affected.
• Cable Requirement: Each device requires a separate cable to connect to the central switch, which
can lead to increased cabling complexity compared to other topologies like bus or ring.

4. Data Transmission:
• In a star topology, data transmissions between devices pass through the central switch.
• Devices communicate with each other by sending data packets to the switch, which then
forwards the packets to the intended recipient.

5. Central Switch Handling:

• The central switch manages traffic by using MAC addresses to direct data packets to the correct
destination device.
• Switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and can make forwarding
decisions based on MAC addresses.

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Steps for implementing a star topology in Cisco Packet Tracer:
To implement a Star Topology in Cisco Packet Tracer, follow these steps:

1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. For a basic star
topology, you can use PCs or laptops.

3. Add a Switch: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central switch. Drag and drop a switch
from the device palette onto the workspace.

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4. Connect Devices to Switch: Use the connection tool to connect each device to an available port on the
switch. Click on a device's interface and drag to the switch port to create connections.

5. Configure Devices (Optional): You can configure IP addresses or other settings on the devices if needed.
Double-click on a device to open its configuration window.

6. Test Connectivity: Use the simulation mode in Packet Tracer to test connectivity between devices. Send
pings or use network applications to verify that devices can communicate with each other through the
switch.

7. Save and Document: Once your star topology is set up and tested, save your Packet Tracer project. It's
also a good practice to document the topology, including device configurations and connection details.

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 Practical #6
Aim: To implement ring topology in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
Cisco Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation tool developed by Cisco Systems. It is widely used
for educational purposes, especially in networking courses and for preparing for Cisco certification exams.
Packet Tracer allows users to create, configure, and simulate network topologies, providing a hands-on
learning experience in a virtual environment.
A ring topology is a network layout where each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a
closed loop or ring. Data transmissions circulate around the ring in one direction, passing through each
device until reaching the intended destination.

Here are the key aspects and considerations of a ring topology:

1. Physical Layout:
• Devices (such as computers, servers, switches) are connected in a closed loop, where each device
is connected to exactly two neighboring devices.
• Data travels in one direction around the ring, passing through each device in the loop.

2. Topology Advantages:
• Equal Access: In a ring topology, each device has equal access to the network without any
central device controlling data flow.
• Data Collision Avoidance: Token passing or other protocols are often used in ring topologies to
prevent data collisions and manage access to the network.

3. Topology Limitations:
• Single Point of Failure: If one device or connection in the ring fails, it can disrupt the entire
network as the loop is broken.
• Scalability Challenges: Adding or removing devices in a ring topology can be complex as it may
require reconfiguring the entire loop.

4. Data Transmission:
• Data transmissions in a ring topology follow a predefined path, circulating around the ring from
one device to the next.
• Token Passing: Some ring networks use a token passing protocol where a special token is passed
from one device to another, allowing devices to transmit data only when they hold the token.

5. Ring Maintenance:
• Ring topologies may employ mechanisms such as Automatic Ring Healing (ARH) to recover
from a break in the ring caused by a device or cable failure.
• Devices in the network can detect a break in the ring and automatically reroute data to maintain
network connectivity.

6. Examples of Ring Topologies:

• Early LAN technologies like Token Ring networks used a ring topology. Devices in a Token
Ring network passed a token to access the network, ensuring orderly data transmission.
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is another example of a ring topology used for high-
speed networking over fiber-optic cables.

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Steps for implementing a star topology in Cisco Packet Tracer:
In Cisco Packet Tracer, we can simulate a ring topology by following these steps:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. For this ring topology,
you will need switches and PCs.

3. Connect Switches in a Ring:

• Add the switches to the workspace.
• Use the connection tool to connect the switches in a ring formation. For example, connect Switch
1 to Switch 2, Switch 2 to Switch 3, and so on until the last switch connects back to the first one,
forming a ring.

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4. Connect PCs to Switches:
• Add the PCs to the workspace, ensuring they are near the switches.
• Connect each PC to one of the switches using appropriate Ethernet connections (usually straight-
through cables for connecting PCs to switches).

5. Configure Devices (Optional): You can configure IP addresses, VLANs, or other settings on the
devices if needed. Double-click on a device to open its configuration window.

6. Test Connectivity: Use the simulation mode in Packet Tracer to test connectivity between PCs. Send
pings or use network applications to verify that data can circulate around the ring and reach all PCs.

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7. Token Passing Simulation (Optional):
• If you want to simulate token passing in the ring topology, you can create a custom simulation
scenario.
• Set up a token passing protocol or simulate token behavior manually to represent how data
circulates in a ring network.

8. Save and Document: Once your ring topology is set up and tested, save your Packet Tracer project.
Document the topology, including device configurations and connection details, for reference.

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 Practical #7
Aim: To implement mesh topology in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
A mesh topology is a type of network topology where each device is directly connected to every other
device in the network. This creates multiple redundant paths between devices, enhancing fault tolerance and
reliability. Mesh topologies can be either full mesh or partial mesh, depending on the level of connectivity
between devices. It offers high redundancy, fault tolerance, and scalability but can be complex and costly to
implement and manage. It is suitable for environments where continuous connectivity and resilience are
critical requirements.
Cisco Packet Tracer can be used to simulate and understand the concepts of mesh networking, redundancy,
and fault tolerance in a virtual environment.
Here's a detailed overview of mesh topology:
1. Physical Layout:
• In a mesh topology, every device (such as computers, servers, switches) has a direct point-to-
point connection with every other device in the network.
• These connections can be wired (using Ethernet cables) or wireless (using Wi-Fi or other
wireless technologies).

2. Topology Advantages:
• High Reliability: Mesh topologies offer high redundancy as multiple paths exist between devices.
If one path or link fails, data can still reach its destination through alternate paths.
• Fault Tolerance: The redundant paths enhance fault tolerance and reduce the impact of link
failures or device malfunctions on network connectivity.
• Scalability: Mesh topologies are scalable as new devices can be added without disrupting the
existing connections. Each new device can establish direct connections with other devices as
needed.
• Parallel Data Transmission: Multiple paths allow for parallel data transmission, improving
network performance.

3. Topology Limitations:
• Complexity: Implementing and managing a full mesh topology with direct connections between
every device can be complex and require significant configuration and maintenance efforts.
• Cost: The cost of cabling and equipment increases with the number of direct connections in a
mesh topology. Full mesh topologies can be expensive to implement compared to other
topologies like star or bus.

4. Redundant Paths:
• Redundant paths in a mesh topology provide alternate routes for data transmission. This helps in
load balancing and ensures continuous connectivity even if some paths or devices fail.

5. Types of Mesh Topologies:

• Full Mesh: In a full mesh, every device is directly connected to every other device. This provides
the highest level of redundancy but can be costly and complex to implement in large networks.
• Partial Mesh: A partial mesh topology has some devices directly connected to every other device
while others have indirect connections. Partial meshes balance redundancy with cost and
complexity considerations.

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Implementation in Cisco Packet Tracer:
Here are the steps to implement a simple mesh topology in Packet Tracer:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. For a basic mesh
topology, you can use PCs, laptops, switches, or routers.

3. Connect Devices:
• Use the connection tool to create direct connections between every device and every other device
in the network. This represents a full mesh topology.
• For each device, establish point-to-point connections with all other devices. Click on a device's
interface and then click on the interface of the device you want to connect to.

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4. Configure IP Addresses (Optional): If you want to configure IP addresses on devices to simulate data
communication, double-click on a device to open its configuration window. Set IP addresses, subnet
masks, default gateways, etc., as needed.

5. Test Connectivity:
• Use the simulation mode in Packet Tracer to test connectivity between devices.
• Send pings or use network applications to verify that data can travel through multiple paths in the
mesh topology.

6. Redundancy Testing (Optional):

• Simulate link failures or device failures to test the redundancy of the mesh topology.
• Disconnect links or devices in Packet Tracer and observe how data reroutes through alternate
paths.

7. Save and Document: Once your mesh topology is set up and tested, save your Packet Tracer project.
Document the topology layout, device configurations, and connection details for reference.

8. Partial Mesh Configuration (Optional):

• If you want to create a partial mesh where only certain devices are directly connected to every
other device, configure connections accordingly.
• Establish direct connections for key devices or critical network segments while allowing indirect
connections for other devices.

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 Practical #11
Aim: To implement the concept of subnetwork using Cisco Packet tracer.
Description:
A subnetwork (subnet) is a portion of a larger network that has been divided based on addressing or
routing needs. Subnetting allows you to break down a single network into smaller, more manageable parts,
each identified by its own subnet address. This practice is crucial for efficient IP address allocation,
improved network performance, and enhanced security.

Subnetwork (Subnet) Basics:

1. Subnet Addressing:
• Subnetting involves dividing a larger IP network into smaller subnetworks, each with its own
range of IP addresses.
• It uses subnet masks to determine the network and host portions of an IP address, allowing
devices to identify which subnet they belong to.
2. Benefits of Subnetting:
• Efficient Address Allocation: Subnetting conserves IP addresses by allocating them based on
actual network needs rather than using entire address blocks.
• Improved Network Performance: Smaller subnets reduce broadcast traffic and improve network
efficiency.
• Enhanced Security: Subnets can be isolated using routers and access control lists (ACLs) to
enhance network security and control traffic flow.

Cisco Packet Tracer for Subnet Implementation:

1. Network Design:
• Packet Tracer provides a graphical interface for designing network topologies. You can add
routers, switches, PCs, servers, and other devices to simulate a real-world network.
2. IP Addressing and Subnetting:
• Packet Tracer allows you to configure IP addresses, subnet masks, and default gateways on
devices like routers, PCs, and servers.
• You can practice subnetting techniques such as CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) to create
subnetworks and allocate IP addresses efficiently.
3. Routing and Interconnectivity:
• Routers play a crucial role in connecting different subnetworks. Packet Tracer supports routing
protocols like OSPF, EIGRP, and static routing, enabling you to configure inter-subnet
communication.
• You can simulate routing configurations and test connectivity between subnets using Packet
Tracer's simulation mode.
4. Traffic Monitoring and Analysis:
• Packet Tracer includes tools for monitoring network traffic, analyzing packet flows, and
troubleshooting connectivity issues.
• You can use built-in features to observe how data moves between subnets, check routing tables,
and ensure proper packet forwarding.
5. Documentation and Learning:
• You can document your subnet designs, IP addressing schemes, routing configurations, and
network diagrams within Packet Tracer.
• This documentation serves as a learning resource and aids in network management,
troubleshooting, and future network expansions.

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Steps for implementing a subnetwork in Cisco Packet Tracer:
In Cisco Packet Tracer, we can simulate a subnetwork by following these steps:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices:
• Drag and drop four PCs from the device palette onto the workspace.
• Add two switches and one router from the device palette as well.

3. Connect Devices for Subnetwork 1:

• Connect two PCs to one of the switch's ports using an Ethernet connection.
• Connect the switch to one of the router's Ethernet ports using another Ethernet connection.
4. Connect Devices for Subnetwork 2:
• Connect two other PCs to the second switch's port using an Ethernet connection.
• Connect the second switch to another Ethernet port on the same router or a different router using
another Ethernet connection.

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5. Configure IP Addresses:
• Double-click on each PC to open its configuration window.
• Configure IP addresses, subnet masks, and default gateways for the PCs based on the subnetwork
they belong to. For example:
o PC 1 (Subnetwork 1): IP address like 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default
Gateway 192.168.1.1 (Router interface).
o PC 2 (Subnetwork 1): IP address like 192.168.1.3, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default
Gateway 192.168.1.1 (Router interface).
o PC 3 (Subnetwork 2): IP address like 192.168.2.2, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default
Gateway 192.168.2.1 (Router interface).
o PC 4 (Subnetwork 2): IP address like 192.168.2.3, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default
Gateway 192.168.2.1 (Router interface).

6. Configure Router:
• Double-click on Router 1 to open its configuration window.
• Configure IP addresses on the router's interfaces connected to the switches. For example:
o Interface connected to Switch 1: IP address like 192.168.1.1, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0.
o Interface connected to Switch 2: IP address like 192.168.2.1, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0.
• Enable routing protocols or static routes on the router if needed to allow communication between
subnetworks.

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7. Test Connectivity:
• Use Packet Tracer's simulation mode to test connectivity between devices within each
subnetwork and between subnetworks.
• Ping from one PC to another within the same subnetwork and then across subnetworks to ensure
proper routing.

8. Save and Document:

• Save your Packet Tracer project with the configured topology.
• Document the IP addresses, subnet masks, device connections, and routing configurations for
reference.

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 Practical #12
Aim: To implement the different approaches adopted by switch and hub.
Description:
Hub:

1. Functionality:
• A hub is a basic networking device that operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI
model.
• It acts as a central connecting point for network devices, allowing them to share data within a
local area network (LAN).
2. Operation:
• A hub operates in a broadcast domain, meaning when it receives data on one port, it broadcasts
that data to all other ports.
• It does not perform any filtering or decision-making based on MAC addresses; all data packets
are forwarded to all connected devices.
3. Bandwidth Sharing:
• In a hub, all connected devices share the total available bandwidth. If multiple devices transmit
data simultaneously, collisions can occur, leading to performance issues.
4. Physical Characteristics:
• Hubs usually have multiple Ethernet ports where network cables can be directly plugged in.
• They are simple and inexpensive devices compared to switches.

Switch:

1. Functionality:
• A switch is an advanced networking device that operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model.
• It is designed to connect multiple devices within a LAN and intelligently manage data traffic
by using MAC addresses.
2. Operation:
• Unlike a hub, a switch operates in multiple collision domains. Each port on a switch
represents a separate collision domain.
• Switches use MAC address tables to learn and store the MAC addresses of connected
devices. They make forwarding decisions based on MAC addresses, which reduces
unnecessary traffic.
3. Traffic Control:
• Switches use a process called switching to forward data packets only to the port where the
destination device is located, improving network efficiency and reducing collisions.
• They can handle simultaneous data transmissions between different devices without causing
collisions, as each port has its own collision domain.
4. Bandwidth Management:
• Switches provide dedicated bandwidth to each device connected to them, allowing devices to
communicate at their maximum supported speeds simultaneously.
• They support full-duplex communication, meaning devices can send and receive data
simultaneously, effectively doubling the available bandwidth.
5. Advanced Features:
• Switches often include additional features such as VLAN support, Quality of Service (QoS),
port mirroring, and security features like MAC address filtering and port security.

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 Implementation using Switch:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch Cisco Packet Tracer and create a new blank workspace.

2. Add Devices:
• Drag and drop 4 PCs from the device palette onto the workspace.
• Drag and drop a switch onto the workspace as \

3. Connect Devices:
• Connect each PC to an available port on the switch using Ethernet connections. Use
straight-through cables for PC-to-switch connections.
• Ensure that each PC has a unique IP address configured within the same subnet.

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 4. Configure Devices (Optional): You can configure IP addresses or other settings on the devices if
needed. Double-click on a device to open its configuration window.

5. Test Connectivity:
• Enter simulation mode in Packet Tracer.
• Test connectivity between PCs by sending ping commands to verify that data can be
transmitted across the switch.

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 Implementation using Hub:
1) Replace Switch with Hub:
• Delete the switch from the workspace.
• Drag and drop a hub onto the workspace in place of the switch.

2) Connect Devices to the Hub:

• Connect each PC to an available port on the hub using Ethernet connections. Use straight-
through cables for PC-to-hub connections.

3) Configure PCs:
• Since hubs operate at the physical layer and do not perform any filtering, there is no need to
configure IP addresses differently. PCs can retain their previous IP configurations.

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 4) Test Connectivity:
• Enter simulation mode again.
• Test connectivity between PCs by sending ping commands.
• Observe that data packets are broadcasted to all connected devices (hub broadcasts).

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Conclusion:
1. Hub Broadcasts:
• When using the hub, data packets sent from one PC are broadcasted to all other PCs
connected to the hub. This is because hubs operate at the physical layer and do not have the
intelligence to differentiate between devices.

2. Switch Transmits Data to Intended Node:

• In contrast, switches operate at the data link layer and use MAC address tables to make
forwarding decisions. When using the switch, data packets are only forwarded to the port
where the destination device is connected. This enhances security by reducing unnecessary
broadcast traffic and isolating communication between devices.

3. Enhanced Security Feature:

• Switches enhance security by isolating traffic between devices. They create individual
collision domains and only forward traffic to the intended destination based on MAC
addresses, reducing the risk of eavesdropping and unauthorized access compared to hubs.

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 Practical #8
Aim: To implement Hybrid topology in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different basic network topologies, such as star, bus,
ring, or mesh. It is designed to leverage the strengths of each topology while minimizing their weaknesses,
making it a popular choice for complex and dynamic network environments. This results in a more flexible,
scalable, and fault-tolerant network infrastructure. It offers a versatile approach to network design, allowing
organizations to create resilient, high-performance networks tailored to their specific needs and growth
objectives.

Here are the key aspects and characteristics of a hybrid topology:

1.Combination of Topologies:
• A hybrid topology combines elements from multiple topologies to create a customized network
layout.
• Common combinations include a mixture of star, bus, ring, and mesh topologies based on specific
network requirements.

2.Flexibility and Scalability:

• Hybrid topologies offer flexibility in designing networks according to varying needs within
different network segments.
• They allow for scalability by incorporating different topologies where they are most suitable, such
as using a star topology for local segments and mesh topology for backbone connections.

3.Fault Tolerance:
• By integrating redundant paths and alternative routes, hybrid topologies enhance fault tolerance
and improve network resilience.
• Failure in one part of the network can be isolated or rerouted through alternate paths, reducing the
impact on overall network performance.

4.Performance Optimization:
• Hybrid topologies aim to optimize network performance by strategically deploying appropriate
topologies based on traffic patterns, data flow requirements, and criticality of network segments.
• High-traffic areas may benefit from mesh or ring topologies to distribute load and ensure efficient
data transmission.

5.Management and Maintenance:

• Managing a hybrid topology requires careful planning and configuration to ensure seamless
integration of different topologies.
• Regular maintenance and monitoring are essential to address potential issues, optimize
performance, and adapt to evolving network needs.

6.Examples of Hybrid Topologies:

• A common example of a hybrid topology is combining a star topology for local LAN segments
with a mesh or ring topology for interconnecting backbone or core network devices.
• Large-scale enterprise networks often employ hybrid topologies to balance performance,
scalability, and fault tolerance across various network tiers.

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7.Implementation Considerations:
• When implementing a hybrid topology, factors such as network size, traffic patterns, geographical
distribution of devices, and budget constraints must be considered.
• Choosing the right combination of topologies and implementing robust routing and switching
strategies are crucial for a successful hybrid network design.

Steps for implementing a Hybrid topology in Cisco Packet Tracer:

In Cisco Packet Tracer, we can simulate a Hybrid bus-ring topology by following these steps:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch the Cisco Packet Tracer application on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop devices from the device palette onto the workspace. For Hybrid bus-ring
topology, we will need switches and PCs.

3. Connect Devices for Bus Topology:

• Connect the PCs or laptops in a linear fashion to simulate a bus topology.
• Use an Automatic connecting cable to connect the devices with others.

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4. Connect Devices for Ring Topology:
• Create a ring topology by connecting the switches in a circular manner.
• Use crossover Ethernet cables to connect each switch to the next switch until the last switch
connects back to the first switch, forming a ring.

5. Connect Bus and Ring:

• Connect the "bus" switch from the bus topology to the "ring" switch from the ring topology using
another Ethernet cable. This connection bridges the bus and ring topologies, creating the hybrid
topology.

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6. Configure Devices: We can configure IP addresses, subnet masks, and other settings on the devices if
needed. Double-click on a device to open its configuration window.

7. Test Connectivity:
• Enter simulation mode in Packet Tracer.
• Test connectivity between devices within the bus topology, ensuring that PCs can communicate
with each other via the bus switch.
• Test connectivity between devices within the ring topology, ensuring that switches can
communicate with each other in a ring fashion.
• Lastly, test connectivity between devices in the bus and ring sections of the hybrid topology to
confirm interconnectivity.

8. Save and Document:

• Save your Packet Tracer project to preserve the hybrid topology setup.
• Document the IP addressing schemes, device configurations, topology layout, and any specific
settings relevant to the hybrid bus-ring topology for future reference.

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 Practical #9
Aim: To implement Static Routing in Cisco packet tracer.
Description:
Static routing is a type of routing in computer networks where network administrators manually configure
routing tables in routers or switches to determine the paths that network packets should take to reach specific
destination networks. Unlike dynamic routing protocols that automatically update routing tables based on
network changes, static routing requires manual intervention and is typically used in smaller networks or for
specific routing requirements.

Here are the key points about static routing:

1. Routing Table Entries:

• In static routing, network administrators manually add entries to the routing table of a router or
switch.
• Each routing table entry includes information such as the destination network address, subnet
mask, next-hop IP address (gateway), and outgoing interface.

2. Routing Decision:
• When a router receives a packet, it looks up the destination IP address in its routing table.
• If there is a matching entry in the routing table (based on the longest prefix match), the router
forwards the packet according to the specified next-hop IP address or outgoing interface.

3. Network Segmentation:
• Static routing is often used in scenarios where network segmentation is straightforward and
stable.
• It is suitable for small to medium-sized networks with a relatively simple network topology.

4. Manual Configuration:
• Network administrators manually configure static routes on routers or layer 3 switches using
command-line interfaces (CLI) or graphical interfaces.
• Static routes need to be updated manually if there are changes in the network topology or routing
requirements.

5. Advantages:
• Simplified Configuration: Static routing is easy to configure and troubleshoot compared to
dynamic routing protocols.
• Resource Efficiency: It consumes fewer network resources (such as CPU and memory) because
routers do not exchange routing information dynamically.

6. Disadvantages:
• Lack of Scalability: Static routing does not adapt to network changes automatically, making it
less scalable for large and dynamic networks.
• Maintenance Overhead: Manual configuration and maintenance of static routes can be time-
consuming and error-prone, especially in complex networks.

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Steps to implement static routing in Cisco Packet Tracer:
1. Open Cisco Packet Tracer: Launch Cisco Packet Tracer on your computer.

2. Add Devices: Drag and drop the required devices (routers, switches, and PCs) from the device palette
onto the Packet Tracer workspace. For static routing, at least two routers are needed to demonstrate
routing between networks.

3. Connect Devices: Connect the devices according to your network design. Use an Automatic connecting
cable to connect the devices with others.

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4. Configure IP Addresses: Double-click on a device to open its configuration window. Configure IP
addresses, subnet masks, and default gateways for the PCs based on the subnetwork they belong to. For
example:
• PC 1 (Subnetwork 1): IP address like 192.168.1.2, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default Gateway
192.168.1.3 (Router1 interface).
• PC 2 (Subnetwork 2): IP address like 192.168.2.2, Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0, Default Gateway
192.168.2.3 (Router2 interface).

5. Router1 Configuration:
• Double-click on Router1 to access its configuration.
• Navigate to the interface settings for FastEthernet0/0.
• Assign the IP address 192.168.1.3 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
• Enable the interface by ensuring that the "Port Status" is set to "On".
• Similarly, configure FastEthernet0/1 with the IP address 192.168.3.2 and subnet mask
255.255.255.0, and set the "Port Status" to "On".

6. Router2 Configuration:
• Double-click on Router2 to access its configuration.
• Navigate to the interface settings for FastEthernet0/0.
• Assign the IP address 192.168.2.3 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
• Enable the interface by setting the "Port Status" to "On".
• Similarly, configure FastEthernet0/1 with the IP address 192.168.3.3 and subnet mask
255.255.255.0, and set the "Port Status" to "On".
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7. Test Connectivity with Static Routing:
▪ Use Packet Tracer's simulation mode to test connectivity between devices across different
subnetworks based on the static routes you configured.
▪ From a PC in one subnetwork, ping a PC in another subnetwork to verify that routing is working
as expected.

8. Save and Document:

• Save your Packet Tracer project with the configured topology.
• Document the IP addresses, subnet masks, device connections, and routing configurations for
reference.

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 Practical #10
Aim: Write a program to analyze network statistics on a LAN connected system.
Description:
Network statistics refer to various data and metrics that provide insights into the performance, utilization,
and behavior of a computer network. These statistics include information about network traffic, packet
counts, error rates, connection statuses, protocol usage, and more. Monitoring network statistics is crucial
for network administrators and IT professionals to diagnose issues, optimize performance, and ensure the
smooth operation of the network infrastructure.

Netstat (Network Statistics) is a command-line utility available in various operating systems, including
Windows, Linux, and Unix-based systems. It is used to display network-related information and statistics
about network connections, routing tables, and network interfaces on the local system. The netstat command
provides real-time data about active network connections, listening ports, protocol usage, routing
information, and more. It is a valuable tool for network troubleshooting, monitoring network activity, and
analyzing network performance.

Some common uses of the netstat command include:

1. Displaying Active Connections:

• Netstat can show a list of active TCP, UDP, and other protocol connections on the local system,
along with information such as local and foreign addresses, ports, connection states, and process
IDs (PIDs) associated with each connection.

2. Viewing Listening Ports:

• Netstat can list all ports on which the system is listening for incoming connections. This is
helpful for identifying open ports and services running on the system.

3. Showing Routing Table Information:

• Netstat can display the routing table of the system, showing details about network routes,
gateway addresses, and interface metrics.

4. Statistics for Protocols:

• Netstat can provide statistics for various network protocols such as TCP, UDP, ICMP, and
others. It shows packet counts, error counts, and other metrics related to each protocol.

5. Monitoring Network Activity:

• By running netstat with appropriate options, you can monitor real-time network activity, track
network connections, and identify potential network issues such as excessive traffic, connection
failures, or unusual behavior.

Overall, netstat is a powerful command-line tool that helps administrators and users gather detailed
network statistics, diagnose network problems, and understand network activity on their systems.
Using the netstat command with appropriate options provides valuable network statistics, active
connections, and routing information, which can be useful for network troubleshooting, monitoring
network activity, and understanding network performance on your Windows system. We have to adjust the
command options based on your specific needs.

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Steps to get network statistics on a Windows system:

1. Open Command Prompt: Press Win + R, type cmd, and press Enter to open Command Prompt.

2. Run the netstat Command: In Command Prompt, type the 'netstat' command and press Enter.

3. View Active Connections:

• By default, the netstat command displays a list of active network connections on our system.
• We'll see information such as protocol (TCP or UDP), local address and port, foreign address and
port, state of the connection, and process ID (PID) associated with each connection.

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4. Options for Detailed Information:
We can use various options with the netstat command to get specific network statistics:
• To display active TCP connections and listening ports, use: netstat -a

• To display statistics for all protocols, including TCP, UDP, ICMP, and others, use: netstat -s

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 • To show routing table information, use: netstat -r

5. Additional Options:
• Explore other options and parameters available with the netstat command by typing netstat /? or
netstat -? in Command Prompt. This will show a list of available options and their descriptions.

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