Glossary Glossary A . Activation ‘energy: The energy required for a chemical reaction to occur, which involves breaking and forming chemical bonds in’ the reactants, Active site: A small cleft or depression on the Surface of enzyme molecule; location at which ‘catalysis occurs Adhesion: The sticking together of molecules of different kinds Aerobic respiration: The complete breakdown of Glucose molecule occurs in the presence of oxygen. Alcoholic fermentation: The type of anaerobic respiration in which pyruvic acid is further broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Allopatric speciation: A mode of speciation induced when an ancestral population becomes Segregated by a geographic barrier or itself vided into two or more geographically isolated subpopulation, : Anabolism: The set of metabolic processes that involve the ‘synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ores Anaerobié~ respiration: Type . of respiration that does not require oxygen, Anaphase: A phase of mitosis during which the spindle fibres contract and shorten and exert pulling ‘the sister chromatids apart towards ‘opposite poles‘ the ce Anatomy: The branch of biology deals with the intemal structure and organization of ving organisms. Amino-acids: The building blocks of proteins. 20 different amino acids are commonly found in proteins, each with a unique chemical structure, Animal husbandry: It concems with the care, management, and breeding of domestic animals £9, cattle, sheep etc. for various purposes, such 8s agriculture, esearch or conservation, Animalia; ‘Kingdom that includes eukaryotic ‘multicellular organisms without cell wall. They are heterotroph consumers, Asexual reproduction: Reproduction that: does not involve fusion of gametes: requires a single Parent which gives rge to offspring, cellular ATP, adenosine triphosphate: A nucleotide and 2 crucial molecule that serves as’ the primary energy cartier in cells, B Binary fission: Method of asexual reproduction in which parent simply divides into two identical Offspring; happens in bacteria, some protists, some lower animals Binomial nomenclature: The way of giving Sclentific names to organisms; consists of two ames (species name and genus name), Biochemistry: Branch that deals with the study of chemical processes occurring in living organisms, & All kinds of organisms found in an The study of organisms from economical point of view, Bloenergetics: Study of the energy relationships and energy transformations in biological systems logeography: The study of the distribution of living organisms in different geographical regions of the world, Biology: The scientific study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment. Biomolecules: The molecules produced by organisms; eg. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (ONA and RNA) Biostatistics: The study of the principles of Statistics which are applicable to biology to analyse and interpret data’ related. to living organisms. Biophysics: The study’ of principles and techniques of physics which are applicable to biological phenomena, Biotechnology: The use of living organisms:or their components to produce useful products, Botany: The field of biology that deals with the study of plants Budding: A type of asexual reproduction in which @ new organism develops from a small ‘outgrowth or "bud" on the parent. Bulbs: Modified short underground stems with stored food, c Casparian strip: Specialized band of endodermis Which regulates the passage of water and minerals into the vascular tissue 173Glossary Catabolism: The metabolic processes that involve the. breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones. Cell: The fundamental unit of life. Cell cycle: The series of events that a cell grows, replicates its DNA, and divides into two daughter calls Cell wall: The protective and rigid structure that "surrounds the cell membrane of many types of cells, including plant cells, bacterial cells, and fungal cells Cell membrane: The cost of lipids and proteins, surrounds and encloses a cel Cellular respiration: The oxidation of food (glucose) that occurs in cells to get energy (ATP). Centriole: . Cylindrical (tube-like organelles) composed of microtubules: present in the cells of animals and most protiss ‘Chiasmata: The complexes forrhed by the joining {attachment) of two ‘non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis Chloroplast: Organelle in the cells of plants and algae where photosynthesis takes place. Chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome. ‘Chromosome: Coiled structure made of DNA and proteins, si Chromoplasts: The plastids that store pigments other than chlorophyll, such as carotenoids. Class: The taxonomic rénk; formed by dividing a Phylumydivision; consists of a group of related orders Classification: The process of organizing and classifying living organisms based on. their similarities and differences. Cosnzymes: Cofactors, which are non-protein organic molecules, loosely attached with enzyme; participate in enzyme catalysed reactions. Cofactor: Non-proiein component of enzyme; Participate in enzyme catalysed reactions. Cohesion: The sticking together of molecules of the same kind. Companion cells: Cells of phloem tissue that provide energy to sieve elements. Competitive inhibitor: Inhibitor that resembles the substrate and competes with it for the same binding site on enzyme, Grossing over: The exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids during prophase-i of meiosis. Gytokinesis: The division ofthe etoplasm. Cytology: The study of the structure of cells end cell dvsion Gytoplasm: The material inside the cell membrane ofa cell (excluding organelles) Cytoskeleton: Filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm that make the internal framework of cell, D Dark reactions: Reactions in which carbon from COz, energy from ATP, and hydrogen ions from NADPH are used to make sugar molecules. Deduction: The logical result from a hypothesis; involves using logical reasoning to derive specific consequences from a hypothesis. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): The hereditary material present in almost all’ organisms; 2 double-stranded molecule composed of, nucleotides. Disaccharides: Carbohydrates that are made from two monosaccharide units; less sweet in tases and less soluble in water. - Domain: The highest level of classification; there are three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, arid Eukarya. Double helix: The form of DNA, referring to its two polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape. E Ecology: The study of how organisms interact with thei envionment. Electron Transport Chain (ETO: Series of electron-transport molecules that pass high energy electrons from molecule to molecule and capture their energy. Endodermis: A single layer of cells surrounds the pericyce. Embryology: The study of the developmental stages of an organism, Embryo sac: The female gametophyte of angiosperms; consists of eight haploid nuclei, formed from megaspore. Emergent properties: The properties that arise when the interaction of individual component produce new furictons. 174Glossary Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of interconnécted channels that extends from the cell membrane to the nuclear envelope. Enzymes: Biological catalysts made of proteins that catalyse (ie. speed up) biochemical reactions without themselves being changed Epidermis:.The outermost plant tissue; form a protective barrier against the environment. Erythrocytes (Red blood cells): Blood cals that cary oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation, Evolution: The process through which Populations and species of organisms change overtime, < Excretion: The disposal of nitrogen-containing ‘waste products from the body. F Family: Taxonomic rank formed by the division of an order. Fatty acids: Building blocks of lipids; consist of @ tong hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end. Fertilization: The union produce 3 diploid aygote Fungi: Eukaryotic, mutticllular (mushrooms and molds) or unicellular (yeasts) heterotrophs which obtain nutrients by absorbing organic matter from environment, G Gamete: A haploid cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to Produce a diploid zygote, Gap 1 (G1) .Phase: The first phase of the interphase; phase of extensive metabolic activity and growth, increases in number of organelles. Gap 2 (G2) Phase: The phase of interphase-in which call continues to grow and prepares Proteins essential for mitosis, Genetics: The study of genes, heredity and variation in living organisms. Gene: A discrete unit of here consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (oF RNA, in some viruses). Genus: The. taxonomic rank formed by the dhvision of 3 family; a genus is a group of related species," < of haploid gametes to Glycerot: An alcohol having 3 carbon atoms. Each carbon has a hydroxyl group. Glycolysis: First stage of cellular respiration in which glucose is split into two molecules of Pyruvate (pyruvic acid). Golgi apparatus: Organelle in eukaryotic cels that processes proteins and prepares them for use both inside and outside cell, Grana_ (singular, granu): structures in chloroplast, consist of sac-like membranes, known as thylakoids. Guard cells: Bean-shaped cells in the epidermis Of leaves; two guard cells surround a stoma, H Histology: The microscopic study of tissues of living organisms. Homeostasis: The’ ability to maintain the intertal conditions constant. Homologous chromosomes: Chromosome pairs (of the same length and centromere position that Possess genes for the same characters, Horticulture: Science that deals with gardening, Human Genome Project: An international Collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. Hydrophytes: The plants which lve in freshwater. Hypothesis: Tentative statement that may be the ‘answer of the scientific problem, 1 Immunology: The study of the immune system of animals, which protects the body against infections, diseases, and ~ other harmful substances, Inhibitor: Chemical that interferes and blocks an enzyme'’s activity. i interphase: The phase of cell cycle during which the cel is not dividing but it carries out its normal functions like it grows in size, and prepares for cell division, K Karyokinesis: The division of a nucleus. Kingdom: Taxonomic rank formed. by the dividing @ domain; e.g, Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Krebs cycle: Second stage of aerobic respiration in which two pyruvic acid molecules are broken to make ATP, NADH and FADH». 175Glossary L Lactic acid fermentation: The type of anaerobic respiration in which pyruvic acid is converted into lactic ac. Leucoplasts: Plastids that have no pigments; involved in the storage of starches, lipids, and proteins Light reactions: First stage of photosynthesis in Which light energy from the sun is captured and changed into chemical energy that is stored in [ATP and NADPH. Lysosome: Spherical __ membrane-bounded organelle: contain digestive enzymes. M (Macronutrients; Mineral nutrients that plants ‘need i relatively large amounts. Marine biology: The study of organisms, ecosystems, and processes in oceans. Mesophyil cells:-Cells in leaves; responsible for photosynthesis, Messenger, RNA (mRNA): A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA; attaches to ribosomes and spetifie the primary structure of a protein. Mesophytes: The plants that ive in land habitats with moderate supply of water. Meiosis: The type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes in daughter cells is reduced to half as compared to the parent cel ‘Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions taking place within a cellin order to maintain life Metaphase: Second phase of mitosis during which spindle fibres connect t6 chromosomes, which arrange themselves along the equator of the cell forming a metaphase plate Micrébiology: The study of microorganisms such as bacteria and microscopic fungi ete Microfilament: Part of cytoskeleton, solid rods made of actin protein. Micronutrients: The nutrients that are needed by piants in very small amounts, Microtubule: Part of cytoskeleton, ‘linder made of tubulin protein. Mitochondria: Organelles in eukaryotic cel thet makes energy available to the cell inthe form of a. Mitosis: The type of cell divsion in which the daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cel hollow Molecular biology: The study of the structure and function of macromolecules (e.g carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids) Monosaccharides: The simplest carbohydrates and consist of a single sugar molecule. Morphology: The study of the size, shape, and structure of living organisms. N Natural sélection: The process through which the individuals with better characteristics (variations) reduce more surviving offspring -than the individuals lacking these variations. ‘Neuron: A nerve cel the fyndarental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals Non-competitive Inhibitor: inhibitor that has no structural similarity to. substrate;"it binds the enzyme outside the active site and alters the shape of enzyme. . Non-disjunction: The fallure of chromosome pairs of sister chromatids to separate properly during -cell division; results in an abnormal number of chromosomes (aneuploidy) daughter cells Nuclear envelope: Double membrane that enicloses the contents of the nuciels.” .! Nucleoid: A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell Nucléolus: Darkly stained “structure in nuucleoplasm: manufactures the subunits of ribosomes, Nucleoplasm: Semi-iuid matric found inside the nucleus. Nucleus: Organelle inside eukarjotic cells that contains acts asa control centre ofthe cell Nutrients: The substances that an organism ‘obtains and uses for energy or forthe synthesis of new materials. Oo Organ: Structure made up of more than one type of ‘tissues having related functions that work together. ‘i ‘Organ system: A collection of different organs that work together to perform a related function Organelles: Components of a cell eg, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, Ovary: (1) In flowers, the portion of-a.carpel in which the egg-containing ovulés’ develop. (2) In 116Glossary animals, the structure that produces. female gametes, Ovum: The female gamete; the haploi unfertilized eg, P Palaeontology: The study of fossils. Palisade mesophyi: The mesophyll located Just beneath the upper epidermis; consists of tightly Packed cells, i rch in chloroplasts; primary site of Photosynthesis, Patholouy:.The study of diseases caused by Imicroorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi etc, Pharmacology: The effects on the body. Phloem: . Vascular tissue in higher plants; ransport food from where it is produced or stored to other parts of the plant. Photosynthesis: The process in which carbon dioxide and,water combine to make glucose in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Phragmoplast (cell plate): The dividing plate formed during cytokinesis in plant cells; formed by the fusion of small vesicles from Golgi apparatus. Phylum (Division: for plants and fungi Taxonomic rank formed by dividing a kingdom, study of drugs and their Phylum isa group of related classes, Physiology: The branch of biology that deals with ‘the functions of living organisms 5 R Rhizomes: “Underground stems* that grow horizontally‘ have scale leaves Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): Type of nucleic that serves as @ messenger between DNA end ribosomes during protein synthesis ‘bosomal RNA (FRNA): A type RNA; makes the structure of ribosomes, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Endoplasmic Reticulum covered with ribosomes, involved in the production and processing of proteins. s Saturated fatty acids: fatty acids which have no double bonds between carbon atoms Scientific method: A systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and understand nature, Sexual reproduction: Type of reproduction that involves the fusion of gametes, feve elements: Cells of -phloem tissue that \wansport food, ‘Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes; invalved in Production of lipids, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification. Species: A group whose members possess similar anatomical characteristics and have the ability to interoreed, Speciation: The process’ by which new species arise from existing ones. Sperm: The male gamete ‘Spongy mesophyll: Mesophyll present below the Palisade layer; consists of loosely arranged cells with air spaces between them, Substrates: The molecules that undergo a chemical reactions catalysed by enzymes, Symapsis: The palring of homologous chromosomes during meiosis ‘Synthesis phase or S phase: Phase of interphase of cell cycle in which DNA replication occurs. Sympattic Speciation: A type of speciation that Occurs when a new species arises within the same Seogréphical area without geographic isolation, bi Taxonomy: classification subgroups differences, Telophase Phase of * mitosis; marks . the Completion of the separation of the duplicated chromosomes. Tetrad: The bivalent madé of chromosomes (four chromatid), Theory: The hypotheses that stand the test of time (often tested and never rejected), Thylakoid: The inner membrane in 2 chloroplast where the light reactions of photosynthesis occur. Tissue: A group of similar ces that work together to perform a specifi function, Transcription: The synthesis of RNA on a DNA template, Transfer RNA (RNA): A type of RNA that transfers specific amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis, The study of the naming and of organisms’ inté groups “and based on their similarities and two homologous 7Glossary Translation: The syithesis ofa polypeptide using the genetic: information present on mRNA molecule, Transpiration: The loss of water from plant surface through evaporation, Turgor pressure: Pressure within a cell resulting from the movement of water into'the cel u Unsaturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. v Vacuole: Sac-like organelle that stores and transports materials inside a cell x Xerophytes: The plants that live in dry conditions Aylem: Vascular tissue responsible for transporting water and minerals absorbed by the rots from the soil to the rest of the plant Zz Zoology: The field of biology deals with the study * of animals. Zygote: The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception; a fertilized egg 178