Roman domestic architecture (domus)

Introduction
Understanding the architecture of the Roman house requires more than simply appreciating the
names of the various parts of the structure, as the house itself was an important part of the dynamics
of daily life and the socio-economy of the Roman world. The house type referred to as
the domus (Latin for “house”) is taken to mean a structure designed for either a nuclear or
extended family and located in a city or town. The domus as a general architectural type is long-
lived in the Roman world, although some development of the architectural form does occur. While
the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum provide the best surviving evidence
for domus architecture, this typology was widespread in the Roman world.

Plan of a typical Roman domus (house) (source

Plan of a typical Roman domus (house) (source)
While there is not a “standard” domus, it is possible to discuss the
primary features of a generic example, keeping in mind that variation is
present in every manifest example of this type of building. The ancient
architectural writer Vitruvius provides a wealth of information on the
potential configurations of domus architecture, in particular the main
room of the domus that was known as the atrium (no. 3 in the diagram
above).

Illustration of an atrium
In the classic layout of the Roman domus, the atrium served as the focus
of the entire house plan. As the main room in the public part of the house
(pars urbana), the atrium was the center of the house’s social and
political life. The male head-of-household (paterfamilias) would receive
his clients on business days in the atrium, in which case it functioned as
a sort of waiting room for business appointments. Those clients would
enter the atrium from the fauces (no. 1 in the diagram above), a narrow
entry passageway that communicated with the street. That doorway
would be watched, in wealthier houses, by a doorman (ianitor). Given
that the atrium was a room where invited guests and clients would wait
and spend time, it was also the room on which the house owner would
lavish attention and funds in order to make sure the room was well
appointed with decorations. The corner of the room might sport the
household shrine (lararium) and the funeral masks of the family’s dead
ancestors might be kept in small cabinets in the atrium. Communicating
with the atrium might be bed chambers (cubicula—no. 8 in the diagram
above), side rooms or wings (alae—no. 7 in the diagram above), and the
office of the paterfamilias, known as the tablinum (no. 5 in the diagram
above). The tablinum, often at the rear of the atrium, is usually a square
chamber that would have been furnished with the paraphernalia of
the paterfamilias and his business interests. This could include a writing
table as well as examples of strong boxes as are evident in some
contexts in Pompeii.

Types of atria

The arrangement of the atrium could take a number of possible

configurations, as detailed by Vitruvius (De architectura 6.3). Among
these typologies were the Tuscan atrium (atrium Tuscanicum), the
tetrastyle atrium (atrium tetrastylum), and the Corinthian atrium (atrium
Corinthium). The Tuscan form had no columns, which required that
rafters carry the weight of the ceiling. Both the Tetrastyle and the
Corinthian types had columns at the center; Corinthian atria generally
had more columns that were also taller.
All three of these typologies sported a central aperture in the roof
(compluvium) and a corresponding pool (impluvium—no. 4 in the
diagram above) set in the floor. The compluvium allowed light, fresh air,
and rain to enter the atrium; the impluvium was necessary to capture
any rainwater and channel it to an underground cistern. The water could
then be used for household purposes.
 Impluvium in atrium, looking through the tablinum toward the peristyle,
House of Menander, Pompeii before 79 C.E. (photo: Carole Raddato, CC
BY-SA 2.0)
Impluvium in atrium, looking through the tablinum toward the peristyle,
House of Menander, Pompeii before 79 C.E. (photo: Carole Raddato, CC
BY-SA 2.0)
Beyond the atrium and tablinum lay the more private part (pars rustica)
of the house that was often centered around an open-air courtyard
known as the peristyle (no. 11 in the diagram above). The pars
rustica would generally be off limits to business clients and served as the
focus of the family life of the house. The central portion of the peristyle
would be open to the sky and could be the site of a decorative garden,
fountains, artwork, or a functional kitchen garden (or a combination of
these elements). The size and arrangement of the peristyle varies quite a
bit depending on the size of the house itself.
Communicating with the peristyle would be functional rooms like the
kitchen (culina—no. 9 in the diagram above), bedrooms (cubicula—no. 8
in the diagram above), slave quarters, latrines and baths in some cases,
and the all important dining room (triclinium—no. 6 in the diagram
above). The triclinium would be the room used for elaborate dinner
parties to which guests would be invited. The dinner party involved much
more than drinking and eating, however, as entertainment, discussion,
and philosophical dialogues were frequently on the menu for the
evening. Those invited to the dinner party would be the close friends,
family, and associates of the paterfamilias. The triclinium would often be
elaborately decorated with wall paintings and portable artworks. The
guests at the dinner party were arranged according to a specific formula
that gave privileged places to those of higher rank.

Chronology and Development

No architectural form is ever static, and the domus is no exception to this
rule. Architectural forms develop and change over time, adapting and
reacting to changing needs, customs, and functions. The chronology
of domus architecture is contentious, especially the discussion about the
origins and early influences of the form.

The outer Peristyle Garden of the Getty Villa Roman gardens

(photo: Dave & Margie Hill / Kleerup, CC BY-SA 2.0)
The outer Peristyle Garden of the Getty Villa Roman gardens
(photo: Dave & Margie Hill / Kleerup, CC BY-SA 2.0)
Many ancient Mediterranean houses show the same propensity as the
Roman atrium house—a penchant for a plan that focuses on a central
courtyard. The Romans may have drawn architectural inspiration from
the Etruscans, as well as from the Greeks. In truth it is unlikely that there
was a single stream of influence, rather Roman architecture responds to
streams of influence that pervade the Mediterranean.
By the second and first centuries B.C.E., the domus had become fairly
well established and it is to this period that most of the houses known
from Pompeii and Herculaneum date. During the Republic the social
networking system that we refer to as the “patron-client relationship”
was not only active, but essential to Roman politics and business. This
organizational scheme changed as Rome’s political system developed.
With the advent of imperial rule by the late first century B.C.E., the
emperor became the universal patron, and clientage of the Republican
variety relied less heavily on its old traditions. House plans may have
changed in response to these social changes. One clear element is a de-
emphasis of the atrium as the key room of the house. Examples such as
the multi-phase House of Cupid and Psyche at Ostia (2nd-4th centuries
C.E.) demonstrate that the atrium eventually gives way to larger and
more prominent dining rooms and to courtyards equipped with elaborate
fountains.

Roman domestic architecture (villa)

Essay by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker .

Google ClassroomFacebookTwitter
Email
Giovanni Riveruzzi, View of the Casino and the park of Villa Paolina from
the side of Porta Pia, 1828, watercolor on paper (Museo Napoleonico).
This villa belonged to Paolina Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, though it
dates back to the 17th century.
Giovanni Riveruzzi, View of the Casino and the park of Villa Paolina from
the side of Porta Pia, 1828, watercolor on paper (Museo Napoleonico).
This villa belonged to Paolina Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, though it
dates back to the 17th century.

Familiar but enigmatic

The villa, on its face, seems to be the simplest of Roman domestic

buildings to understand—after all, we continue to use the Latin term
"villa" to conjure up a luxurious retreat in the country or at the seashore.
We find evidence of the ancient Roman villa in both archaeological
remains and in ancient texts. Taken together this would seem to suggest
a fairly uniform and monolithic body of architecture, while the reality is,
in fact, something quite different. In some ways the Roman villa is a
conundrum. This is especially true in the earlier phases of the type’s
development, where questions of origins and influence remain hotly
debated. As a building type, the villa manages to simultaneously seem
instantly understandable and completely enigmatic.

History

The earliest examples of buildings grouped into this category, sometimes

referred to by the term villa rustica (country villa), are mostly humble
farmhouses in Italy. These rural structures tend to be associated with
agriculture or viticulture (grapes) on a small scale. The villa form—and
the term itself—then comes to be appropriated and applied to a whole
range of structures that persist across both the Republican and Imperial
periods, continuing into Late Antiquity. One thing that all villas tend to
have in common is their extra-urban setting—the villa is not an urban
structure, but rather a rural one. Thus we most often find them in rural,
suburban or coastal settings most often. In ideological terms, the country
(rus) provided relief from the hectic pressures of the city (urbs), and thus
the villa became associated (and remains associated) with rural
getaways.
According to Pliny the Elder, the villa urbana was located within easy
distance of the city, while the villa rustica was a permanent country
estate staffed with slaves and a supervisor (vilicus). The villa rustica is
connected with agricultural production and the villa complex can contain
facilities and equipment for processing agricultural produce, notably
processing grapes to make wine and processing olives to produce olive
oil. Even opulent villas often had a pars rustica, the working or productive
part of the building. Latin authors like Cato the Elder and Varro even
made and observed strict recommendations, based in agrarian ideology,
as to how these rustic villas should be built, appointed, and managed.
Building typology

It is difficult to identify a single, uniform typology for Roman villas, just as

it is difficult to do so for the Roman house (domus). In general terms the
ideal villa is internally divided into two zones: the urbane zone for
enjoying life (pars urbana) and the productive area (pars rustica). As with
domus architecture, villas often focus internally around courtyards and
atrium spaces. Elite villas tend to be sprawling affairs, with many rooms
for entertainment and dining, in addition to specialized facilities including
heated baths (balnea).

Republican villas

Villas built in Italy during the period stretching from the fifth to the
second centuries B.C.E. can be divided into several groupings, based on
their building typology. One typology with the smallest number of known
examples is an opulent villa that draws its influence from the tradition of
palatial aristocratic compounds of the Archaic period in central Italy, such
as the complex at Poggio Civitate (Murlo) and the "palace" at Acquarossa
(near Viterbo). These aristocratic compounds might have inspired Roman
Republican aristocrats to build similar aristocratic mansions for their
extended families as a demonstration of their social and economic clout.
Other Republican period “villas” tend to be small and connected with
agricultural production on a small scale. Traditionally they are associated
with an open-air, yet enclosed, courtyard that serves as a focal point.
 Plan of the Villa of the Volusii Saturnini, middle of the first century
(source)
Plan of the Villa of the Volusii Saturnini, middle of the first century
(source)
The mid-first century B.C.E. villa of the Volusii Saturnini at Lucus Feroniae
(above) provides a good example of an opulent villa built by Late
Republican new money. It also demonstrates the pattern that many elite
villas would follow during the Imperial period in becoming ever more
opulent. In the plan, we see a large peristyle (a garden surrounded by
columns) and smaller atrium (an open courtyard) and dozens of rooms
off each.
Ancient writers the likes of Cato the Elder (a Roman senator who was
born in the late 3rd century B.C.E.), Varro (a scholar and writer from the
first century C.E.), and Columella (who wrote about agriculture in the first
century C.E.) theorized that villa architecture evolved over time, with the
so-called “Columellan” villa being the most elaborate and sophisticated.
While scholars do not accept this evolutionary schema any longer, it is
interesting that these ancient authors were focused on villas and their
culture and that they appreciated change over time. While the
archaeological remains do not bear out or prove this theory of
architectural development, the awareness of the villa and its role in
Roman ideology is an important concept on its own.

Imperial villas

From the Imperial period, we are fortunate to have evidence for a wide
range of villa architecture distributed across the Roman empire. In the
provinces of the Roman Empire, the adoption of classic villa architecture
seems to serve as a mark of adopting a Roman lifestyle—with elites keen
to demonstrate their urbanity by living in villas. An example of such an
adoption is the so-called Fishbourne Roman palace at Chichester in the
south of England which was likely the seat of the Roman client-king
Cogidubnus.

Model of the Palace, Fishbourne Roman Palace Museum

Model of the Palace, Fishbourne Roman Palace Museum
A number of villas destroyed by the 79 C.E. eruption of Mount Vesuvius
demonstrate key features of the opulent villa. At Boscoreale the Late
Republican villa of Publius Fannius Synistor (c. 50-40 B.C.E.) is well
known for its elaborate Second Style wall paintings (below).

Frescos in the Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor

at Boscoreale, c. 50-40 B.C.E. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Frescos in the Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor
at Boscoreale, c. 50-40 B.C.E. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
At Oplontis (modern Torre Annunziata, Italy), the so-called Villa A
(sometimes referred to as Villa Poppaea) demonstrates the seaside villa
(villa maritima). This is a grand pleasure villa, with many well-appointed
rooms for leisure and reception.
 Villa Oplantis, first century C.E. with later remodeling (source, CC BY-SA
2.0)
Villa Oplantis, first century C.E. with later remodeling (source, CC BY-SA
2.0)
In the periphery of Rome itself we find a number of villas connected with
the Imperial house. These are mostly villas of the villa urbana category—
including examples such as the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta that belonged
to Livia, the wife of the emperor Augustus. The Prima Porta villa—a
private Imperial retreat—is famous for its garden-themed dining room
and the portrait statue of Augustus of Prima Porta.
 Painted Garden, Villa of Livia, detail with oak in center, Prima Porta,
fresco, 30-20 B.C.E. (Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo, Rome)
(photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA)
Painted Garden, Villa of Livia, detail with oak in center, Prima Porta,
fresco, 30-20 B.C.E. (Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo, Rome)
(photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA)
Other emperors would build their own suburban villas as well. Worthy of
note in this category is the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli located to the east of
Rome. A series of later elite villas (mostly south of Rome) such as the
Villa of Maxentius on the Via Appia and the Villa of the Quintilii show us
that the villa continued to be not only a statement of status into the later
Roman period, but also maintained its role as a retreat from the crowded
confusion of the city.
Reconstruction, Maritime Theater, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, 2nd century C.E.,
photo: The Digital Hadrian’s Villa Project, Institute for Digital Intermedia
Arts, Ball State University, Dr. Bernard Frischer and John Fillwalk
Reconstruction, Maritime Theater, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, 2nd century
C.E., photo: The Digital Hadrian’s Villa Project, Institute for Digital
Intermedia Arts, Ball State University, Dr. Bernard Frischer and John
Fillwalk

Late Roman

In Late Antiquity the Roman villa continued to develop. The so-called Villa
Romana del Casale just outside of Piazza Armerina, Sicily, was built in the
early fourth century C.E. and boasts one of the most complex programs
of Roman mosaics preserved from the ancient world.
Mosaic from the “Chamber of the Ten Maidens,” Villa Romana del Casale,
Sicily, 3rd-4th century C.E.
Mosaic from the “Chamber of the Ten Maidens,” Villa Romana del Casale,
Sicily, 3rd-4th century C.E.
The Villa Casale was likely the center of a large agricultural estate
(latifundium) and its opulent decorations strongly suggest the elite status
of its owners. The villa has three sectors that focus on a central peristyle.
It seems that the complex was built as a simultaneous project. Its mosaic
decorations are rich and complex, with themes that range from natural
and geometric scenes, to genre scenes, to hunting scenes, as well as
scenes extracted from Graeco-Roman mythology. Villas like the Villa
Casale dominated the rural landscape and its economy, engaging in
various productive activities from farming to mining.
Roman rural villas remained prominent features in post-Roman
landscapes, in some cases becoming centers of monastic life and in
others becoming the centers of emergent villages during the Medieval
period.
Roman domestic architecture (insula)

Essay by Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker.

In the Latin language, insula (plural insulae) means “island” and the term
has been connected to the high-rise apartment dwellings of the Roman
world, presumably since they rose like islands from the built landscape of
the city. The insulae of ancient Roman cities provided housing for the
bulk of the urban populace. The plebs—defined as ordinary people of
lower- or middle-class status—tended to inhabit insulae. During the
heyday of the mercantile city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber river
(less than 20 miles from Rome), a building boom produced many
such insulae, making Ostia a city of high-rise apartments, a phenomenon
of urban building that would not manifest itself again until the Industrial
Revolution.
History

In relating the history of the year 191 B.C.E., the historian Livy
remarks that two tame oxen had climbed the stairs of a multi-story
building, ending up on the tiled roof (Livy 36.37). While this may seem a
passing comment, it reminds us that even in the second century B.C.E
Rome was a vertical city in the sense that buildings with multiple levels
were already being built. Strabo (5.3.7), commenting on Rome in the
time of Augustus, mentions the building boom there and the need to
regulate construction, including the height of buildings. The architectural
writer Vitruvius (De architectura 2.8.17) expresses a fairly optimistic view
of the insulae, observing that advances in construction technology that
facilitated the construction of these outstanding dwellings. Other ancient
authors, including Seneca and Diodorus, were less positive about insulae,
seeing them as noisy and squalid.
There is some debate among scholars about how, precisely, we should
understand and define the term insula. A fourth century C.E. source,
known as the Regionary Catalog, states that in the city of Rome there
were 44,850 insulae and 1781 domus in 315 C.E. Glenn Storey observes
that if these figures represent individual buildings, fourth century C.E.
Rome had over 45,000 independent structures. Understanding the
meaning of the term insula, then, has obvious implications for
understanding the population and organization of the ancient city of
Rome. Scholars have debated how we should interpret the term. James
Packer posits that insula connotes a high-rise building that could occupy
an entire block or be a portion of a larger structure.
In this reconstruction, the larger building must have been subdivided into
smaller units. These are the medianum and cenaculum, terms for
subdivisions of the apartment building. Their specific meaning remains
somewhat troublesome, but surviving records do indicate that apartment
buildings were subdivided for legal reasons, as well as for assessing rent.
James Packer estimates the median area of a Roman apartment at 239
square meters.

Typology

The apartment block differs significantly from the townhouse (domus).

The domus is essentially a dwelling for a single, extended family unit,
while the apartment block contains multiple units. The top-to-bottom
arrangement of the Roman apartment block was the inverse of what is
true in the twenty-first century: in the Roman world the best apartments
were located at ground level, while the lower quality (and more squalid)
units were to be found on the upper floors of the structure. There is a
good deal of variation in terms of the organization of the structures
themselves. Frequently the entire structure centers on an open courtyard
which also serves as a light well for the lower floors. The spaces fronting
on the street itself were often used for mercantile functions.
The port city of Ostia provides the best evidence for the Roman
apartment block. Ostia had been founded as a Roman colony during the
third century B.C.E. Its location at the mouth of the Tiber river was
important for both mercantile and strategic reasons. During the second
century C.E. its economy and population was booming, as was the
population of the city of Rome. As a result the city witnesses an intense
spate of building activity, including the construction of numerous insulae.
The Caseggiato del Serapide shows an example of a block with shops at
the ground level, while staircases lead to apartments on upper floors.
The courtyard contained a cult room with a stuccoed relief of the god
Serapis.
The so-called Garden Houses (Case a Giardino) provide an example of
second and third century C.E. luxury apartments that were later
converted to commercial use. This structure originally stood to four floors
(height of c. 17.70 meters or 60 Roman feet according to Stevens) and
had 16 units on the ground floor. The central architectural feature is the
garden courtyard at the center of the structure to which the apartments
communicated.

The original walk-ups

The apartment block demonstrates the pragmatism and innovation of

Roman architects who capitalized on their technical proficiency with
concrete (opus caementicium). Cities like Rome and Ostia are unusual in
the ancient world—their large and concentrated populations required
solutions like the apartment block. These structures, despite Vitruvian
enthusiasm, were not without their dangers and drawbacks. Since fire
was a frequent danger in the ancient city, the high-rise apartment was
particularly risky—especially for those dwelling on upper floors. The living
conditions in some cases may have been less than ideal as well.
The insula as an architectural type demonstrates the variety of Roman
architecture and provides another set of important data about Roman
domestic building.

Forum Romanum (The Roman Forum)

In his play Curculio, the Latin playwright Plautus offers perhaps one of
the most comprehensive and insightful descriptions of the Forum
Romanum ever written (ll. 466-482). In his summary, Plautus gives the
reader the sense that one could find just about every sort of person in
the forum—from criminals and hustlers to politicians and prostitutes. His
summary reminds us that in the city of Rome the Forum Romanum was
the key political, ritual, and civic center. Located in a valley separating
the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, the Forum developed from the earliest
times and remained in use after the city’s eventual decline; during that
span of time the forum witnessed the growth and eventual contraction of
the city and her empire. The archaeological remains of the Forum
Romanum itself continue to provide important insights into the phases
and processes associated with urbanism and monumentality in ancient
Rome.
Earliest history: from necropolis to civic space

Seven Hills of Rome (CC BY-SA 3.0)

Seven Hills of Rome (CC BY-SA 3.0)
Situated astride the Tiber river, the site of Rome is noted for its low hills
that are separated by deeply cut valleys. The hilltops became the focus
of settlement beginning in the Early Iron Age; the development of the
settlement continued during the first millennium B.C.E., with the
traditional Roman account holding that the city herself was founded in
753 B.C.E. (Livy 1.6)
The traditional foundation narrative holds that one of the first acts of
Romulus, the city’s eponymous founder, was to establish a fortification
wall around the Palatine Hill, the site of his new settlement. The
Capitoline Hill, opposite the Palatine, emerged as the city’s citadel (arx)
and site of the poliadic cult of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, among others
(poliadic: the chief civic cult of an ancient city, derived from the Greek
word "polis").
Iron Age populations had used the marshy valley separating the Palatine
and Capitoline hills as a necropolis (a large ancient cemetery), but the
burgeoning settlement of archaic Rome had need of communal space
and the valley was repurposed from a necropolis to a usable space. This
required several transformations, both of human activity and the natural
environment. Burial activity had to be transferred elsewhere; for this
reason the main necropolis site shifted to the far side of the Esquiline
Hill.
Addressing the problems of seasonal rains and flooding proved more
challenging—the valley required a landfill project as well as the
construction of a drainage canal to manage standing water. Since the
Tiber river tended to leave its banks regularly, the valley was prone to
significant flooding, as a low saddle of land known as the Velabrum
connects the forum valley to the riverine zone. As coring studies
conducted by Albert J. Ammerman have shown, a deliberate landfill
project deposited fill in the forum valley in order to create usable, dry
levels during the sixth century B.C.E. Twentieth century excavators,
including Giacomo Boni and Einar Gjerstad, revealed important remains
of Iron Age burials that pre-dated the establishment of the forum valley
as a civic space; in particular the necropolis in the area known as
the Sepulcretum along the Sacra Via ("Sacred Way," the main sacred
processional road of the city) has been extensively studied and
published. The investigations of the burials themselves, and the patterns
they followed, have allowed archaeologists to understand not only
funeral customs but also social dynamics during Rome’s proto-urban
phases.
This major investment in the creation of civic space and the organization
of labor also provides important information about the socio-economic
structure of early Rome (Livy 1.59.9). The drainage canal eventually
came to have a vaulted covering and was known as the Cloaca
Maxima or "Great Drain." One of the clear outcomes of these civic
investments was the creation of a usable space that came to be a civic
focus for activities in many spheres, especially political and sacred
functions.

Temples and sacred buildings

From the Early Republican period the forum space saw the construction
of key temples. One of the most prominent early temples is the Temple
of Saturn (often considered the earliest of the temples in the Forum
Romanum), the first iteration of which dates c. 498 B.C.E. The temple
was dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture, and housed the state
treasury. The temple was rebuilt in 42 B.C.E. and again after 283 C.E.
Another early Republican temple is the Temple of the Castors (a.k.a.
Temple of Castor and Pollux) that was completed in 484 B.C.E. and was
dedicated to the Gemini who had aided the Romans at the Battle of Lake
Regillus in 496 B.C.E. The temple had several construction phases. The
Sacra Via passed along the forum square en route to the Capitoline Hill
and the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. This sacred route was used
for certain state-level ceremonies, especially the celebration of the
victory ritual known as the Roman triumph.

Temple of Vesta
Temple of Vesta
Two other early, sacred buildings are important to note. These are the
Regia or "king’s house" and the Temple of Vesta, both located on the
downward slope of the Palatine Hill near the point where it reaches the
edge of the Forum Romanum proper. Both of these sacred buildings are
quite ancient and had many building phases, making it difficult to refine
the chronology of the earliest phases. The Regia served as a ceremonial
home for the king—later passing into the ownership of the pontifex
maximus (principal state-level priesthood) once the kings had been
expelled—and consisted of an irregularly planned suite of rooms
surrounding a courtyard. The sixth century B.C.E. phase was decorated
with painted plaques of architectural terracotta, clearly indicating both
elite function and investment. Across the way was the Temple of Vesta,
focused on the maternal elements of the archaic state as well as
safeguarding the cult of Vesta and the sacred, eternal hearth flame of
the Roman people. Both the Regia and the Temple of Vesta developed
from crude structures in earlier phases to stone-built architecture in later
phases. The Severan family carried out the final significant restoration of
the Temple of Vesta in 191 C.E.

Meeting spaces

Important meeting spaces for political bodies emerged at the northwest

side of the forum, namely a pair of complexes known as the Curia and
Comitium. The Curia served as the council house for the Roman Senate,
although the Senate could convene in any inaugurated space (i.e. a
space ritually demarcated by Roman priests). The Curia emerged
perhaps in the seventh century B.C.E., although little is known about its
earliest phases. The surviving Curia is an imperial rebuilding of the Late
Republican phase known as the Curia Julia, since Julius Caesar was its
architectural patron. The Comitium was a tiered space that lay in front of
the Curia that served as an open-air meeting space for public assemblies.
Little of the Comitium remains today but it was a key architectural
complex for political and sacred events during the time of the Roman
Republic.

Curia Julia
Curia Julia

From Republic to Empire

During the fourth and third centuries B.C.E. the Forum Romanum
certainly continued to develop, but material remains of large-scale
architecture have proven elusive and thus our understanding of the
space during those centuries is less clear than in other periods. One
middle Republican development is the continued elaboration of the
Rostra, the platform from which orators would speak to those assembled
in the forum square. This monument would continue to develop over time
and took its name from the prows (rostra) of defeated enemy warships
that were mounted on its façade.

The Forum Romanum in the Late Republican period: 1) Tabularium;

2)Temp|e of Concord; 3) Basilica Opimia; 4)Tullianum; 5) Basilica Porcia;
6) Curia and Comitium; 7) Temple of Saturn; 8) Senaculum; 9) Volcanal;
10) Lacus Curtius; 11) Basilica Sempronia; 12) Basilica Fulvia; 13) Shrine
of Venus Cloacina; 14) Temple of the Castors; 15)Fountain of Juturna; 16)
Temple of Vesta; 17) Regia
The Forum Romanum in the Late Republican period: 1) Tabularium;
2)Temple of Concord; 3) Basilica Opimia; 4)Tullianum; 5) Basilica Porcia;
6) Curia and Comitium; 7) Temple of Saturn; 8) Senaculum; 9) Volcanal;
10) Lacus Curtius; 11) Basilica Sempronia; 12) Basilica Fulvia; 13) Shrine
of Venus Cloacina; 14) Temple of the Castors; 15)Fountain of Juturna; 16)
Temple of Vesta; 17) Regia (Source file, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The later second and first centuries B.C.E., the Late Republican period,
witnessed many changes in the city and in the Forum Romanum. The
successes of Rome and her growing empire during the second and first
centuries B.C.E. led to a great deal of monumental construction in the
city, including in the Forum Romanum itself. It was during this Late
Republican phase that Rome became a metropolitan center, equipped
with the monumental architecture that could compete with—if not eclipse
—that of the foreign powers Rome had tamed during the Punic Wars and
those against the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean. In
particular the Romans established a tradition of constructing monuments
commemorating famous men who had achieved great success in military
and public careers. The first of these was the Columna Rostrata that
marked the naval victory of Caius Duilius at the naval battle of Mylae in
260 B.C.E. The Roman interest in monumental, commemorative
monuments, now referred to as triumphal arches, would soon follow. The
first of these, the Fabian arch (fornix Fabianus), was dedicated on the
Sacra Via toward the eastern end of the Forum Romanum in 121 B.C.E.,
commemorating the military victories (and family) of Quintus Fabius
Allobrogicus (Cicero pro Planc. 17). While the Fabian monument is no
longer extant, its construction established a tradition (and a traditional
form) for official commemorative and honorific monuments in the context
of Roman public art.

The Basilica

The second century B.C.E. saw the creation and introduction of a unique
Roman building type, the basilica. The basilica was a columnar hall that
often had a multi-purpose use—from law courts to commerce to
entertainments. Roman planners came to prefer them for lining the long
sides of open squares, in a way not dissimilar from the Greek stoa. The
sources claim that the Basilica Porcia (c. 184 B.C.E.) was the first basilica
built at Rome, although no trace of it remains. The Basilica Porcia served
as an office for the tribunes of the plebs. Other, more elaborate basilicae
were soon to be built, including the famous Basilica Aemilia, first built in
179 B.C.E., and remodeled from c. 55 to 34 B.C.E. as the Basilica Paulli.
Restored again after a fire in 14 B.C.E., the famous basilica was deemed
by Pliny the Elder to be one of the three most beautiful monuments in
Rome (Plin. HN 36.102.5)

Imperial period

The advent of the principate of Augustus (27 B.C.E. – 14 C.E.) brought

about additions and renovations to the Forum Romanum. With the
deification of Julius Caesar, Augustus’ adoptive father, a temple
dedicated to Caesar’s cult (templum divi Iulii) was constructed on the
edge of the forum square (15 in the diagram below).

The Forum Romanum in the Imperial Period

The Forum Romanum in the Imperial period: 1)Tabularium;
2) Tullianum; 3) Temple of Concord; 4) Temple of Vespasian; 5) Portico
Dii Consentes; 6) Arch of Septimius Severus; 7) Umbilicus Urbis; 8)
Rostra; 9) Temple of Saturn; 10) Curia Julia; 11) Lacus Curtius;
12) Basilica Julia; 13) Basilica Aemilia; 14) Shrine of Venus Cloacina;
15) Temple of Divus Julius; 16) Arch of Augustus; 17) Temple of the
Castors; 18) Temple of Ant0ninus and Faustina; 19) Regia; 20) Temple of
Vesta; 21) Fountain of Juturna (source file, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Augustus restored existing buildings, completed incomplete projects, and
added commemorative projects to celebrate his own accomplishments
and those of his family members. In this latter group, the Arch of
Augustus (#16 above) and the Porticus of Caius and Lucius are notable.
The former was a triumphal arch celebrating significant military and
diplomatic accomplishments of the emperor, while the latter honored the
emperor’s grandsons.
Augustus also followed Julius Caesar in creating yet another new forum
space beyond the Forum Romanum that was named the Forum of
Augustus. (dedicated in 2 B.C.E.). These new Imperial Fora in some cases
provided additional space and, in turn, shifted attention away from the
Forum Romanum.
During the Imperial period the Forum Romanum itself saw only sporadic
new construction, although the maintenance of the existing structures
would have provided a pressing and ongoing obligation. Just beyond the
limit of the forum proper the second century C.E. temple of Antoninus
Pius and his wife Faustina was constructed in 141 C.E. (and then modified
in 161 C.E. following the emperor’s death).
 Arch of Septimius Severus, 203 C.E.
Arch of Septimius Severus, 203 C.E.
Coming to power at the end of the second century C.E., the Severan
family erected a triple-bay triumphal arch commemorating the victories
of emperor Septimius Severus (reigned 193-211 C.E.) at the
northwestern corner of the forum square. The third century C.E. saw
rebuilding of structures and monuments that had been damaged by fire,
including the rebuilding of the Curia Julia by the emperor Diocletian in the
late third century C.E. following a fire in 283 C.E.

Decline

Declining imperial fortunes led inevitably to urban decay at Rome. After

the Severan and Tetrarchic building programs of the third century C.E.
and Constantinian investment in the early fourth century C.E., the forum
and its environs began to decline and decay. Constantine I officially
relocated the administrative center of the Roman world to Constantinople
in 330 C.E. and Theodosius I suppressed all "pagan" religions and
ordered temples shut permanently in 394 C.E. These changes, coupled
with population decline, spelled the gradual demise of spaces like the
Forum Romanum. Roman monuments were cannibalized for building
materials and open, unused spaces were re-purposed—sometimes as ad
hoc dwellings and other times for the deposition of rubbish and fill. Thus
the forum slowly yielded its sacro-civic functions to more mundane
concerns like pasturage—in fact it eventually came to be known as the
“Campo Vaccino” (cow field).

View of the Roman Forum

View of the Roman Forum

The beauty of the ruins

The monument that is considered to be the final ancient structure

erected in the Forum Romanum is a re-purposed monumental column set
in place by the emperor Phocas in August of 608 C.E. The anonymous
Einsiedeln itinerary, written in the eighth century C.E., mentions a
general state of decay in the forum. A major earthquake in 847 C.E.
wreaked considerable damage on remaining Roman monuments in the
forum and in its environs. During the Middle Ages ancient structures
provided reusable buildings materials, as well as reusable foundations,
for Medieval structures.
The ruins themselves provided endless inspiration for artists, including
painters the likes of Canaletto who became interested in the romanticism
of the ruins of the ancient city as well as for cartographers and engravers
the likes of G. B. Piranesi and G. Vasi, among others, who created views
of the ruins themselves and restored plans of the ancient city.

Interpretation

The Forum Romanum, despite being a relatively small space, was central
to the function and identity of the city of Rome (and the wider Roman
empire). The Forum Romanum played a key role in creating a communal
focal point, one toward which various members of a diverse socio-
economic community could gravitate. In that centralized space
community rituals that served a larger purpose of group unity could be
performed and observed and elites could reinforce social hierarchy
through the display of monumental art and architecture. These devices
that could create and continually reinforce not only a sense of
community belonging but also the existing social hierarchy were of vital
importance in archaic states. Even as the Forum Romanum changed over
time, it remained an important space. After a series of emperors chose to
build new forum complexes (the Imperial Fora) adjacent to the Forum
Romanum, it retained its symbolic importance, especially considering
that, as a people, ancient Romans were incredibly loyal to ancestral
practices and traditions.

Rediscovery and excavation

Many of the monuments of the Forum Romanum, along with ancient

occupation levels, gradually disappeared from view. Systematic
exploration and study began under archaeologist Carlo Fea who started
to clear the area near the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803. Study
continued during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with prominent
scholars including Rodolfo Lanciani, Giacomo Boni, Einar Gjerstad, and
Andrea Carandini, among others, leading major campaigns. Study and
excavation—as well as the hugely important obligation of preservation—
continue in the Forum Romanum today. The bulk of the forum is
accessible to visitors who have the opportunity to experience one of the
great documents of urban archaeology.

Plan of the Baths of Caracalla

by B. Fletcher (Public Domain)

Baths for bathing and relaxing were a common feature

of Roman cities throughout the empire. The often huge bath complexes
included a wide diversity of rooms offering different temperatures and
facilities such as swimming pools and places to read, relax, and
socialise. Roman baths, with their need for large open spaces, were also
important drivers in the evolution of architecture offering the first dome
structures in Classical architecture.

A Mainstay of Roman Culture

Public baths were a feature of ancient Greek towns but were usually limited
to a series of hip-baths. The Romans expanded the idea to incorporate a wide
array of facilities and baths became common in even the smaller towns of the
Roman world, where they were often located near the forum. In addition to
public baths, wealthy citizens often had their own private baths constructed as
a part of their villa and baths were even constructed for the legions of
the Roman army when on campaign. However, it was in the large cities that
these complexes (balnea or thermae) took on monumental proportions with
vast colonnades and wide-spanning arches and domes. Baths were built using
millions of fireproof terracotta bricks and the finished buildings were usually
sumptuous affairs with fine mosaic floors, marble-covered walls, and
decorative statues.

GENERALLY OPENING AROUND LUNCHTIME AND

OPEN UNTIL DUSK, BATHS WERE ACCESSIBLE
TO ALL.
Generally opening around lunchtime and open until dusk, baths were
accessible to all, both rich and poor. In the reign of Diocletian, for example,
the entrance fee was a mere two denarii - the smallest denomination
of bronze coinage. Sometimes, on occasions such as public holidays, the
baths were even free to enter.

Typical Elements of Roman Baths

Typical features (listed in the probable order bathers went through) were:

 apodyterium - changing rooms.

 palaestrae - exercise rooms.
 natatio - open-air swimming pool.
 laconica and sudatoria - superheated dry and wet sweating-rooms.
 calidarium - hot room, heated and with a hot-water pool and a separate
basin on a stand (labrum)
 tepidarium - warm room, indirectly heated and with a tepid pool.
 frigidarium - cool room, unheated and with a cold-water basin, often
monumental in size and domed, it was the heart of the baths complex.
 rooms for massage and other health treatments.

Additional facilities could include cold-water plunge baths, private baths,

toilets, libraries, lecture halls, fountains, and outdoor gardens.

Heating Systems
The first baths seem to have lacked a high degree of planning and were often
unsightly assemblages of diverse structures. However, by the 1st century CE
the baths became beautifully symmetrical and harmonious structures, often
set in gardens and parks. Early baths were heated using braziers, but from the
1st century BCE more sophisticated heating systems were used such as under-
floor (hypocaust) heating fuelled by wood-burning furnaces (prafurniae). This
was not a new idea as Greek baths also employed such a system but, as was
typical of the Romans, they took an idea and improved upon it for maximum
efficiency. The huge fires from the furnaces sent warm air under the raised
floor (suspensurae) which stood on narrow pillars (pilae) of solid stone, hollow
cylinders, or polygonal or circular bricks. The floors were paved over with 60
cm square tiles (bipedales) which were then covered in decorative mosaics.

Roman Baths Floor, Butrint

by Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Walls could also provide heating with the insertion of hollow rectangular tubes
(tubuli) which carried the hot air provided by the furnaces. In addition, special
bricks (tegulae mammatae) had bosses at the corners of one side which
trapped hot air and increased insulation against heat loss. The use of glass for
windows from the 1st century CE also permitted a better regulation of
temperatures and allowed the sun to add its own heat to the room.

The vast amount of water needed for the larger baths was supplied by purpose
built aqueducts and regulated by huge reservoirs in the baths complex. The
reservoir of the Baths of Diocletian in Rome, for example, could hold 20,000
m³ of water. Water was heated in large lead boilers fitted over the furnaces.
The water could be added (via lead pipes) to the heated pools by using a
bronze half-cylinder (testudo) connected to the boilers. Once released into the
pool the hot water circulated by convection.

The Romans borrowed parts of their earliest known calendar from the
Greeks. The calendar consisted of 10 months in a year of 304 days. The
Romans seem to have ignored the remaining 61 days, which fell in the
middle of winter. The 10 months were named Martius, Aprilis, Maius,
Junius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December.
The last six names were taken from the words for five, six, seven, eight,
 nine, and ten. Romulus, the legendary first ruler of Rome, is supposed to
have introduced this calendar in the 700s B.C.E.
According to tradition, the Roman ruler Numa Pompilius added January
and February to the calendar. This made the Roman year 355 days long.
To make the calendar correspond approximately to the solar year, Numa
also ordered the addition every other year of a month called Mercedinus.
Mercedinus was inserted after February 23 or 24, and the last days of
February were moved to the end of Mercedinus. In years when it was
inserted, Mercedinus added 22 or 23 days to the year.

How do you read the calendar?

In the calendar of the ancient Romans, the months contained three
primary markers – the Kalends, the Nones and the Ides. The Kalends
were always the first day of the month. The Nones were usually the 5th
but sometimes the 7th, and the Ides were the 15th but sometimes the
13th. All the days after the Ides were numbered by counting down
towards the next month’s Kalends. The holidays were generally bunched
together to form continuous celebrations, and the remaining days of the
month were usually nondescript workdays.
The days were each identified with certain letters and names. The
Kalends were always identified as shown in the diagram at right. The
archaic form of the K, for Kalends, was used in front of the name of the
month. The first letter was called the Nundinae ("nine day") , or the
Nundinal letter, and it represented the market day. Every 9th day
(counting inclusively) was a market day, but as it shifted every year, a
designated letter between A and H would represent the market day for
that year. The final letter identifies the type of day for purposes of
religious observance or legal business.

Calends, Nones, and Ides

The Roman calendar highlighted a number of days in each month:

 Calends (Kalendae) were the first days of each month. The name is
derived from the Greek word καλειν, to announce, which may initially
have been used in the ancient lunar calendar to “announce” the day
of the New Moon (or the first sliver of the Waxing Crescent Moon).
 Ides (Idus) occurred one day before the middle of each month.
Depending on the month's length, it fell on the 13th or 15th day. In
the lunar calendar, the Ides marked the day of the Full Moon.
 Nones (Nonae) fell on the 7th day of 31-day months and on the 5th
day of 29-day months, marking the day of the First Quarter Moon.

The Julian calendar

Month/Day Meaning
The eleventh month of the year in
the ancient Roman calendar. In
January
honor of the god Janus, god of the
beginning and end.
The twelfth and last month of the
year. From the Latin
February word februare to purify. In reference
to the Lupercalia, the Roman feast of
purification.
First month of the year. In honor of
March
the god of war: Mars.
In honor of the god Venus. Comes
April from the Etruscan
word Apru meaning Aphrodite.
In honor of the goddess Maia, the
May
goddess of spring and plants.
In honor of the goddess Juno, who
June
was the wife of Jupiter.
July In honor of Julius Caesar.
August In honor of emperor Augustus.
Initially the seventh month of the
September
year. From septem in Latin.
Initially the eight month of the year.
October
From octo or eight in Latin.
Initially the ninth month of the year.
November
From novem or nine in Latin.
Initially the tenth month of the year.
December
From decem or ten in Latin.
Dies Lunae, day of the moon and of
Monday
the goddess Luna.
Dies Martis, day of Mars, the god of
Tuesday
war.
Dies Mercurii, day of Mercury, the
god of financial gain, commerce,
eloquence, communication and
Wednesday
divination, of travelers, boundaries,
luck, trickery and thieves, and the
guide of souls to the underworld.
Dies Iovis, day of Jupiter, the king of
Thursday the god and the god of sky and
thunder.
 Dies Veneris, day of Venus, the
Friday goddess of love, sex, desire, beauty,
fertility, prosperity and victory
Dies Saturni, day of Saturn, the god
of generation, dissolution, plenty,
Saturday
wealth, agriculture, periodic renewal
and liberation
Sunday Dies Solis, day of the sun god Sol.

Roman Male Dress - The Tunica and the Toga

Roman men generally wore two garments, the tunica and the toga. The
tunica was a short woolen under garment with short sleeves. By contrast,
to wear a long tunic with long sleeves was considered effeminate and
was generally avoided by society as a whole. It was originally worn
mainly by the working class plebes, freedmen and slaves, though its
function as an undergarment for any class of people is attested.

As the toga was specifically meant as a public display garment, the

tunica was also worn by any people within the comforts of their own
homes. The tunic worn by patrician men was made from white wool or
expensive linen, while the poor would wear whatever fabric was readily
available. Similar to the toga, distinct tunics were worn to signify one's
title. Magistrates wore the tunic augusticlavia, and senators wore a tunic
with broad strip called the tunica laticlavia. In addition, a belt would be
worn around the waist of the tunica to hold the waist of the garment
snug, giving the impression of a two piece garment.

The classic toga was a distinct Roman garment that only actual citizens
were allowed to wear. Its distinct purpose was to indicate peaceful
endeavors, as opposed to the sagum cloak, worn during times of war.
The toga was a large cumbersome robe like garment of white wool and
used up to 9 yards of material. Being such a bulky and uncomfortable
article of clothing, it became customary in later times to wear it only on
state occasions. During the time of Augustus, however, he implemented
 a strict moral code requiring the toga to be worn in all facets of public
life. As time passed and Roman societal tradition shifted and absorbed
new cultures, these rules were relaxed. The more comfortable tunic,
covered by a cloak called the lacerna, became commonplace in all facets
of society.

All togas were not the same and each distinctive type could mark a
Roman's societal status or title. Some common, known types:

 Toga Virilis Was a plain, unadorned toga made in off-white color. It

was worn by any adult male.

 Toga Praetexta Was an off-white toga with a broad purple border.

This toga was reserved for Senators and Curule Magistrates such as
Consuls. There were minor distinctions between stripe indications for
various magistrate positions.

 Toga Pulla Was a dark toga worn strictly in times of mourning.

 Toga Candida Was an artificially whitened toga worn by

candidates for political office. It was important to be white to indicate
both purity of intention by the candidate and for the candidate himself to
stand out from the crowd.

 Toga Picta Was a special all purple toga embroidered with gold
thread worn by a Roman general during a triumphal parade. Julius Caesar
later adopted it as part of his regular dress and the emperors followed
suit by using this type during many state occasions. The picta was likely
adapted from the aptly named toga purpura, an all-purple toga worn by
the early kings.

Roman Female Dress

Roman women also wore tunica in much the same fashion as the men.
There were two types, both adapted from Greek fashion. One, the peplos
was made from two rectangular pieces of cloth partially sewn together on
both sides with the open sections at the top folded down in the front and
back. It was pulled over the head and fastened with two large pins,
forming a sleeveless dress. A belt was then tied over or under the folds.

The more common tunic worn by women was similar to the Greek chiton.
This sleeved garment was made from two wide pieces of cloth sewn
together near the top. This garment was pulled over the head and
fastened with several pins or buttons to form a dress with various styles
and fits. A belt could be worn under the breasts, at the waist, or at the
hips. Any tunics could be made of various colors and fabric types
depending on social status and wealth.

Married women were required to wear the loose, toga equivelant, stola.
This long sleeveless tunic was strapped at the shoulder, gathered in and
girdled at the waist with the garment extending to the feet. In addition,
the pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, and to be
worn out of doors. Fashion of the various times also indicated how much
make-up, jewelry and perfume would be worn. Suffice to say that such
adornments were as popular in the ancient world as in any time.

Roman Footwear

Footwear was mainly of two kinds, but was worn in many styles and
customs. The rules for shoes weren't as strict as those for regular
clothing. The calceus was a sandal like shoe strapped to the foot, mainly
for internal wear. The soleae was a full shoe completely enclosing the
foot, much more similar to the modern shoe. Shoes and sandals were
made in varying materials and colors, again depending on social status.
Leather was by far the most common material and could be easily dyed
to reflect position such as red shoes for patricians.

A bulla is a type of necklace with pouch that was worn by ancient Roman
children as a type of protection from evil spirits. The pouch was made of
gold, leather, or cloth depending on how wealthy the family was. The
inside of a bulla contained amulets or charms. The bulla was presented
to a child at birth. A Roman boy would wear the bulla until he became a
man and a Roman girl wore the bulla until she got married.

WOMEN’S CLOTHING There are three basic layers worn by Roman

women: the tunica (inner dress), stola (outer dress), and palla (shawl). •
Tunica alone – appropriate for freedwomen, merchanting and working
women • Tunica and palla – appropriate for unmarried and lower status
women in the Republican period, and for all women beginning with the
Imperial Period. • Tunica, stola, and palla – for matrons in the Republic
and early Imperial Period. When wearing a stola, it is important to wear a
chiton for the tunica, not a peplos. The stola fell out of fashion in the
early Imperial Period, but was still worn by traditionalists. It is difficult for
the untrained eye to separate out the different layers of fabric on
frescoes and statues. To assist in this, Dulcia MacPherson posted a
collection of colorized statues that help differentiate between the
garments, and Tullia Saturnina added the wording to the image below.
LENGTH If you are portraying a working woman, stop the hem at mid-calf
or ankles. You can use a palla if you would like, but it’s not required.
Poorer people wore shorter clothes for ease of movement, and because
fabric was vastly expensive and time-consuming to make. For wealthier
ladies, the tunica should cover the feet so that just the toes are showing,
even after belting. PAGE 5 TUNICA The tunica is the base of the entire
outfit. It can be worn alone, or with an unseen linen undertunic, called a
subucula or tunica interior. There are four basic types of tunicas worn by
women in Ancient Rome: tunica opus, tunica recta, tunica virgo (peplos),
and tunica matrona (chiton). The tunica opus is a working tunic. Tunica
recta means “straight”, and refers to the straight seams of this easy to
sew tunic. Tunica virgo, or maiden, was often worn by unmarried women
and adolescent girls. The tunica matrona was worn by married women.
Note that sizing is based on height and arm length – you can gain or lose
weight and still wear the same clothes! This also makes for easy loaner
garb.