Course: GHY 203

Notes Compiled by:

Pr. Sohail Shoukat
Religion Department PASC.

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 Chapter #1.
Why Is It Important to Study History?

Even if you live to be 100, you’ll never run out of new things to learn. From
computer science and cryptocurrency to French literature and Spanish grammar, the
world is full of knowledge and it’s all at your fingertips. So, why choose history?

Many people study history in high school and come away thinking it’s boring,
irrelevant, or both. But as we get older, even just by a few years, we start to see the
importance of understanding the past.

Why do we study history?

We study history because history doesn’t stay behind us. Studying history
helps us understand how events in the past made things the way they are today. With
lessons from the past, we not only learn about ourselves and how we came to be, but
also develop the ability to avoid mistakes and create better paths for our societies.

How does history impact our lives today?

Events in the past have displaced families and groups, changing the makeup of
regions and often causing tensions. Such events have also created government
systems that have lasted generations beyond when they started. And all of it affects
each person alive today.

Take the Great Depression, for example one of the most difficult but impactful
periods in American history. The economic crisis put almost 15 million people out of
work and sent countless families into homelessness, stealing their sense of security.
Many of those people would feel insecure for the rest of their lives.

The government had to learn how to help. This effort gave rise to Social
Security, federal emergency relief programs, and funding for unemployment efforts.
These changes continue to make life more secure for millions of Americans.

Society today comes from hundreds and thousands of actions like these. The
more you learn about how these things happened, the better you understand real life.

What lessons can we learn from history?

History teaches us about things such as:

Why some societies thrive while others fail.

Why humans have gone to war.
How people have changed society for the better.
History isn’t a study of others. The people you learn about may have lived
decades or even centuries ago, but their actions directly affect how we live our lives
today. Events that seem like dates on a page have been turning points in the story of
our societies.

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 “Historical knowledge is no more and no less than carefully and critically
constructed collective memory.” -William H. MacNeill, former president of the
American Historical Association

Historical research builds and codifies these stories. When we study history,
we learn how we got where we are, and why we live the way we do. It’s the study of
us of humans and our place in an ever changing world. Without it, we wouldn’t
understand all of our triumphs and failures, and we would continually repeat patterns
without building forward to something better.

As Spanish philosopher George Santayana once said, “Those who cannot

remember the past are doomed to repeat it.”

How do past events help us understand the present?

The past creates the present. Our modern world exists because of events that
happened long before our time. Only by understanding those events can we know how
we got here, and where to go next.

1. History helps us understand change

History is full of transitions that have altered the world’s story. When you
build your knowledge of history, you understand more about what created our
present-day society.

Studying the American civil rights movement shows you how people organize
successfully against oppressive systems. Learning about the fall of Rome teaches you
that even the most powerful society can fall apart—and what happens to cause that
crumbling.

By learning about different eras and their respective events, you start to see
what changes might happen in the future and what would drive that change.

2. We learn from past mistakes

History gives us a better understanding of the world and how it operates.
When you study a war, you learn more about how conflict escalates. You learn what
dilemmas world leaders face and how they respond—and when those decisions lead
to better or worse outcomes.

Historical study shows you the warning signs of many kinds of disaster, from
genocide to climate inaction. Understanding these patterns will make you a more
informed citizen and help you take action effectively.

3. We gain context for the human experience

Before 2020, most Americans hadn’t lived through a global pandemic. The
1918-1919 flu pandemic had faded from the popular picture of history, overshadowed
by World War I on its back end and the Roaring 20s that followed.

Yet within months of COVID-19 entering the public awareness, historians and
informed private citizens were writing about the flu pandemic again. Stories of a

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deadly second wave were re-told to warn people against the dangers of travel, and
pictures of ancestors in masks re-emerged.

Through study of the past, we understand our own lives better. We see
patterns as they re-emerge and take solace in the fact that others have gone through
similar struggles.

History is valuable for many reasons, offering practical skills, fostering

informed citizenship, and providing a sense of identity and cultural understanding. It
equips individuals with critical thinking, research, and communication skills while
also informing decision-making and promoting empathy and tolerance.

1. Development of Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills:

History encourages the evaluation of evidence, the consideration of multiple
perspectives, and the ability to analyze complex situations.
It hones the skills of research, source validation, and the synthesis of
information to form well-supported arguments.
These skills are transferable to various fields and are essential for navigating
an increasingly complex world.

2. Understanding the Present and Shaping the Future:

History provides context for understanding current events, societal structures,
and cultural norms.
By learning from past successes and failures, individuals can make more
informed decisions and avoid repeating mistakes.
History also helps us appreciate the roots of our own identities and the
evolution of our communities.

3. Fostering Cultural Understanding and Empathy:

Studying history exposes individuals to diverse cultures, perspectives, and
experiences.
It promotes empathy and tolerance by encouraging an understanding of
different values, beliefs, and ways of life.
This can lead to greater appreciation for cultural diversity and a more inclusive
society.

4. Building Strong Communities:

History is a crucial element in building strong and resilient communities by
providing a sense of shared identity and collective memory.
Local history, family stories, and civic commemorations strengthen social
bonds and create a sense of belonging.
This sense of shared history can be a powerful force for community
engagement and positive social change.

5. Economic Development:
A strong sense of historical identity and character can be a valuable asset for
economic development.
Communities with well-preserved historical sites and cultural attractions can
draw tourists, businesses, and residents.

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 This can lead to job creation, increased revenue, and a more vibrant local
economy.
In essence, the study of history is not just about memorizing dates and events,
but about developing crucial life skills, understanding the present, and shaping a
better future for ourselves and our communities.

Chapter # 2.
What is history?

Key Takeaways

 History is the study of human past through written documents, but it's often
subjective.
 Many believe history is influenced by current conditions, making it not just facts
but interpretations.
 Different thinkers see history as both a serious study and sometimes just a
collection of stories.

History is the study of change over time, and it covers all aspects of human
society. Political, social, economic, scientific, technological, medical, cultural,
intellectual, religious and military developments are all part of history.

Arguably, it is the study of the human past as it is described in written

documents left behind by humans. The past, with all of its complicated choices and
events, participants dead and history told, is what the general public perceives to be
the immutable bedrock on which historians and archaeologists stand.

But as purveyors of the past, historians recognize that the bedrock is really
quicksand, that bits of each story are yet untold, and that what has been told is colored
by the conditions of today. While not untrue to say that history is the study of the past,
here is a collection of history's definition by historians, authors, philosophers, and
more, giving us a variety of enlightening perspectives.

History Definitions:
No one could argue that the best answer to the question "What is history?"
isn't a short one, but it helps if you can be witty as well.

John Jacob Anderson

"History is a narration of the events which have happened among mankind,

including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes
which have affected the political and social condition of the human race." (John Jacob
Anderson)

W.C. Sellar and R.J. Yeatman

"History is not what you thought. It is what you remember. All other history
defeats itself." (1066 and All That)

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 James Joyce

"History, Stephen said, is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake."

(Ulysses)

Arnold J. Toynbee

"History not used is nothing, for all intellectual life is action, like practical life,
and if you don't use the stuff well, it might as well be dead."

Edward Hallett Carr

"History is ... a dialogue between the present and the past. (originally:
Geschichte ist ... ein Dialog zwischen Gegenwart und Vergangenheit.)" (What Is
History?)

Voltaire

"History is nothing but a pack of tricks we play on the dead." (French original)
"J'ay vu un temps où vous n'aimiez guères l'histoire. Ce n'est après tout qu'un ramas
de tracasseries qu'on fait aux morts ... "

Values of History:

While there are real questions to be asked about how we can improve the
teaching of history as a subject, I believe its value to us is self-evident - to study
history is to study human experience. While the certainty of mathematics may make it
formidable to study, ultimately history will leave you with more questions than
answers.

Claire Morgan-Busher, our history tutor at Carfax Education, takes you

through the many reasons you should consider studying history as a subject study, and
understand the many values that this subject holds beyond the classroom.

Academic value:

History is generally not treated as a core subject, unlike english and maths, but
is undoubtedly helpful training for later academic life, in both humanities and
sciences. Studying history produces a well-rounded applicant for top universities and
gives them an edge on the competition. Although each syllabus focuses on different
historical events, issues, and figures, the core skillset between the American, British,
and French curriculums remains the same; the focus is on analytical skill, particularly
deductive reasoning.

History gives students an advantage when it comes to research, as key skills

include evaluating sources and assembling and assessing all the information available.
The ability to analyse the trustworthiness of data and to have an overview of where
the evidence comes from allows these students to excel at producing accurate and
relevant reports, which, given the spread of misinformation in online media during
recent years, is more important than ever.

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 At the same time, this research methodology leads to well-developed
arguments, as it relies on looking for weaknesses in one’s own evidence as well as
that of one’s opponent. This self-aware argumentative style is effective as a debating
strategy, and is relevant to a variety of fields, including law. Having an evidence-
based approach leads to greater confidence in one’s arguments, while simultaneously
encouraging an open-minded receptiveness to other points of view.

Civic value:

Students who enjoy history tend to seek a holistic understanding of whatever

they perceive, a trait that is not particularly encouraged by our specialised modern
world, but which is still needed in our leaders. Nobody wants the UN ambassadors to
miss the big picture when hashing out current affairs, or to find that our political
leaders have only considered one side of the debate they are engaging in.

As a cultural subject, history can bring us together into a shared understanding

of our similarities and differences as a collective. Yet we all have our own
perspectives on history, based on our own life experience, which has the potential to
create change and improve our societies. We can discuss the mistakes of the past in
order to avoid the same failings in the present.

History can be turned into a political weapon in the hands of those unwilling
to embrace its complexity and nuance, and those who have not studied it critically
enough to resist a one-sided perspective. In order to be engaged citizens, aware of
current affairs and able to resist propaganda, an analytical historian’s approach is a
necessity.

Human value:

While many remember history as a list of unfamiliar names with arbitrary

information attached to them, this is much more the fault of the teaching of history
than it as a subject. Commonalities exist between us all, to the extent that any in-depth
study of a time period will lend a student insight into how it felt to live back then, and
empathy for those who did.

It can refresh our eyes to look upon the society of another, with its flaws and
merits, and then turn to our own world, seeking out the injustice in it anew. History is
a discipline that promotes tolerance, empathy, and a healthy dose of humility, as
nothing is quite as black and white as it may seem initially. In analysing human
experience, we may yet learn to be more humane!
What does periodization mean in world history?

In historiography, periodization is the process or study of categorizing the past

into discrete, quantified, and named blocks of time for the purpose of study or
analysis. This is usually done to understand current and historical processes, and the
causality that might have linked those events.

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 Periodization for world history:

Era 1: The Beginnings of Human Society.

Era 2: Early Civilizations and the Emergence of Pastoral Peoples, 4000-1000
BCE.
Era 3: Classical Traditions, Major Religions, and Giant Empires, 1000 BCE-
300 CE.
Era 4: Expanding Zones of Exchange and Encounter, 300-1000 CE.

Culture and civilization:

Culture and civilization are related but distinct concepts. Culture refers to the
shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices of a group of people, while civilization
represents a more advanced stage of societal development characterized by complex
organization, technology, and infrastructure. Essentially, culture provides the
foundation upon which civilization is built, and civilization is an outward expression
of a society's culture through its achievements and structures.

Definitionof Culture:

Culture encompasses the non-material aspects of a society, including its

beliefs, values, norms, traditions, language, art, music, and knowledge.

Nature:
It's often described as the "software" of a society, shaping its worldview and
influencing how people interact with each other and the world around them.
Examples:
Religious beliefs, social customs, family structures, artistic expressions, and
language are all elements of culture.

Definition of Civilization:
Civilization refers to a more advanced stage of societal development
characterized by features like urbanization, organized government, specialized labor,
social hierarchies, monumental architecture, writing systems, and advanced
technologies.
Nature:
It represents the "hardware" of a society, the physical and organizational
structures that enable complex social life.
Examples:
Cities, roads, temples, writing systems, legal codes, and sophisticated tools
and technologies are all hallmarks of civilization.

Relationship between Culture and Civilization:

Culture as a Foundation:
Culture provides the shared values, beliefs, and knowledge that enable a
society to develop complex social structures and technologies, thus laying the
groundwork for civilization.

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 Civilization as an Expression:
Civilizational achievements like architecture, art, and technology reflect and
are influenced by the underlying culture of a society.
Interdependence:
Culture and civilization are interdependent. A society's culture shapes its
civilization, and the advancements of civilization can, in turn, influence and transform
a society's culture.
In essence, culture is about the "what" and "how" of a society, while
civilization is about the "where" and "when" of societal development.

Chapter # 3.
Formation of the Earth

The Earth formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago. Evidence suggests
that life emerged relatively early, with indications of life as far back as 4.28 billion
years ago, not long after the oceans formed. The earliest clear evidence of life, like
biogenic carbon signatures and stromatolite fossils, dates back to 3.7 billion years
ago. The origin of life is a complex and fascinating area of research, with scientists
exploring various theories about how life arose from non-living matter.

Formation of the Earth:

The solar system, including Earth, formed about 4.568 billion years ago.
Earth formed through accretion from the solar nebula.
A Mars-sized object is thought to have collided with Earth, ejecting material
that formed the Moon.
The early Earth was a molten, volatile planet, with intense volcanic activity.
Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere and oceans, though the
early atmosphere lacked significant oxygen.

The Origin of Life:

The conditions for life to arise were likely present within a few hundred
million years after the Earth's formation.
Liquid water is considered essential for life, and it appeared relatively early on
Earth.
Scientists theorize that life may have emerged in warm pools on land or near
hydrothermal vents in the ocean.
The earliest evidence of life comes from ancient rocks containing biogenic
carbon and fossilized microorganisms.
The first life forms were likely single-celled organisms, possibly similar to
bacteria.

Theories on the Origin of Life:

RNA World Hypothesis:

This theory suggests that RNA, a molecule similar to DNA, was the primary
form of genetic material in early life, capable of both carrying information and
catalyzing chemical reactions.

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 Metabolism-First Hypothesis:
This theory proposes that self-sustaining networks of chemical reactions,
perhaps near hydrothermal vents, were the basis for early life.

Genes-First Hypothesis:
This hypothesis suggests that self-replicating nucleic acids like RNA or DNA
were the first life forms, with metabolic processes developing later.

Early Earth and the Development of Life:

The early Earth was a very different place than it is today, with a different
atmosphere, different ocean chemistry, and a higher rate of impacts from asteroids
and comets.
Over time, the Earth's atmosphere became richer in oxygen due to the activity
of photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria.
The evolution of life is a continuous process, with new species arising and
existing species adapting to changing environments.

The Old Stone Age

The Old Stone Age, also known as the Paleolithic period, is the earliest period
of the Stone Age and human history, characterized by the use of rudimentary stone
tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. It spans from roughly 2.5 million years ago to
around 10,000 BCE. During this time, humans lived in small groups, were nomadic,
and relied on hunting and gathering for sustenance.

Timeline:
The Paleolithic period is the longest of the Stone Age periods, extending from
the earliest human ancestors to the end of the last Ice Age. It is generally divided into
Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic.

Tools and Technology:

Early humans developed basic stone tools through a process called flaking,
where they chipped away at stones to create sharp edges. These tools were used for
hunting, butchering, and other tasks.

Lifestyle:
Paleolithic humans were nomadic, constantly moving to find food sources.
They lived in temporary shelters like caves or rock overhangs, and relied on hunting
animals and gathering plants for survival.

Art and Culture:

While the Paleolithic period is characterized by its simplicity, evidence
suggests that early humans engaged in art. Cave paintings, carvings, and the creation
of ornaments demonstrate a capacity for symbolic thought and expression.

Key Developments:
The discovery and use of fire was a significant development during the
Paleolithic period, providing warmth, light, protection, and a means to cook food.

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 The Age of Metals
The Metal Ages refer to a period between the advent of the smelting of metal
in about 6200 BCE and the social changes of roughly 500 BCE. Metallurgy, or the
working of metal into tools, allowed early humans to develop new and hardier tools
that were better at harvesting crops and fighting wars.

The Age of Metals, also known as the Metal Ages, is a period in prehistory
characterized by the use of metal tools and weapons, replacing or supplementing
earlier stone tools. This era is divided into the Copper Age, the Bronze Age, and the
Iron Age, each marked by the dominant metal of the time. It represents a significant
technological advancement and a shift towards more complex societies.

Metallurgy:
The discovery and development of metalworking techniques, including
smelting and casting, were crucial.

Copper Age:
The earliest period where copper was used, often hammered into shape.

Bronze Age:
Marked by the use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, which is harder and
stronger than copper.

Iron Age:
Saw the widespread use of iron, a stronger and more readily available metal
than bronze.

Impact on Society:
The Age of Metals saw the growth of settlements into villages and cities,
increased trade, development of specialized labor, and more complex social
structures.

End of the Period:

The invention of writing is often considered the end of the prehistoric Metal
Age and the beginning of recorded history.

Chapter # 4.

Egypt "Gift of the Nile"

Egypt is known as the "Gift of the Nile" because the Nile River has been
fundamental to the country's development and survival for millennia, providing fertile
land for agriculture, a means of transportation and trade, and even influencing their
culture and religion. The river's annual floods deposited nutrient-rich silt, making the
desert land suitable for farming and supporting the growth of a powerful civilization.

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 Fertile Land:
The Nile's annual floods brought fertile silt, which created a narrow green belt
along the riverbanks, allowing for agriculture in the otherwise arid desert
environment.

Transportation and Trade:

The river served as a vital waterway for transportation and trade, connecting
different parts of the country and facilitating the movement of goods and people.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

The Nile was deeply intertwined with Egyptian culture and religion. The
annual floods were associated with themes of life, death, and rebirth, and deities like
Ra, Osiris, and Isis were linked to the river.

Development of Civilization:
The Nile's resources enabled the development of a complex and advanced
civilization, with advancements in agriculture, architecture, calendar systems, and
more.

Historical Accounts:
Greek historian Herodotus, in the 5th century BC, famously described Egypt
as "a land won by the Egyptians and given them by the Nile".

“The Gift of the Nile”: Egypt

In Egypt, complex societies grew on the banks of the Nile River, and by the
third millennium BCE their peoples created a distinctive culture and a powerful,
prosperous state. The earliest inhabitants along the banks of the Nile were a mixed
people. Some had migrated from the eastern and western deserts in Sinai and Libya as
these areas grew barren from climate change. Others came from the Mediterranean.
Equally important were peoples who trekked northward from Nubia and central
Africa. Ancient Egypt was a melting pot where immigrants blended cultural practices
and technologies.

Like Mesopotamia, Egypt had densely populated areas whose inhabitants

depended on irrigation, built monumental architecture, gave their rulers immense
authority, and created a complex social order based in commercial and devotional
centers. Yet the ancient Egyptian culture was profoundly shaped by its geography.
The environment and the natural boundaries of deserts, river rapids, and sea
dominated the country and its inhabitants. Only about 3 percent of Egypt’s land area
was cultivable, and almost all of that cultivable land was in the Nile Delta—the rich
alluvial land lying between the river’s two main branches as it flows north of modern-
day Cairo into the Mediterranean Sea. This environment shaped Egyptian society’s
unique culture.

The Nile River and Its Floodwaters

Knowing Egypt requires appreciating the pulses of the Nile. The world’s
longest river, it stretches 4,238 miles from its sources in the highlands of central
Africa to its destination in the Mediterranean Sea. Egypt was deeply attached to sub-

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Saharan Africa; not only did its waters and rich silt deposits come from the African
highlands, but much of its original population had migrated into the Nile Valley from
the west and the south many millennia earlier.

The Upper Nile is a sluggish river that cuts through the Sahara Desert. Rising
out of central Africa and Ethiopia, its two main branches—the White and Blue Niles
—meet at present-day Khartoum and then scour out a single riverbed 1,500 miles long
to the Mediterranean. The annual floods gave the basin regular moisture and enriched
the soil. Although the Nile’s floodwaters did not fertilize or irrigate fields as broad as
those in Mesopotamia, they created green belts flanking the broad waterway. These
gave rise to a society whose culture stretched along the navigable river and its
carefully preserved banks. Away from the riverbanks, on both sides, lay a desert rich
in raw materials but largely uninhabited. (See Map 2.4.) Egypt had no fertile
hinterland like the sprawling plains of Mesopotamia. In this way, Egypt was arguably
the most river-focused of the river-basin cultures.

The Nile’s predictability as the source of life and abundance shaped the
character of the people and their culture. In contrast to the wild and uncertain
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, the Nile was gentle, bountiful, and reliable. During the
summer, as the Nile swelled, local villagers built earthen walls that divided the
floodplain into basins. By trapping the floodwaters, these basins captured the rich silt
washing down from the Ethiopian highlands. Annual flooding meant that the land
received a new layer of topsoil every year. The light, fertile soils made planting
simple. Peasants cast seeds into the alluvial soil and then had their livestock trample
them to the proper depth. The never-failing sun, which the Egyptians worshipped,
ensured an abundant harvest. In the early spring, when the Nile’s waters were at their
lowest and no crops were under cultivation, the sun dried out the soil.

The peculiarities of the Nile region distinguished it from Mesopotamia. The

Greek historian and geographer Herodotus noted 2,500 years ago that Egypt was the
gift of the Nile and that the entire length of its basin was one of the world’s most self-
contained geographical entities. Bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on
the east and west by deserts, and on the south by waterfalls, Egypt was destined to
achieve a common culture. Due to these geographical features, the region was far less
open to outsiders than was Mesopotamia, which was situated at a crossroads. Egypt
created a common culture by balancing a struggle of opposing forces: the north or
Lower Egypt versus the south or Upper Egypt; the black, rich soil versus the red sand;
life versus death; heaven versus earth; order versus disorder. For Egypt’s rulers the
primary task was to bring stability or order, known as ma’at, out of these opposites.
The Egyptians believed that keeping chaos, personified by the desert and its
marauders, at bay through attention to ma’at would allow all that was good and right
to occur.

Kings, Pyramids, and Cosmic Order

The Third Dynasty (2686–2613 BCE) launched the foundational period

known as the Old Kingdom, the golden age of ancient Egypt. By the time it began, the
basic institutions of the Egyptian state were in place, as were the ideology and ritual
life that legitimized the dynastic rulers.

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 The king presented himself to the population by means of impressive
architectural spaces, and the priestly class performed rituals reinforcing his supreme
status within the universe’s natural order. One of the most important rituals was the
Sed festival, which renewed the king’s vitality after he had ruled for thirty years and
sought to ensure the perpetual presence of water. King Djoser, from the Third
Dynasty, celebrated the Sed festival at his tomb complex at Saqqara. This magnificent
complex includes the world’s oldest stone structure, dating to around 2650 BCE. Here
Djoser’s architect, Imhotep, designed a step pyramid that ultimately rose some 200
feet above the plain. The whole complex became a stage for state rituals that
emphasized the divinity of kingship and the unity of Egypt.

The Pyramids of Giza The Pyramid Fields of Giza lie on the western side of
the Nile, with the bustling modern city of Cairo in the distance. Old Kingdom kings
harnessed massive amounts of resources and human labor to complete these
monumental structures over the course of several decades in the twenty-sixth century
BCE. In the foreground stand three small pyramids of queens; the mostly collapsed
structure belonged to Queen Hetepheres I (for her bracelets, see Interpreting Visual
Evidence: Burials and Long-Distance Trade). Behind them is the pyramid of
Menkaure, the penultimate king of the Fourth Dynasty. Beyond Menkaure’s pyramid
is that of Khafre, which retains some of its casing stones near the top. In the distance,
behind Khafre’s pyramid, is the pyramid of Khufu, the largest of the three (taller than
Khafre’s by just under 10 feet).
The step pyramid at Djoser’s tomb complex was a precursor to the grand
pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BCE). These kings erected their
monumental structures at Giza, just outside modern-day Cairo and not far from the
early royal cemetery site of Saqqara, where Djoser’s step pyramid stood. The pyramid
of Khufu, rising 481 feet above the ground, is the largest stone structure in the world,
and its corners are almost perfectly aligned to due north, west, south, and east. The
oldest papyrus texts ever found—including a set of records kept by an official named
Merer around 2550 BCE, which was excavated recently at the ancient port of Wadi
al-Jarf—document a meticulous timetable for the gathering of stone for pyramid
construction during Khufu’s reign and tabulations of food to feed workers.

Construction of pyramids entailed the backbreaking work of quarrying the

massive stones, digging a canal so barges could bring them from the Nile to the base
of the Giza plateau, building a harbor there, and then constructing sturdy brick ramps
that could withstand the stones’ weight as workers hauled them ever higher along the
pyramids’ faces. Most likely a permanent workforce of up to 21,000 laborers endured
10-hour workdays, 300 days a year, for approximately 14 years just to complete the
great pyramid of Khufu. The finished product was a miracle of engineering and
planning. Khufu’s great pyramid contained 21,300 blocks of stone with an average
weight of 2½ tons, though some stones weighed up to 16 tons. Roughly speaking, one
stone had to be put in place every 2 minutes during daylight. The stone blocks were
planed so precisely that they required no mortar.

Surrounding these royal tombs at Giza were those of high officials, almost all
members of the royal family. The enormous amount of labor involved in building
these monuments came from peasant-workers as well as enslaved people captured and
brought from Nubia and the Mediterranean. Filling these monuments with wealth for
the occupants’ afterlife similarly required a range of specialized labor (from jewelers

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to weavers to stone carvers to furniture makers). Long-distance trade was required to
bring from far away not only the jewels and precious metals (like lapis lazuli,
carnelian, and silver) required for such offerings, but also the materials to construct
the ships that helped make that trade possible (like timber from Byblos). Through
their majesty and complex construction, the Giza pyramids reflect the degree of
centralization and the surpluses in Egyptian society at this time as well as the trade
and specialized labor that fueled these undertakings.

Kings used their royal tombs, and the ritual of death leading to everlasting life,
to embody the state’s ideology and the principles of the Egyptian cosmos. They also
employed symbols, throne names, and descriptive titles for themselves and their
advisers to represent their own power and that of their administrators, the priests, and
the landed elite. As in Mesopotamian city-states, the Egyptian cosmic order was one
of inequality and stark hierarchy that did not seek balance among people (for it
buttressed the inequalities and stark hierarchies of Egyptian society); rather, Egyptian
religion sought balance between universal order (ma’at) and disorder. It was the job of
the king to maintain this cosmic order for eternity.

Chapter # 5.
Babylon

The term "Babylonian" can refer to people, the language, or the geographical
area of ancient Babylonia. Babylonia was a Semitic Akkadian-speaking region and
cultural area centered on the city of Babylon in Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding
to present-day Iraq. The Babylonians were known for their advancements in
mathematics, astronomy, and law (including the Code of Hammurabi).

1. People: A "Babylonian" is a native or inhabitant of ancient Babylonia.

Babylonia was a region with a multicultural and multilingual population, but they
were unified by shared cultural and political practices.

2. Language: The "Babylonian language" refers to a dialect of the Akkadian

language spoken in ancient Babylonia.

3. Geography: Babylonia, as a geographical entity, encompassed the southern

part of Mesopotamia, with its heartland along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,
stretching from Babylon to the Persian Gulf.

4. Key aspects of Babylonian civilization:

Empire:
Babylon was the capital of several empires, most notably the Old Babylonian
Empire (under Hammurabi) and the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire.

Code of Hammurabi:
This famous legal code, inscribed on a stele, is a significant example of
Babylonian law.

15
 Astronomy and Mathematics:
The Babylonians made notable contributions to astronomy, developing a
system of zodiacal signs and methods for predicting celestial events. They also used
mathematics for various practical purposes, including calculating areas and volumes.

Culture:
The Babylonians developed a rich culture, including sophisticated systems of
writing (cuneiform), literature, and religious beliefs.

Technology:
Babylonians were known for their advancements in metalworking,
glassmaking, and irrigation systems.

Daily Life:
Babylonian society was patriarchal but with women having more rights than in
later civilizations. Class divisions existed, but there was some mobility between social
strata.

The Code of Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi was a set of 282 laws inscribed in stone by the
Babylonian king Hammurabi (r. 1795-1750 BCE) who conquered and then ruled
ancient Mesopotamia. Although his law code was not the first, it was the most clearly
defined and influenced the laws of other cultures.

The earliest extant set of laws from ancient Mesopotamia is the Code of Ur-
Nammu dating from c. 2100-2050 BCE and set down in the city of Ur either by King
Ur-Nammu (r. 2047-2030 BCE) or his son Shulgi of Ur (r. 2029-1982 BCE). These
laws were written by a king who ruled over a homogenous population and were
operating from a standard recognition of what was expected of the citizens. By the
time of Hammurabi’s reign, the population was more diverse, and his law code
reflects this in its precision to make sure everyone understood what was expected of
them.

The laws address business contracts and proper prices for goods as well as
family and criminal law. Every crime inscribed on the stele is followed by the
punishment to be inflicted. No one could claim they were ignorant of the law as the
over seven-foot-tall stele was erected publicly. At the top, it was engraved with an
image of Shamash, the god of justice, handing the laws to Hammurabi and the
following text makes clear that these are laws of the gods, not arbitrary rules created
by mortals.

Hammurabi’s empire fell apart after his death and Babylon was sacked
repeatedly over the years. Around 1150 BCE, Shutruk Nakhunte, King of Elam,
sacked the city of Sippar, near Babylon, and is thought to have taken the Code of
Hammurabi along with the statue of the god Marduk back to Elam as spoils of war. It

16
was discovered in 1901 in the ruins of the Elamite city of Susa and today is on display
at the Louvre Museum, Paris, France.

The Babylonian Economic Life:

The Babylonian economy was primarily agrarian, heavily reliant on

agriculture and animal husbandry. Barley was a key crop, and the extensive canal
system supported agriculture and allowed for trade. While barter was initially used,
silver gradually became the standard currency. Babylon was also a significant trading
hub, exchanging goods with surrounding city-states and even reaching distant lands
for resources.

Agriculture:
The fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed for
successful crop cultivation, with barley being a staple.

Trade:
Babylon's strategic location facilitated trade, with goods like textiles, metals,
timber, and semi-precious stones being exchanged.

Currency:
While barter was common, silver gradually took over as the primary medium
of exchange, and banks emerged to manage financial transactions.

Land Ownership:
Unlike earlier Mesopotamian societies where land was primarily controlled by
temples, individuals in Babylonia could own land.

Craftsmen:
Craftsmen, often employed by temples, produced various goods, contributing
to the economy.

Labor:
Peasants, including tenant farmers and laborers, worked the land, while
soldiers were sometimes allotted land in return for service.

Extensive Canals:
The elaborate canal system played a vital role in irrigation and trade,
supporting agricultural productivity and transportation.

Wool Production:
Sheep farming was significant, with wool being a major export and textile
production a key industry.

Babylonian Society and Religion:

Babylonian civilization, flourishing in Mesopotamia, featured a hierarchical

society and a polytheistic religion deeply intertwined with daily life. Society was

17
structured with nobles, free men, and slaves, while religion involved elaborate temple
rituals, festivals, and a belief in gods controlling various aspects of the world.

Society:
Social Hierarchy:
Babylonians lived in a society with distinct social classes, including nobles,
free men, and slaves, influencing their rights and opportunities.
Family and Inheritance:
Family structures and inheritance were important, with legal frameworks like
Hammurabi's Code addressing these aspects.

Economy:
The economy relied heavily on agriculture, with barley being a key crop.
Trade and the development of money also played a role.

Education:
Education was available, particularly for the children of the wealthy.

Urban Life:
Babylon, the capital, was a major city with a bustling population and complex
social interactions.
Religion:
Polytheism:
Babylonians believed in and worshiped numerous gods and goddesses, each
associated with different aspects of life and nature.

State and Personal Gods:

Some deities were state gods, like Marduk, the patron god of Babylon, while
others were personal gods worshipped in individual homes.

Temples and Rituals:

Temples were dedicated to the gods, with elaborate statues and rituals
performed by priests and priestesses.

Festivals:
Festivals were a significant part of religious life, with processions and
celebrations honoring the gods.

Mythology and Literature:

Babylonians adopted and adapted Sumerian myths, with Marduk gaining
prominence as the creator of the universe, according to Britannica Kids.

Ishtar and Tammuz:

The goddess Ishtar (linked to the Sumerian goddess Inanna) and her consort
Tammuz were important figures, with their worship and associated myths spreading
throughout the region.

Omens and Magic:

Priests interpreted omens and used magic and incantations to influence the
gods and ward off evil.

18
 Afterlife:
Babylonians believed in an afterlife, with souls being judged and sent to either
a paradise or a grim underworld, according to St. James Winery.

Chapter # 7

Ancient Jewish History: Who Were the Hebrews?

According to biblical tradition, the Hebrews are peoples

descended from Shem, one of Noah's sons, through Eber, the
eponymous ancestor, and Abraham. Gen. 7:22 f., reports that the
flood destroyed all life except that in Noah's ark; consequently, the
whole human family descended from Noah and his sons: Japheth,
Ham and Shem.

From Shem, through Arpachshad and Shelah came Eber, the

eponymous ancestor of the Hebrews, and from his descendants
through Peleg, Reu, Sereg and Nahor came Terah, the father of
Abram and his brothers Nahor and Haran. It becomes clear that if
"Hebrews" are descendants of Eber, then others besides those of
Abraham's line would be included (see Gen. 10:25-27).

With Abraham the story of the Hebrews begins, and it is

clearly stated that Hebrew origins lay outside Canaan. The
summons to leave his ancestral home and journey to Canaan is
accompanied by a promise (Gen. 12:2) that becomes a submotif in
patriarchal accounts, re-appearing again and again (cf. Gen. 13:14
f., 15:5 f., 18:10, 22:17, 26:24, 28:13 f., 32:12 f., 35:9 ff., 48:16),
finally taking covenantal form (Gen. 17:14 ff.). The promise has two
parts: nationhood and divine blessing or protection. The precise
location of the nation-to-be is not specified but was, of course,
known to those hearing or reading the account. The promise of
blessing signified the unique and particularistic bond between
Yahweh and his followers, so that the enemies of Abraham or the
nation were enemies of Yahweh, and those befriending Abraham
and/or the nation would be blessed. With this assurance, Abraham
journeyed to Canaan, Egypt, the Negeb, Hebron, Gezer, Beer-sheba
and back to Hebron where he and his wife Sarah died.

The descriptions of Abraham are not uniform: at times he

appears as a lonely migrant, at others as a chieftain, head of a large
family, or as a warrior. Factual details about the patriarch are
difficult to establish, for his real significance lies in what is often
called "inner history," through which those who looked to Abraham
as a forefather gained understanding of themselves as "people of
the promise" and attained, a sense of destiny and an appreciation of

19
their particular relationship to their deity. We have noted earlier that
some Abrahamic traditions coincide with information coming from
Nuzi, which would place Abraham in the Middle Bronze era.

We read that Abraham, in response to a divine summons, left

Mesopotamia and journeyed to Canaan with his wife, Sarah, and
nephew, Lot. It is clear that the people were meant to recognize
themselves as a community originating in a commission from God
and in the unwavering, unquestioning obedience of Abraham. The
journey itself was more than a pilgrimage, for it constituted the
starting point of a continuing adventure in nationhood. Nor are the
travelers without vicissitudes, but throughout famine, earthquake,
fire and war, they are protected by Yahweh.

Gen. 14, in which Abraham is called a "Hebrew" for the first

time, records a battle between the patriarch and kings of countries
or areas as yet unidentified for certain and associates him with the
Canaanite king of Jerusalem. It is possible that reliable historical
data are preserved here.2 The account of the destruction of Sodom
and Gomorrah may also rest in some memory of a shift in the
earth's crust that destroyed the cities of the plain. Tradition
associates Abraham with Hebron, and if Jebel er-Rumeide is the site
of this ancient city, it is evident that a powerful city was located
here in the Middle Bronze period.3

Abraham's adventures in the Negeb, the problems of grazing

and watering rights, and the digging of a well at Beer-sheba4 echo
genuine problems of the shepherd. The episode involving Sarah and
King Abimelech (a doublet of Gen. 12:10 ff.) introduces Sarah's
relationship to Abraham as both wife and sister, a relationship which
in Hurrian society provided the wife with privileged social standing.
It may also be interpreted as an historic link with the cultures of the
upper Euphrates.5

The close relationship between the Hebrews and the people of

the desert and steppes is recognized in the story of Ishmael, the
nomadic first son of Abraham; but it is through Isaac, the second
son about whom so very little is recorded, that the Hebrews trace
their own family line. Both Isaac and his son Jacob maintain a
separateness from the people among whom they dwell, taking wives
from among their own kin in Haran (Gen. 24; 28). The story of Jacob,
who becomes Israel, and his twin brother Esau, who becomes Edom,
is colored with rivalry, trickery and bitter misundertanding but also
contains echoes of Hurrian custom. In Hurrian law, birthright could
be purchased, and some of the terminology associated with Isaac's
blessing of his sons reflects Hurrian patterns.6

The stories about Jacob also accord with Nuzi (Hurrian) law for
it is recorded that a man may labor for his wife.7 In dealing with his

20
uncle Laban, Jacob's trickery was matched by his uncle's deceptive
acts. There is no condemnation of chicanery but, rather, the attitude
that to best a man in a business contract revealed cleverness. When
Jacob's hopes to inherit his uncle's estate were dashed by the birth
of male heirs, he broke contract and fled, and it was only when a
new contract was made that relationships were healed. The account
of Jacob's night wrestling with an angelic visitor has probably come
down to us through various recensions, for it now contains two
aetiological explanations: one concerning the name "Jacob-Israel"
and the other giving the reason why the ischiatic sinew is not eaten
by Hebrews. Other traditions associate Jacob with Bethel and
Shechem.

Joseph, the son of Jacob, was sold into slavery by jealous

brothers and rose to high office in Egypt. When his father and
brothers migrated to Egypt to escape famine, they were regally
received and encouraged to settle. Documents attesting to the
custom of admitting nomadic groups into the country in time of
famine are known from Egypt, and the Joseph stories reflect many
accurate details about Egyptian life and may be derived in part from
Egyptian tales, as we shall see. The pharaoh under whom Joseph
rose to power is not identified.

It is quite possible, as A. Alt has argued, that the patriarchs

were founders of separate cults or clans in which distinctive names
for the deity were compounded with patriarchal names.8 Hence, the
deity was known as "the Shield of Abraham" (Gen. 15:1), "the Fear
of Isaac" (Gen. 31:42, 53), and "the Mighty One of Jacob" (Gen.
49:24). Individual representations were later fused and equated with
Yahweh, and individual clan heroes were placed in an historical
sequence and made part of a single family line from Abraham to
Jacob (Israel).
After what appears to be an extended period of time, the
Hebrews increased in numbers and became a mighty multitude, and
a pharaoh who was indifferent to the Joseph traditions inherited the
throne and persecuted the Hebrews, pressing them into virtual
enslavement. Moses, a desert refugee from Egyptian justice,
became associated with the Kenite people. On the slopes of Mount
Sinai in a dramatic encounter with Yahweh, he was commissioned to
act as deliverer of the Hebrews. In the clash with Pharaoh, the god-
king's power was overshadowed by Yahweh through a series of
horrendous events in which the Nile was turned to blood and
plagues involving frogs, gnats, flies, cattle, boils, hail, locusts and
darkness are ultimately climaxed by the death of all the first-born
children of Egypt (Read Exod. 7-11). This final act, associated in
tradition with the Passover festival, persuaded Pharaoh to release
the Hebrews. Shortly after the Hebrews departed, Pharaoh changed
his mind and pursued them. At the Sea of Reeds, Yahweh permitted
the Hebrews to pass through the waters unscathed but

21
overwhelmed the Egyptians. The Hebrews pressed into the
wilderness to Mount Sinai where the law was given and there they
entered a covenant with Yahweh (Read Num. 14:39f.). After an
abortive attempt to seize Canaan by penetrating from the south,
they moved eastward and, after many setbacks, took up a position
on the eastern side of the Jordan, just north of the Salt Sea. Here
Moses died, and under his successor, Joshua, the attacks on Canaan
were launched.

Chapter # 8
Indus Valley Civilization.

Overview
The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also
known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day
northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.

Important innovations of this civilization include standardized

weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper,
bronze, lead, and tin.
Little is understood about the Indus script, and as a result, little is
known about the Indus River Valley Civilization’s institutions and
systems of governance.
The civilization likely ended due to climate change and migration.

Geography and time-frame:

In 1856, British colonial officials in India were busy monitoring

the construction of a railway connecting the cities of Lahore and
Karachi in modern-day Pakistan along the Indus River valley.

As they continued to work, some of the laborers discovered

many fire-baked bricks lodged in the dry terrain. There were
hundreds of thousands of fairly uniform bricks, which seemed to be
quite old. Nonetheless, the workers used some of them to construct
the road bed, unaware that they were using ancient artifacts. They
soon found among the bricks stone artifacts made of soapstone,
featuring intricate artistic markings.

Though they did not know it then, and though the first major
excavations did not take place until the 1920s, these railway
workers had happened upon the remnants of the Indus Valley
Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa,
the first of its sites to be excavated, in what was then the Punjab
province of British India and is now in Pakistan. Initially, many
archaeologists thought they had found ruins of the ancient Maurya
Empire, a large empire which dominated ancient India between c.
322 and 185 BCE.

22
 Before the excavation of these Harappan cities, scholars
thought that Indian civilization had begun in the Ganges valley as
Aryan immigrants from Persia and central Asia populated the region
around 1250 BCE. The discovery of ancient Harappan cities
unsettled that conception and moved the timeline back another
1500 years,situating the Indus Valley Civilization in an entirely
different environmental context.

Scholars are still piecing together information about this

mysterious civilization, but they have learned a great deal about it
since its rediscovery. Its origins seem to lie in a settlement named
Mehrgarh in the foothills of a mountain pass in modern-day
Balochistan in western Pakistan. There is evidence of settlement in
this area as early as 7000 BCE.

The Indus Valley Civilization is often separated into three

phases: the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, the
Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and the Late
Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may have had a

population of over five million people. The Indus cities are noted for
their urban planning, a technical and political process concerned
with the use of land and design of the urban environment. They are
also noted for their baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems,
water supply systems, and clusters of large, nonresidential
buildings.

The Indus Valley Civilization began to decline around 1800

BCE. Archaeological evidence indicates that trade with
Mesopotamia, located largely in modern Iraq, seemed to have
ended. The advanced drainage systems and baths of the great cities
were built over or blocked. Writing began to disappear, and the
standardized weights and measures used for trade and taxation fell
out of use.

Urban infrastructure and architecture

By 2600 BCE, small Early Harappan communities had

developed into large urban centers. These cities include Harappa,
Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan and
Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day
India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been
found, mainly in the general region of the Indus River and its
tributaries.

Mohenjo-daro is thought to have been built in the twenty-sixth

century BCE; it became not only the largest city of the Indus Valley

23
Civilization but one of the world’s earliest major urban centers.
Located west of the Indus River in the Larkana District, Mohenjo-
daro was one of the most sophisticated cities of the period, with
advanced engineering and urban planning.

Harappa was a fortified city in modern-day Pakistan that is

believed to have been home to as many as 23,500 residents living
in sculpted houses with flat roofs made of red sand and clay. The
city spread over 150 hectares—370 acres—and had fortified
administrative and religious centers of the same type used in
Mohenjo-daro.

Both cities had similar organization and featured citadels,

central areas in a city that were heavily fortified—protected with
defensive military structures. Additionally, both cities were situated
along the Indus River. This structure would have allowed those at
the higher levels of the buildings in either city to look down the river
and see into the distance.

The remains of the Indus Valley Civilization cities indicate

remarkable organization; there were well-ordered wastewater
drainage and trash collection systems and possibly even public
baths and granaries, which are storehouses for grain. Most city-
dwellers were artisans and merchants grouped together in distinct
neighborhoods. The quality of urban planning suggests efficient
municipal governments that placed a high priority on hygiene or
religious ritual.

Harappans demonstrated advanced architecture with

dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective
walls. These massive walls likely protected the Harappans from
floods and may have deterred military conflicts. Unlike Mesopotamia
and Ancient Egypt, the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization
did not build large, monumental structures. There is no conclusive
evidence of palaces or temples—or even of kings, armies, or priests
—and the largest structures may be granaries. The city of Mohenjo-
daro contains the Great Bath, which may have been a large, public
bathing and social area.

Innovation and exchange

The people of the Indus River Valley Civilization achieved

many notable advances in technology, including great accuracy in
their systems and tools for measuring length and mass. Fire-baked
bricks—which were uniform in size and moisture-resistant—were
important in building baths and sewage structures and are evidence
that Harappans were among the first to develop a system of
standardized weights and measures. The consistency of brick size

24
across cities also suggests unity across the various urban areas,
which is evidence of a broader civilization.

Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently partially-excavated

Rakhigarhi demonstrate the world's first known urban sanitation
systems. The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage
developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far
more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the
Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of
Pakistan and India today. Individual homes drew water from wells,
while wastewater was directed to covered drains on the main
streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes,
and even the smallest homes on the city outskirts were believed to
have been connected to the system, further supporting the
conclusion that cleanliness was a matter of great importance.

Harappans are known for seal carving— the cutting of

patterns into the bottom face of a seal, a small, carved object used
for stamping. They used these distinctive seals for the identification
of property and to stamp clay on trade goods. Seals—decorated with
animal figures, such as elephants, tigers, and water buffalos—have
been one of the most commonly discovered artifacts in Indus Valley
cities.

The Indus River Valley Civilization is considered a Bronze Age

society; inhabitants of the ancient Indus River Valley developed new
techniques in metallurgy—the science of working with copper,
bronze, lead, and tin. Harappans also performed intricate handicraft
using products made of the semi-precious gemstone Carnelian.

Evidence shows Harappans participated in a vast maritime—

sea—trade network extending from Central Asia to the Middle East.
The civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly
on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport
technology. The Harappan Civilization may have been the first to
use wheeled transport, in the form of oxcarts that are identical to
those seen throughout South Asia today. It also appears they built
boats and watercraft—a claim supported by archaeological
discoveries of a massive, dredged canal, and what is regarded as a
docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. Harappans also
engaged in shellworking, and shells used in their crafts have origins
from as far away as the coast of modern-day Oman.

Religion, language, and culture

Little is known about Harappan religion and language. A
collection of written texts on clay and stone tablets unearthed at
Harappa—which have been carbon dated 3300-3200 BCE—contain
trident-shaped, plant-like markings that appear to be written from
right to left. There is considerable debate about whether it was an

25
encoded language at all and whether it is related to Indo-European
and South Indian language families. The Indus script remains
indecipherable without any comparable symbols, and is thought to
have evolved independently of the writing in Mesopotamia and
Ancient Egypt. Researchers are using technological advances in
computer science in order to attempt to decipher it.

The Harappan religion also remains a topic of speculation. It

has been widely suggested that the Harappans worshipped a
mother goddess who symbolized fertility. In contrast to Egyptian
and Mesopotamian civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization seems
to have lacked any temples or palaces that would give clear
evidence of religious rites or specific deities.

The Harappan religion also remains a topic of speculation. It

has been widely suggested that the Harappans worshipped a
mother goddess who symbolized fertility. In contrast to Egyptian
and Mesopotamian civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization seems
to have lacked any temples or palaces that would give clear
evidence of religious rites or specific deities.

Many Indus Valley seals include the forms of animals; some

depict the animals being carried in processions, while others show
mythological creations like unicorns, leading scholars to speculate
about the role of animals in Indus Valley religions. Interpretations of
these animal motifs include signification of membership in a clan,
elite class, or kin structure. One seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a
half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger. This may be a
reference to the Sumerian myth of a monster created by Aruru—the
Sumerian earth and fertility goddess—to fight Gilgamesh, the hero
of an ancient Mesopotamian epic poem. This is a further suggestion
of international trade in Harappan culture.

Indus Valley excavation sites have revealed a number of

distinct examples of the culture’s art, including sculptures, seals,
pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in
terracotta, bronze, and steatite.

Among the various gold, terracotta, and stone figurines found

was a figure of a priest-king displaying a beard and patterned robe.
Another figurine in bronze, known as the Dancing Girl, is only 11
centimeters high and shows a female figure in a pose that suggests
the presence of some choreographed dance form enjoyed by
members of the civilization. Terracotta works also included cows,
bears, monkeys, and dogs. In addition to figurines, the Indus River
Valley people are believed to have created necklaces, bangles, and
other ornaments.

Institutions and hierarchies

26
 How was Harappan society organized, and what institutions
functioned as centers of authority? Archaeological records provide
no immediate answers regarding a center of authority or depictions
of people in power in Harappan society, and there are few written
records to consult. However, Harrapan artifacts display an
extraordinary uniformity. Pottery, seals, weights, and bricks with
standardized sizes and weights, suggest some form of authority and
governance, though it is not clear what that form was exactly.

Over time, various theories have developed concerning

Harappan systems of rule. One theory is that there was a single
state encompassing all the communities of the civilization; this
theory is supported by the similarity in artifacts, the evidence of
planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the
apparent establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
Another theory posits that there was no single ruler, but rather a
number of leaders representing each of the urban centers, including
Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and other communities. It seems likely that
there was not one centralized and all-powerful state but that various
classes and centers of power were integrated into a decentralized
structure.

Written records gave historians a great deal of insight into the

civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, but very few written
materials have been discovered in the Indus valley. Though seal
inscriptions do seem to have written information, scholars have not
been able to decipher the Indus script. As a result, they have had
considerable difficulty understanding the nature of the state and
religious institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization. We know
relatively little about their legal codes, procedures, and systems of
governance.

Historians have made educated guesses about the nature of

Harappan civilization from the available artifacts and physical
structures. Some experts have theorized that the Indus Valley
Civilization had no rulers as we understand them, that everyone
enjoyed equal status. Some evidence in support of this conclusion is
that most Harappan residents seem to have enjoyed relatively equal
health and that there were not many elite burials, which
archaeologists have discerned through mortuary analysis—the study
of graves and deposits containing human remains.

However, this does not conclusively prove that Harappan

society lacked any social hierarchy, and it could possibly be the
result of other factors, like different beliefs about the afterlife. Some
scholars point to varying house sizes and varied heights of
structures to suggest that different social classes occupied different
levels in the cities. Others identify items such as painted pottery,

27
bangles, beaded ornaments, and even location within cities as
indicators of wealth. A considerable degree of craft specialization
also suggests some degree of socio-economic stratification.

It is widely believed that the Harappan civilization was a

peaceful one that did not engage in any warfare, but there is not
conclusive evidence to support this belief, and some archaeologists
consider it a pervasive myth. Some scholars argue that Harappans
were peaceful primarily because there were no natural enemies due
to the geographic location of the major cities. Weapons have been
found at sites, but there is debate as to whether they were used in
conflict with other groups or as defense against wild animals.

Decline

The Indus Valley Civilization declined around 1800 BCE, and

scholars debate which factors resulted in the civilization’s demise.
One theory suggested that a nomadic, Indo-European tribe called
the Aryans invaded and conquered the Indus Valley Civilization,
though more recent evidence tends to contradict this claim. Many
scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization was
caused by climate change. Some experts believe the drying of the
Saraswati River, which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause
for climate change, while others conclude that a great flood struck
the area.

Various elements of the Indus Civilization are found in later

cultures, suggesting the civilization did not disappear suddenly due
to an invasion. Many scholars argue that changes in river patterns
caused the large civilization to break up into smaller communities
called late Harappan cultures.

Another disastrous change in the Harappan climate might

have been eastward-moving monsoons, or winds that bring heavy
rains. Monsoons can be both helpful and detrimental to a climate,
depending on whether they support or destroy vegetation and
agriculture.

By 1800 BCE, the Indus Valley climate grew cooler and drier,
and a tectonic event may have diverted or disrupted river systems,
which were the lifelines of the Indus Valley Civilization. The
Harappans may have migrated toward the Ganges basin in the east,
where they could have established villages and isolated farms.
These small communities would not have been able to produce the
same agricultural surpluses to support large cities. With the reduced
production of goods, there would have been a decline in trade with
Egypt and Mesopotamia. By around 1700 BCE, most of the Indus
Valley Civilization cities had been abandoned.

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 Mohenjo Daro

Mohenjo Daro, or "Mound of the Dead" is an ancient Indus

Valley Civilization city that flourished between 2600 and 1900 BCE.
The site was discovered in the 1920s and lies in Pakistan's Sindh
province. Only a handful of archaeologists have excavated here,
described in the introduction and illustrated essay Mohenjodaro: An
Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis.

The Great Bath is situated along a north-south street with a drain covered with
limestone blocks. In the background is the so-called Granary, while in the foreground
are the walls of several domestic structures. The side walls of the tank were
constructed with finely fitted bricks and a thick layer of bitumen (natural tar) was laid
along the sides of the tank to keep water from seeping through the walls and up into
the superstructure. This drain cuts through the edge of the so-called granary. If the
entire drain were constructed along with the Great Bath, this feature would indicate
that the original "granary" was built before the great bath.

House A1 may have been a temple or palace of an important leader. Two

doorways lead to a narrow courtyard at a lower level. A double staircase leads to an
upper courtyard surrounded by several rooms. This house had numerous seals and
fragments of a stone sculpture depicting a seated man wearing a cloak over the left
shoulder.

Toilets would have been an essential feature in Mohenjo-daro, but the early
excavators identified most toilets as post-cremation burial urns or sump pots. This
brick structure had a hole in the top that was connected to a small drain leading out of
the base into a rectangular basin (not reconstructed). Early excavators suggested this
might have been a toilet. Some houses had small staircases leading to a second story
or to a platform for pouring water into a bathing area. Looking south along the street
to the east of the Great Bath. In the foreground is a unique brick platform with hollow
sockets used to place upright beams that may have formed a gate or traffic control
device. A large street drain covered with limestone blocks runs the length of the
street.

The Harappan civilization

The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was a
Bronze Age civilization in South Asia, flourishing from roughly 3300 to 1300 BCE,
with its peak between 2600 and 1900 BCE. It was one of the world's earliest urban
civilizations, known for its advanced urban planning, sophisticated sanitation systems,
and standardized weights and measures.

Key Characteristics:
Urban Planning:
Harappan cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were meticulously planned
with a grid-like street system and well-defined residential areas.

Sanitation and Public Works:

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 The civilization is renowned for its advanced drainage systems, brick-lined
wells, and public baths, indicating a strong emphasis on public health and sanitation.

Standardization:
Harappans used standardized bricks, weights, and measures across their vast
territory, suggesting centralized control and efficient trade practices.

Writing System:
They developed a pictographic script, but it remains undeciphered, leaving
many aspects of their culture and language unknown.

Trade:
Harappans engaged in extensive trade networks, both locally and with other
civilizations in Mesopotamia and Central Asia, exchanging goods like pottery, beads,
and possibly cotton.

Religion and Rituals:

While the exact nature of their religion is unclear, archaeological evidence
suggests ceremonial cleansing practices and a possible connection to Shiva through
the Pashupati seal.

Decline:
The civilization declined around 1900 BCE, possibly due to climate change, a
reduction in trade, or other factors like civil strife.

Discovery and Significance:

The civilization was first discovered at Harappa, leading to its name.
It's one of the largest Bronze Age civilizations, spanning over a million square
kilometers.
The Harappan civilization is notable for its sophisticated urban development,
sanitation systems, and trade networks, which were advanced for their time.

In summary, the Harappan civilization was a highly organized and

technologically advanced society that thrived in the Indus Valley for centuries.
Despite the mystery surrounding their writing system and specific religious beliefs,
their legacy as urban planners, sanitation experts, and traders remains significant in
the history of South Asia and the world.

Chapter # 9
Ancient China

Ancient China is responsible for a rich culture, still evident in modern China.
From small farming communities rose dynasties such as the Zhou (1046-256 B.C.E.),
Qin (221-206 B.C.E.), and Ming (1368-1644 C.E.). Each had its own contribution to
the region.
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were the three main philosophies and
religions of ancient China, which have individually and collectively influenced
ancient and modern Chinese society.

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 Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are considered the “three pillars” of
ancient Chinese society. As philosophies and religions, they not only influenced
spirituality, but also government, science, the arts, and social structure. Though their
specific beliefs and teachings have occasionally been at odds with each other, there
has been much room for overlap. Instead of one tradition taking over and pushing the
others out, the three philosophies have influenced society alongside each other,
changed each other, and at times blended together. Understanding the unique
interplay between these three traditions gives great insight into ancient Chinese
society, as well as modern times.

Confucianism

Though closer to a philosophy than a true religion, Confucianism was a way of

life for ancient Chinese people, and it continues to influence Chinese culture today.
The founder of Confucianism, named Confucius, lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. He
was a philosopher and political figure who lived during a time when traditional
Chinese principles began to deteriorate under competing political states. He took older
religious precepts and translated them into guidelines for social mores. His teachings
gave guidance on all levels of ancient Chinese life, from interactions between family
members and in the public sphere, to educational standards and how states should be
governed. Confucius saw every aspect of life as being made up of obligations between
people and entities, and rituals to convey the mutual dependency between them. His
teachings focused on humanism, including treating others the way you would want to
be treated. He taught that if everyone fulfilled their roles and obligations with respect
and kindness towards others, it would build a stronger state. While religious rituals
were mentioned alongside all of the other rituals a person was expected to perform,
Confucius did not focus on spiritual concerns like the afterlife, gods and goddesses, or
mysticism. This is why Confucianism is considered a philosophy rather than a
religion, even though it is often lumped in with other major religions.

Confucianism became the dominant political philosophy during the Han

Dynasty from 206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. Because Confucian teachings were conservative
and told people to maintain their role in social order, the philosophy was used by the
state to keep the status quo from that time forward. The structure of Chinese society
and its focus on rituals, familial respect and obligation, worship of ancestors, and self-
discipline, remains greatly influenced by Confucius and his teachings.

Taoism

Taoism (also called Daoism) is a Chinese religion that developed a bit after
Confucianism, around two thousand years ago. In contrast to Confucianism, Taoism is
mainly concerned with the spiritual elements of life, including the nature of the
universe. The guiding principle of Taoism is roughly translated as “the Way,” which
is a harmonious natural order that arises between humans and the world, and that
Taoists should strive to achieve. In the Taoist structure of the universe, humans are
meant to accept and yield to the Tao and only do things that are natural and in keeping
with the Tao. This is the concept of wu-wei, which translates as “non-action,” but
really means to go with the true nature of the world and not strive too hard for desires.
This puts Taoism in opposition to Confucianism in another way: it is not concerned
about with humanistic morality, government, and society, all of which Taoists see as

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inventions of humans and not necessarily part of the Tao. At the same time, Taoists
were interested in longevity, both of the human body and the soul. Achieving spiritual
immortality through becoming one with nature is an important part of the Taoist
religion.

Despite their differences, Taoist and Confucian ideas are not completely at
odds with each other, so Chinese society was able to absorb concepts from both
traditions. Taoism had influence on literature and the arts, but the biggest area of
Taoist influence was in science. The Taoist focus on natural elements and observing
how the natural world works helped to create Chinese medicine. Similar to the
modern scientific method, Taoists observed how different medicines affected people
and animals through experimentation. Their collective knowledge gained through
trying to improve human longevity made a huge contribution to health sciences.

Buddhism

Buddhism was the third major belief system of ancient China. It was founded
by Siddhartha Gautama, also called the Buddha, who lived in India around the sixth
century B.C.E. Buddhism is a philosophy that focuses on personal development and
attainment of deep knowledge. Buddhists seek to achieve enlightenment through
meditation, spiritual learning, and practice. They believe in reincarnation and that life
is impermanent and full of suffering and uncertainty; the way to find peace is through
reaching nirvana, a joyful state beyond human suffering. There are many different
sects that place different emphasis on various aspects of Buddhism. The two largest
sects are Theravada Buddhism, which is found primarily in southern Asia, and
Mahayana Buddhism, which is found in east Asia, including China.

After its founding in India, Buddhism spread to and became popular in China
in the first century C.E. Part of the reason Buddhism became popular in China was
because of Taoism. Some Buddhist practices were similar to Taoist ones, and
Buddhist monks would use Taoist concepts to explain Buddhism to the Chinese,
overcoming the cultural and language barrier between Indian and the Chinese people.
Buddhism also influenced Taoism with its institutional structure, which Taoists
copied and modified. A competition between Buddhism and Taoism arose to gain
more followers and greater government influence, and this competition increased the
vitality of both religions. As Buddhism became more prevalent, its concepts merged
with Taoist and Confucian ideas to become the basis of ancient Chinese society and
government. Its influence is seen in Chinese art, architecture, and literature.

Values and ideas from Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are still
prevalent in Chinese culture today. Despite the differences and occasional
contradictions between the three traditions, the ancient Chinese society held each of
these philosophies in high importance and incorporated the different teachings into
multiple areas of life.

The Great Wall of China

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 The Great Wall of China was built over centuries by China’s emperors to
protect their territory. Today, it stretches for thousands of miles along China’s historic
northern border. The Great Wall of China is one of the most notorious structures in
the entire world. The Jinshanling section in Hebei Province, China, pictured here, is
only a small part of the wall that stretches over 4,000 kilometers (2,500 miles).

The one thing most people “know” about the Great Wall of China—that it is
one of the only man-made structures visible from space—is not actually true. Since
the wall looks a lot like the stone and soil that surround it, it is difficult to discern with
the human eye even from low Earth orbit, and is difficult to make out in most orbital
photos. However, this does not detract from the wonder of this astounding ancient
structure.

For millennia, Chinese leaders instituted wall-building projects to protect the

land from northern, nomadic invaders. One surviving section of such an ancient wall,
in the Shandong province, is made of hard-packed soil called “rammed earth” and is
estimated to be 2,500 years old. For centuries during the Warring States Period,
before China was unified into one nation, such walls defended the borders.

Around 220 B.C.E., Qin Shi Huang, also called the First Emperor, united
China. He masterminded the process of uniting the existing walls into one. At that
time, rammed earth and wood made up most of the wall. Emperor after emperor
strengthened and extended the wall, often with the aim of keeping out the northern
invaders. In some places, the wall was constructed of brick. Elsewhere, quarried
granite or even marble blocks were used. The wall was continuously brought up to
date as building techniques advanced.

Zhu Yuanzhang, who became the Hongwu Emperor, took power in 1368 C.E.
He founded the Ming Dynasty, famous for its achievements in the arts of ceramics
and painting. The Ming emperors improved the wall with watchtowers and platforms.
Most of the familiar images of the wall show Ming-era construction in the stone.
Depending on how the wall is measured, it stretches somewhere between 4,000 and
5,500 kilometers (2,500 and 3,400 miles).

In the 17th century, the Manchu emperors extended Chinese rule into Inner
Mongolia, making the wall less important as a defense. However, it has retained its
importance as a symbol of Chinese identity and culture. Countless visitors view the
wall every year. It may not be clearly visible from space, but it is considered “an
absolute masterpiece” here on Earth.

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