Growth Law Academy

LLB Part-I
Sociology-I
Complete Notes

Written by: Azhar Mehmood khokhar & Maryam

Chaudhry Advocate High Court
Published by: Growth Law Series
Distributed by: Growth Law Academy
Updated: 2023 syllabus

Admission office: 04237114321

Whatsapp: 03149780470
Location:
Sani centre adjacent Jamia Qadsia, Upper Cakes and Bakes,
Chowk Chubrji Lahore

1|Page
 Sociology Notes

COURSE OUTLINE

PAPER-III Sociology-I

Total Marks: 100

Course Level: 05 Years LLB Program

CONTENT SUMMARY:
1. Introduction
a. What is sociology, its nature and scope?
b. Sociology & other social sciences.
c. Origin & Development of sociology
d. Sociological Perspective
i. Structural Functionalism
ii. Social Conflict
iii. Symbolic Interactionism
iv. Feminism

2. Culture
a. Defining culture
b. Types of culture
c. Terminology of culture

2|Page
d. Elements of culture
e. Relationship between Culture, Crime & Law

3. Socialization
a. Socialization & its importance from law perspective
b. Agents of Socialization
c. Socialization through the life course
d. Socialization and crime
e. Theories of socialization
i. C.H. Cooley
ii. George Herbert Mead
iii. Sigmund Freud
iv. Kohlberg
v. Erick Erickson

4. Social Interaction and Social Structure

a. Defining social interaction
b. Status and its types status set. Achieved & Ascribed, Master
Status
c. Role and its types, Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role exit.
d. Theories of social interaction
i. Social Construction of Reality
ii. Ethno Methodology
iii. Dramaturgical Analysis
e. Differential association and Differential Reinforcement in relation
with Conforming and Deviant behaviour.

5. Deviance and Social Control

a. Deviance, Labeling Crime & Social Control
b. Factors behind Deviancy
c. Types of Crime

3|Page
 d. Types of Criminals
e. Community Based Correction,Probation,Parole
f. Juvenile Delinquency
g. Anomic and Strain theories

6. Social Stratification, social Inequalities and Social Mobility

a) Social Stratification and its characteristics
b) System of Stratification
c) Dimensions of Stratifications.
d) Social Mobility
iv. Social Construction of Reality
v. Poverty,Poverty line,Absolute and Relative poverty
vi. Stratification,Deviance and Crime

7. Social Institutions
a) Definition, Types, Functions, Transitions and Feature of
1. Family
2. Education
3. Religion
4. Economy
5. Politics and Government
6. Health and Medicine
7. Mass Communication
b) Role of Institutions in developing a law abiding society
c) Institutions, Deviancy and Crime
d) Implication of Dysfunctional Institutions on Society

4|Page
8. Social Change and Social Movement
a) Social Change and its Characteristics
b) Factors of Social Change
c) Collective Behavior and its types.
d) Social Movement, its types and Stages
e) Modernity and Post Modernity
f) Social Change as causes of Legal Change
g) Law as an instrument of Legal Change
9. Sociological debates
a) Imperialism
b) Globalization and its impact on National politics, Law and
Economy
c) Renaissance
d) Regionalism

5|Page
 Important Questions According to Five Years Papers
1. What is sociology? Discuss its significance as a subject for the
students of law. (2017-A)

 Define sociology and discuss its significance as subject

countries like Pakistan. (2018-A)
 Explain „Sociology‟. Explain the factors that are responsible
for origin and development of Sociology as a subject. (2020-
A)
2. Define sociology? Discuss the reasons for teaching law
student‟s sociology courses for two semesters in Punjab
University? (2018-S)
3. Define sociology and discuss its relationship with economics
and history. (2019-A)
4. Define socialization? List agents of socialization and discuss
media as an agent of socialization in detail. (2017-A)

6|Page
  Define socialization and discuss the peer group as an agent of
socialization in detail. (2017-S)
 Define socialization? Discuss the theory of George Herbert
Mead to explain the process of socialization.
(2018-A)(2019-A)
 Define socialization and discuss role of school as an agent of
socialization of violent and deviant behavior with examples.
(2018-S)
 Explain the significance of agents of socialization in
Personality Development of a child. (2020-A)
5. Explain the functions of the institution of Family. Also discuss
the changes that have occurred in these functions with example.
(2017-A)
 Discuss the important functions of „FAMILY‟ and changes
occurring in these functions with examples.
6. Write down a comprehensive note on the factors that have
brought socio-cultural change in Pakistani Society. (2017-A)
(2019-A)
 Define „Social Change‟. Explain factors that are responsible
for socio-cultural change in Pakistani society. Briefly
describe how law as an instrument of social change. (2020-A)
 Discuss factors that lead to social change in society with
examples from Pakistani society. (2017-S)
 In your opinion, have the Pakistani family structures and
culture undergone socio-culture changes in recent times. If
yes, list the changes and the factors responsible for it. (2018-
A)
 Discuss factors that lead to social change in society with
examples from Pakistani society. (2017-S)

7|Page
7. Define „Culture‟. Discuss its components with examples. (2017-
A)
 Define Culture find explain the significance of studying
culture for individuals in legal professions. (2017-S)
 Define Culture. Discuss the relationship in any between
culture and crime in Pakistani society. (2018-A)
 Define Culture and discuss its types with examples. (2018-S)
 Define Culture and explain the elements of culture. (2019-A)
 Define the concept of „Culture‟. Discuss elements of Culture
in detail. (2019-A)
 Define social and cultural change. Explain the factors that
are responsible for change in Pakistan society with suitable
examples. (2019-A)

8. Define social stratification? What according to you are

important criteria‟s social stratification in Pakistan? Give
examples. (2017-A)
 What is social stratification? According to you, is Pakistani
society socially stratified? Discuss your opinion with relevant
examples. (2017-S)
 Explain social stratification and its dimensions with
examples from Pakistani society. (2018-A)
 Explain social stratification and its dimensions with
examples from Pakistani society. (2019-A)
 Define „social stratifications‟ and explain the systems of
stratifications. (2020-A)
 “Caste and Class” are the basis of social stratification in our
society. Discuss the importance of each with example. (2019-
A)

8|Page
9. Explain social norms and discuss their types with examples.
(2017-A)
 Write a note on Social norms? (2017-S) (2018-S)
10. Define „Status and Role‟. Explain the determinants of
„ascribed‟ and „achieved‟ status with examples. (2017-
A)(2019-A)
 What is social role? Also explain the concepts of role set,
role conflict, role strain, and role exit with examples.
(2018-S)
 Write a note on social status? (2018-S)

11. Define Deviance and discuss any two theories of deviance to

explain crime in society. (2017-A)
 Define deviance and give the sociological explanation of why
people do deviance despite having the mechanism of social
control. (2017-S)
 Discuss deviance and social control. (2018-S)
 Differentiate between “deviance and crime”. Why deviance is
functional for the society. Elaborate. (2020-A)
 Define Deviance and briefly explain the reasons why there
exist deviance in any society? (2019-A)
12. Write a note on “Social Mobility”. (2017-A) (2018-A) (2019-
A)
 Define the “Social Mobility”. Discuss types of social Mobility
in detail. (2019-A)
13. Write a note on Role Conflict. (2017-A) (2018-A) (2019-A)
14. Write a note on institution of education and its functions in
Pakistani society. (2017-S)
 Define Education; also explain problems of education system
in Pakistan with Possible solution. (2019-A)

9|Page
  Define education. Discuss the functions of education system
in Pakistani society. (2020-A)
15. Define social institutions. Discuss the political institution
and its role in society with relevant examples. (2018-A)
 Write a note on “Religion as a social Institution”. (2020-A)
 Define religion; also explain the functions of religion in
Pakistani society. (2019-A)
16. Write a note on types of crime. (2019-A)
17. Briefly discuss Functionalism and Conflict perspective.
Which perspective, according to you explains the present
society better and why? (2018-A)
18. Why, in your opinion, sexual crimes against children
increased in Pakistan? Discuss the factors behind these crimes
and its implications on our society. (2018-A)
19. “An understanding of the concepts of feminism is necessary
for a people working in the field of law”. Do you agree or
disagree with this statement? Discuss with examples. (2018-S)
20. Define the term “social Movements”. Explain the types of
social movements with examples. (2020-A)
21. Write a note on following:
(a) Cultural Relativism (2019-A)
22. Define Juvenile delinquency and discuss how criminal justice
system of Pakistan deals with it.
(2018-A) (2019-A) (2019-S)
 Write a note on Juvenile delinquency. (2019-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Discuss how juvenile delinquency
should be treated according to law. (2020-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Write a note juvenile justice system
and the role of juvenile courts in Pakistan. (2021-A)

10 | P a g e
 Question 1
1. What is sociology? Discuss its significance as a subject for
the students of law. (2017-A)

 Define sociology and discuss its significance as subject

countries like Pakistan. (2018-A)
 Explain „Sociology‟. Explain the factors that are responsible
for origin and development of Sociology as a subject. (2020-
A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Origin and development of Sociology
III. Meaning of Sociology
IV. Definition of Sociology
V. Nature of Sociology
VI. Scope of Sociology
VII. Characteristics of Sociology
VIII. Significance of sociology as a subject in Pakistan
IX. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Sociology is the study of society and human social interaction. It deals
with the social relations, actions, interactions and problems including
the importance of society. Sociology is a being a particular subject in
the field of law because law is the set of rules and principles to resolves
the matters between people of society. Therefore in a field of study in
law sociology has broad scope. Furthermore, it also deals with gangs,

11 | P a g e
business, families, computer networks, schools, universities, political
institutions, religions and labor union.
II. Origin and development of Sociology
The word sociology is derived from Latin word „socius‟ means
„Companion‟ and the Greek word „Logos‟ means „study of‟. Hence
sociology means study of companionship.
 Origin
The science of society was originated as a special discipline in 1836 by
August Comte a French with the name of Social physics. It was also
laid by Allama Ibn-e-Khaldun. Al-Razi, Al-Kundi, Al-Farabi, Ibn-e-
Sina, Imam Ghazali and Shah Wali Ullah were old and prominent
Muslim thinkers. Similarly, Spencer, Pareto, Durkheim, Parsons,
Weber, Inkles, Park, Burgrss, Timasheff, Mead, Simmel, Maciver,
Ogburn and Martindale were prominent names of modern times.
 Development
Different sociologist defined sociology in their way with the study and
observation. A man lives in a society. He participates in one group at
one time and in another group at other time for the satisfaction of his
needs. It means his behavior is influenced by various groups. Hence, all
social behavior is social events. The study of social events is the aim of
sociology.
III. Meaning of Sociology
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
“The science of society, social institutions and social relationship;
specifically; the systematic study of development, structure, interaction
and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings”.

12 | P a g e
 IV. Definition of Sociology
There are numerous definitions of sociology by sociologists.
According to Weber,
„The study of social action‟.
According to Park,
„The science of collective behavior‟.
According to Ken Browne,
„Sociology is the systematic or planned and organized study of human
groups and social life in modern societies‟.
According to F.H Giddings,
The science of social phenomena.
According to Durkheim,
The science of institutions.
According to Robertson,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior.
According to Simmel,
The science of studying human relationship.
According to Kovalevsky,
The science of social organization and social change.
According to Kalhoun, Light and Keller,
Sociology is the study of human society, including both social action
and social organizations.
13 | P a g e
According to John J. Maccionis,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society.
According to Giddins,
Sociology is the scientific study of society.
According to Sorokin,
Sociology is the study first at all the relationship and correlations
between various classes. Second between the social and non-social
aspects of life and third it studies general characteristics common to all
classes of society.
According to Ogburn,
Sociology is concerned with the study of social life and its relations to
the factors of culture natural environment, heredity and group.

V. Nature of Sociology
It is very clear from the definitions of sociology that it a scientific study
of society. Sociology has different nature from other branches of
sciences. The nature of sociology is independent, social, a categorical
and pure abstract and generalizing both are a rational and an empirical
social science.
VI. Scope of Sociology
It is the systematic study of society. It studies human society as an
interconnected whole. It looks into how individuals and society interact
with each other. Sociology seeks to explore how societies emerge,
persist and then change. Its scope includes study of social groups, social
institutions and social processes. Scope of Sociology is more in the

14 | P a g e
direction of an analysis of social problems and not in normative
suggestion of solutions for these social problems.
VII. Characteristics of Sociology
According to the Book „The Social Order‟ by Robert Bierstedt
following are main characteristics of Sociology:
 Sociology is an independent science
It is studied as an independent science. It is not further connected with
any other branch. As independent field of study, boundary and method
it has its own field of study.
 Sociology is a social science not a physical science
Sociology exclusively belongs to the family of social science but do not
belong to a physical science. It only emphasize upon attention on man,
his social behavior and social activities as a social science.
 Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline
Ethically, sociology is neutral but it does not mean that sociological
knowledge is useless serves no purpose. It only means that sociology as
a discipline can‟t deal with problems of good and evil, Right and wrong,
moral and immoral.
 Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science
Sociology aims at the acquisition of knowledge and there is no consent
whether knowledge is useful or applied. Sociology is pure science and
not an applied science.
 Sociology is relatively an abstract science not a concrete
science

15 | P a g e
Sociology is not interested in concentrate manifestations of human
events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and there
patterns.
 Sociology is a generalizing and not particularizing or
individual science
Sociology is a generalizing and It is not a particular science or
individual like philosophy, history, political science and economics.
These social sciences have special subject matters and these are all
parts of one general subject matter.
 Sociology is a general science and not a special social science
Sociology is a general science and not a special social science. It is
concerned with human interaction and human life in general other
sciences like political science, history and economics.
 Sociology is both a rational and an-Empirical science
Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. It is empirical in
the sense that it is based on observation and experimentation And
rational as well. According to H.M. Johnson, “It is empirical, that is, it
is based on observation and reasoning, not on supernatural revelation
and its results are not speculative. On the other hand, it is rational as it
emphasizes upon reason.
VIII. Significance of sociology as a subject in Pakistan
Significance of sociology as a subject in Pakistan is discussed as:
 Relationship between sociology and law
The main objective of law is to maintain the peace in the society.
Therefore, there is a relationship between sociology and law. An
advocate must have enough knowledge about the implementation of

16 | P a g e
law in the society. There exists amendment in law according to the
various changes in societies. So there is indivisible exit between law
and society.
 Form of social control in sociology
Law is a social control in society. Social control used by government
which regulates the activities of all individuals within any society.
Judiciary and executives are also used as social control.
 Scarifies own personal liberty and abide by their laws
In a general sense, no individual has right to kill their neighbor for a
possession he must has but at least it can‟t happen to you personally.
There are laws against killing people and agencies such as the police
which prevent or at least try to prevent, you being killed. This is a form
of social control as people are expected to act in a very particular way,
you must abide by the principles of your greater society community.
 Too much or too little social control
There must be a balanced social control, especially law, so that they do
not breech too many personal freedoms of the individual but also that
they don‟t allow for too many excessive freedom either.
IX. Conclusion
It is concluded that Sociology is the systematic study of human society
and social behavior. It has different nature as compare to other
branches of science. Robert Bierstedt explained the characteristics of
sociology in his book under the name „The Social Order‟. He stated that
sociology is an independent science, social science, pure science,
abstract science and generalized. Furthermore, sociology is general
science and it is also rational and an empirical science. The signification

17 | P a g e
of sociology in the society of Pakistan is entirely based on the
relationship between law and social control with sociology.
2. Define sociology? Discuss the reasons for teaching law
student‟s sociology courses for two semesters in Punjab
University? (2018-S)
Synopsis
I. Prologue
II. Origin and development of Sociology
III. Meaning of Sociology
IV. Definition of Sociology
V. Nature of Sociology
VI. Scope of Sociology
VII. Characteristics of Sociology
VIII. Reasons for teaching sociology law students
IX. Winding up remarks

I. Prologue
Sociology is the study of society and human social interaction. It deals
with the social relations, actions, interactions and problems including
the importance of society. Sociology is a being a particular subject in
the field of law because law is the set of rules and principles to resolves
the dispute among nation of the state. Therefore in a field of study in
law sociology has broad scope. Furthermore, it also deals with gangs,
business, families, computer networks, schools, universities, political
institutions, religions and labor union.
II. Origin and development of Sociology

18 | P a g e
The word sociology is derived from Latin word „socius‟ means
„Companion‟ and the Greek word „Logos‟ means „study of‟. Hence
sociology means study of companionship.
 Origin
The science of society was originated as a special discipline in 1836 by
August Comte a French with the name of Social physics. It was also
laid by Allama Ibn-e-Khaldun. Al-Razi, Al-Kundi, Al-Farabi, Ibn-e-
Sina, Imam Ghazali and Shah Wali Ullah were old and prominent
Muslim thinkers. Similarly, Spencer, Pareto, Durkheim, Parsons,
Weber, Inkles, Park, Burgrss, Timasheff, Mead, Simmel, Maciver,
Ogburn and Martindale were prominent names of modern times.
 Development
Different sociologist defined sociology in their way with the study and
observation. A man lives in a society. He participates in one group at
one time and in another group at other time for the satisfaction of his
needs. It means his behavior is influenced by various groups. Hence, all
social behavior is social events. The study of social events is the aim of
sociology.
III. Meaning of Sociology
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
“The science of society, social institutions and social relationship;
specifically; the systematic study of development, structure, interaction
and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings”.

IV. Definition of Sociology

There are numerous definitions of sociology by different sociologists.

19 | P a g e
According to Weber,
„The study of social action‟.
According to Park,
„The science of collective behavior‟.
According to Ken Browne,
„Sociology is the systematic or planned and organized study of human
groups and social life in modern societies‟.
According to F.H Giddings,
The science of social phenomena.
According to Durkeim,
The science of institutions.
According to Robertson,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior.
According to Simmel,
The science of studying human relationship.
According to Kovalevsky,
The science of social organization and social change.
According to Kalhoun, Light and Keller,
Sociology is the study of human society, including both social action
and social organizations.
According to John J. Maccionis,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society.

20 | P a g e
According to Giddins,
Sociology is the scientific study of society.
According to Sorokin,
Sociology is the study first at all the relationship and correlations
between various classes. Second between the social and non-social
aspects of life and third it studies general characteristics common to all
classes of society.
According to Ogburn,
Sociology is concerned with the study of social life and its relations to
the factors of culture natural environment, heredity and group.
V. Nature of Sociology
It is very clear from the definitions of sociology that it a scientific study
of society. Sociology has different nature from other branches of
sciences. The nature of sociology is independent, social, a categorical
and pure abstract and generalizing both are a rational and an empirical
social science.

VI. Scope of Sociology

It is the systematic study of society. It studies human society as an
interconnected whole. It looks into how individuals and society interact
with each other. Sociology seeks to explore how societies emerge,
persist and then change. Its scope includes study of social groups, social
institutions and social processes. Scope of Sociology is more in the
direction of an analysis of social problems and not in normative
suggestion of solutions for these social problems.

21 | P a g e
 VII. Characteristics of Sociology
According to the Book „The Social Order‟ by Robert Bierstedt
following are main characteristics of Sociology:
 Sociology is an independent science
It is studied as an independent science. It is not further connected with
any other branch. As independent field of study, boundary and method
it has its own field of study.
 Sociology is a social science not a physical science
Sociology exclusively belongs to the family of social science but do not
belong to a physical science. It only emphasize upon attention on man,
his social behavior and social activities as a social science.
 Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline
Ethically, sociology is neutral but it does not mean that sociological
knowledge is useless serves no purpose. It only means that sociology as
a discipline can‟t deal with problems of good and evil, Right and wrong,
moral and immoral.
 Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science
Sociology aims at the acquisition of knowledge and there is no consent
whether knowledge is useful or applied. Sociology is pure science and
not an applied science.
 Sociology is relatively an abstract science not a concrete
science

Sociology is not interested in concentrate manifestations of human

events. It is more concerned with the form of human events and there
patterns.
22 | P a g e
  Sociology is a generalizing and not particularizing or
individual science
Sociology is a generalizing and it is not a particular science or
individual like philosophy, history, political science and economics.
These social sciences have special subject matters and these are all
parts of one general subject matter.
 Sociology is a general science and not a special social science
Sociology is a general science and not a special social science. It is
concerned with human interaction and human life in general other
sciences like political science, history and economics.
 Sociology is both a rational and an-Empirical science
Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. It is empirical in
the sense that it is based on observation and experimentation And
rational as well. According to H.M. Johnson, “It is empirical, that is, it
is based on observation and reasoning, not on supernatural revelation
and its results are not speculative. On the other hand, it is rational as it
emphasizes upon reason.
VIII. Reasons for teaching sociology law students
According to Austin, Law is command of the sovereign. It is command
of superior to inferior and force is the sanction behind law. Similarly,
Hollad said, law is the general rule of external behavior enforced by a
sovereign political authority. In common words law is the set of rule
and principles. Sociology is the study of society. It is scientific study of
society. From the last few years sociology is being a particular subject
for every kind of law student. That is why it is also a prominent subject
in LLB Course. Sociology is an interesting and informative subject.
 Reasons

23 | P a g e
 There are number of reasons due to which teaching sociology is
mandatory which are given belows:
Individual level
Teaching of sociology is mandatory for individual because sociology
investigates social causes and consequences such as ethnic and gender,
family disputes, aging and religious beliefs.
Societal level
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because sociology examine and
explains issues such as crime and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice
and discrimination, schools and education, business civil society.
Global level
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because sociology studies
phenomena such as population growth and migration, economic
development, war and peace.
Relation between law and society
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because law and society has strong
relation. It is stated as “All collective human life is directly or indirectly
shaped by law. Law is the knowledge an important and all-pervasive
fact of the social conditions.” Hence, it is very clear that law is any
important element of society. Therefore, Teaching of sociology is
mandatory for law students.
Critical thoughts
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because sociology emphasize upon
the critical thoughts about historical, research, analyzing empirical
data.
Career

24 | P a g e
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because it helps in the choice of
career.
Paralegal career
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because it also helps in paralegal
career of lawyers with task such as compiling files, researching law and
preparing documents.
Probation or parole officer career
Probation and parole officers work with offender after they have served
their sentences so that they do not commit further crimes.
Police career
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because it also helps in police
career.
Other law career
Teaching of sociology is mandatory because it also plays a vital role in
other law career such as, Assistant deputy public prosecutor, law
officer, legal advisor etc.
To follow rules and regulations
The main purpose of Teaching of sociology is mandatory because of
maintenance of rules and regulations in the society.
Ethics
Teaching of sociology is mandatory for the purpose to give knowledge
of ethic.
Moral values

25 | P a g e
Teaching of sociology is mandatory for the purpose to maintain the
moral values in the society
To understand disputes in society
Teaching of sociology is mandatory to understand the disputes in
society.
To understand political issues
Teaching of sociology is mandatory to understand the political issues at
political level.
To become a good Lawyer
Teaching of sociology is mandatory to become a good lawyer in the
field of law.
To provide Justice
Teaching of sociology is mandatory for the purpose to provide justice.
Being law student
Teaching of sociology is mandatory to increase the knowledge about
society and to know the rights and duties being a law student.
IX. Winding up remarks
In conclusion, we can say sociology is a scientific study of society. It is
different in nature as compare to other branches of science. It is
systematic study of society. The scope of sociology is being very wider.
The teaching of sociology is mandatory law students due maintain the
rules and regulations in the society, for the purpose to know the rights
and duties, for the choice of legal career and to maintain the legal ethics
and moral values of the society.

26 | P a g e
 3. Define sociology and discuss its relationship with economics
and history. (2019-A)
Synopsis
I. Preface
II. Meaning of Sociology
III. Definition of Sociology
IV. Sociology and other sciences
V. Sociology and economics
VI. Sociology and history
VII. Conclusion

I. Preface
Sociology is the science of society. As a social science it attempts to
study social life as a whole. Sociology has different characteristics. Its
nature is different from other branches of science. There are
relationship of sociology and other social sciences such as economics,
political science, history, anthropology, psychology, statistics,
criminology and education.
II. Meaning of Sociology
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
“The science of society, social institutions and social relationship;
specifically; the systematic study of development, structure, interaction
and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings”.
III. Definition of Sociology
There are numerous definitions of sociology by different sociologists.
27 | P a g e
 According to Weber,
„The study of social action‟.
According to Park,
„The science of collective behavior‟.
According to Ken Browne,
„Sociology is the systematic or planned and organized study of human
groups and social life in modern societies‟.
According to F.H Giddings,
The science of social phenomena.
According to Durkeim,
The science of institutions.
According to Robertson,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior.
According to Simmel,
The science of studying human relationship.
According to Kovalevsky,
The science of social organization and social change.
According to Kalhoun, Light and Keller,
Sociology is the study of human society, including both social action
and social organizations.
According to John J. Maccionis,
Sociology is the systematic study of human society.

28 | P a g e
According to Giddins,
Sociology is the scientific study of society.
According to Sorokin,
Sociology is the study first at all the relationship and correlations
between various classes. Second between the social and non-social
aspects of life and third it studies general characteristics common to all
classes of society.
According to Ogburn,
Sociology is concerned with the study of social life and its relations to
the factors of culture natural environment, heredity and group.
IV. Nature of Sociology
It is very clear from the definitions of sociology that it a scientific study
of society. Sociology has different nature from other branches of
sciences. The nature of sociology is independent, social, a categorical
and pure abstract and generalizing both are a rational and an empirical
social science.
V. Sociology and other sciences
There are following relationships of sociology with other social
sciences:
a. Sociology and economics
b. Sociology and political science
c. Sociology and history
d. Sociology and anthropology
e. Sociology and psychology
f. Sociology and statistics
g. Sociology and statistics

29 | P a g e
 h. Sociology, criminology and education
VI. Sociology and economics
Sociology is the scientific study of society. Economics is the branch of
knowledge concerned the production, consumption and transfer of
wealth. Sociology is known as the mother of all sciences. It has
relationship with all other sciences similarly there are strong, close,
intimate and personal relationship between sociology and economics.
Close relationship
Economic relationships bear a close relation to social activities and
relationship. Similarly, social relationships are also affected by
economic relationships. Therefore, sociology and economic are
mutually related.
According to Prof Robbins
Economics is a social science which studies human behavior in relation
to his unlimited ends and scare means which have alternative uses.
Inter-relationship
There exist a great deal of inter-relationship between sociology and
economics. Both are independent and inter-relation with each other.
Thomas opines that „Economics is, in fact, but one branch of sociology‟.
Disputes resolves
For the purpose of solution of different economic problems such as
inflation, poverty, unemployment economics takes help of society and
takes into account the social events of that particular time. At the same
time society controls the economic activities of an individual.
Knowledge and Research

30 | P a g e
Knowledge and research in the field of economics greatly contributes to
sociology. Each and every social problem has an economic cause. For
the solutions of social problems like dowry, suicide, etc. sociologists
takes the help from economics.
Difference between sociology and economics
Sr. Difference Sociology Economics
No
1. As to Science Sociology is the Economics is the
science of society. science of wealth and
choice.
2. As to age Sociology is much Economics is
younger. comparatively and an
older science.
3. As to Abstract Sociology is an Economics is
science abstract science. concrete in nature.
4. As to scope The scope of The scope of
sociology is very economics is very
wide. limited.
5. As to activities Sociology is Economics is
concerned with concerned with the
social activities of economic activities of
man. man.
6. As to unit of Society is the unit of Man is taken as a
study study in sociology. unit of study in
economics.

VII. Sociology and history

Sociology is known as the mother of all sciences. It has relationship
with all other sciences similarly there are close relationship between
sociology and history.
Inter-Relationship

31 | P a g e
Sociology is the science of society. It is a study of social action and their
inter-relations. Sociology is a science of social groups and social
institutions. History studies the important past events including past
political, social and economic events of the world.
Microscope of past
History is the microscope of past, the horoscope of present and
telescope of future. It only studies with past but also create relations
between present and future.
Inter-dependent
Sociology and history both are inter-related and inter-dependent on
each other. Both field of study deals with the human being. According
to G.H Howard, “History is past sociology and sociology is present
history”.
Impacts of events
History is the store house of knowledge from which a society gains lot
knowledge. History is a record of past social matters, social customs
and information about different stages of life.
To study changes
Sociology helps history and enriches it. Historians now study caste,
class and family by using sociological data. Sociology provides
background for the study of history.
Mutual dependent
Sociology and History both are mutual dependent on each other.
History is now being studied from sociological angle and sociology also
now studied from historian point of view.
Difference between sociology and History
32 | P a g e
Sr. Difference Sociology History
no
1. As to time Sociology is the History deals with the
science of society past events and studies
and it is concerned the past society.
with the present.
2. As to subject Sociology is a History is an older social
modern or new science.
subject.
3. As to fact Sociology is History is concrete in
abstract. nature.
4. As to scope The scope of The scope of history is
sociology is very limited.
wider.
5. As to science Sociology is an History is a descriptive
analytical science. science.
6. As to Sociology studies History studies a
particular particular event as particular event in its
event a social entirety.
phenomenon.
7. As to nature of Sociology is a History is a special
science general science. science.

VIII. Conclusion
Sociology is the study first at all the relationship and correlations
between various classes. Second between the social and non-social
aspects of life and third it studies general characteristics common to all
classes of society. The scope of sociology is very wider as compare to
other sciences. It has close and intimate relationship with economics
and history. But there are also differences as to nature, scope and
subject.

33 | P a g e
4. Define socialization? List agents of socialization and discuss
media as an agent of socialization in detail. (2017-A)
 Define socialization and discuss the peer group as an agent of
socialization in detail. (2017-S)
 Define socialization? Discuss the theory of George Herbert
Mead to explain the process of socialization.
(2018-A)(2019-A)
 Define socialization and discuss role of school as an agent of
socialization of violent and deviant behavior with examples.
(2018-S)
 Explain the significance of agents of socialization in
Personality Development of a child. (2020-A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of Socialization
III. Definition of socialization
IV. In the light of law importance of Socialization
V. Characteristics of Socialization
VI. Types of socialization
VII. Theories of Socialization
VIII. Agents of socialization
IX. Significance of agent of socialization in child
development
X. Personality and socialization
XI. Conclusion

I. Introduction

34 | P a g e
Many years ago, Aristotle said „Man is a social animal‟. He learns from
culture and behavioral patterns of the group that they belong.
Socialization is a process which enables an individual to learn the
content. It is a process through which we become human social being.
Basically, it is a process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of
society.
II. Meaning of Socialization
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
„To make social, especially to fit or train for a social environment‟.
III. Definition of socialization
According to Horton and Hunt,
Socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of the
group among whom one lives so that a unique self emerges.
According to Peter Woesely,
Socialization is the process of transmission of culture, the process
whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups.
According to Anthony Giddens,
Socialization is process by which the helpless infant gradually becomes
self-aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of culture into
which he or she is born.
According to John J. Maccionis,
It‟s a lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their
human potential and learn culture.
According to Young and Mack,

35 | P a g e
The process of inducting the individual into the social world is called
socialization.

IV. In the light of law importance of Socialization

Law and society are strongly connected with each other. Law plays a
vital role in society. Legal socialization is the process in which people
develop their relationship with the law via acquisition of law-related
values, attitudes and reasoning capacities.
V. Characteristics of Socialization
Following are characteristics of socialization,
Learn characteristics
It is a process in which people learn characteristics of group‟s norms,
values, attitude and behaviors.
Learn social norms and techniques
It is a process in which people learn various social norms and
techniques of social life.
Requirement of the learning of norms
An Individual face different situations in their life. There are different
kinds of performance in every kind of situation. For this purpose
learning of norm is necessary. Therefore, Learning of norms is called
socialization.
Life long process
Socialization is a life-long process. An individual learn from all social
situations. It is no doubt that the process of learning becomes slow in

36 | P a g e
old age. But the learning in general experiences of social life is called
socialization.
Learning cultural norms
Culture and society provide the individual with institutionalized
patterns of behavior for various stages of Life.
VI. Types of socialization
Socialization is a process of learning which begins from childhood and
adolescence and continues in middle and adult age. There are various
types of socialization:
Primary socialization
Primary socialization belongs to the earliest life of the individual. It is a
process in which infant learns language and cognitive skills, norms and
values. The infant learns the way of grouping. A child do not knows
right and wrong, by the help of norms learn rights and wrongs by
direct and indirect observation and experience.
Secondary socialization
Socialization also takes place from family environment. Secondary
socialization generally refers to the social training received by child in
institute or formal setting and continues throughout the rest of life.
Adult socialization
In adult socialization, actors enter role. For example, becoming an
employee, or a new worker or husband or wife. Adult socialization
teaches people to take on new duties. The main object of adult
socialization to bring change in the views of individual.
Anticipatory socialization

37 | P a g e
It is that kind of socialization in which men learn the culture of a group
with the anticipation of joining that group.
Re-socialization
Re-socialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior
patterns and accepting new one as part of a transition in one‟s life.
VII. Theories of Socialization
Following are theories of socialization:
Charles Horton Cooley Theory
Charles Horton Cooley was born on August 17, 1864 in Ann Arbor,
Michigan. He was fourth of six children. He was son of Mary Elizabeth
Horton. It was belief of Cooley that self develops through the process
of social interaction with others. Cooley gave three stage processes:
(a) First: we imagine how our actions appear to others.
(b) Second: we imagine how other people judge these actions.
(c) Finally: we make some sort of self-judgment based on the
presumed judgments of others. In effect, other people become a
mirror or looking glass for us.
It was observation of Cooley‟s that our perceptions are not always
correct. We believe more in determining our behavior than what is real.
George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead was an American sociologist best known as a
founder of American pragmatism.
Mead's theory of self refers to this as the "I" and the "me" phase. The
"I" is the answer to the "me," which is the interpersonal Self. Put
another way, "I" is a person's reaction to other people's emotions,
whereas "me" is the ordered set of those perceptions that one acquires.

38 | P a g e
How one assumes one's organization sees oneself is what one refers to
as the "me," which is the total of the "generalized other." The "I"
stands for a person's feelings and instincts. Self-as-subject and self-as-
object are synonymous in the "I." The "I" is the one who knows, and
the "me" is the one who is being understood. "I" and "me" are
constantly interacting, and this interaction is what we refer to as the
"stream of thought." The human cognition concept is based on these
processes, which go beyond the idea of selfhood in a restricted sense.
Mead sees the internal debate between "I" and "me" as the thinking
process.
Mead's "I" and "me," when viewed as a synthesis of the "I" and the
"me," reveal a profoundly social nature. In Mead's view, a person's
place in a community is more important than individuality. Being aware
of one's self-consciousness can only come about when one has actively
participated in various social roles.
According to Mead and Charles Cooley, the Self is determined by
people's social interactions. How one appears to others determines one's
social identity, or looking-glass self (a term coined by Cooley). In other
words, the stage is attached to the concept of developing self. Cooley's
assertions about the social development of children formed the basis of
this initial theory. People get the most direct feedback about
themselves from the responses of others to their actions. This idea
means that solitary activities cannot contribute to the development of
the Self as it requires external interactions.
As per Cooley and Mead, self-identity is formed in three phases. First,
people perceive how they look in the eyes of others. Additionally,
individuals imagine how others judge them by relying on looks and
how they display themselves. Finally, individuals perceive how others
feel about them due to the moral judgments they create.
However, Heinz Kohut, a psychologist from the United States,
proposed a bipolar self, which he claimed was composed of two
processes of narcissistic brilliance, one of which contained goals and the
other constituted ideals. The narcissistic Self, according to Kohut,
seems to be the pinnacle of aspiration. He referred to the idealized

39 | P a g e
parental image as the pole of standards. According to Kohut, the two
poles of self-portray the regular advancement of a child's psychic life.

Jungian Theory:
On the other hand, according to Jungian theory, the Self is one of
several archetypes. It's a metaphor for a person's entire mind, including
their subconscious and conscious thoughts, defined by Jung as the
procedure of combining one's personality that leads to the Self.
Stages of development of self
„MEAD BELIEVED THAT THE SELF DEVELOPS IN THREE
STAGES, 1934‟.
(a) Preparatory stage: the preparatory stage lasts from the time we
are born until we are about age two.
(b) Play: the play stage from about two to age six.
(c) Game: the game stage lasts from age seven to onwards.

VIII. Agents of socialization

Socialization helps people in learning through a proper way and
success. The process of learning takes place with social group agents,
families and social institutions.
Social Group Agent
A social group provides the first experience of socialization later
families and peer groups.
Family
It is universal truth that Mother is the first institution. Mother and
child contact in very earliest relation. It belongs to the family group in
which child born. Family is complete, permanent and primary institute.

40 | P a g e
For example, poor family emphasize upon obedience and conformity
when raising their children, wealthy families emphasize upon the
judgment and creativity, working class emphasize on repetitive job
tasks for which the ability to follow rules and confirm helps.
Peer Groups
Peer groups are also belongs to the development of personality. The
first peer group is neighborhood. The first neighborhood playgrounds
are breeding groups for leaders they learn rules of games here.
Institutional Agents
Social institutions or our culture also inform our socialization.
School
School is the first formal agency where child learn to recognize and
obey rules.
Mass Media
Media refers to all instruments like radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, movies and records.
Workplace
As the individual grows into an adult person, work becomes part of life.
Occupational socialization deals with the people as well as with the
field.
IX. Significance of agent of socialization in child
development
Socialization plays an important role in every stage of our life. Basically
the process of learning is called socialization. it occurs throughout our
life but some of the most important socialization occurs in childhood.

41 | P a g e
The socialization in childhood has a lasting effect on our ability to
interact with others in society. Most influential agents of the
socializations are family, peer groups, school and mass media.
X. Personality and socialization
Personality is derived from Greek word Persona, worn by actors in
ancient Greek dramas to show the audience the characteristics and
features of the persons. Personality is a product of socialization and
arises as a result of the interplay of various factors which includes
biological inheritance or heredity.
The psychoanalytic or Freudian Theory
According to Freud, „Personality consists of three parts the id, the ego
and the superego‟.
XI. Conclusion
Socialization is a process whereby one internalizes the norms of the
group among whom one lives so that a unique self emerges. There are
different agents of socialization such as social group, family, Peer
groups, Institutional Agents, School and Mass media. Primary
socialization, secondary socialization, adult socialization and
anticipatory socialization are types of socialization. Socialization and
personality are interlinked to each other. There are different theories
discussed on personality and socialization.

5. Explain the functions of the institution of Family. Also

discuss the changes that have occurred in these functions
with example. (2017-A)
 Discuss the important functions of „FAMILY‟ and changes
occurring in these functions with examples.

42 | P a g e
 Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Social institutions
III. Functions of Family
IV. Changes in the functions
V. Sociological view
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
A collection of individual banded together in pursuit of a common
purpose is called social institutions. A family is a social institution.
There are three main functions of Family. There are three theoretical
perspective of Family such as Functionalism, Conflict and symbolic
Internationalism.
II. Social institutions
According to Betrand, Institutions are systems of social relationship for
meeting various felt human needs. For example, schools of all types
from primary schools to institutions of higher education, represent
another form of social institution.
III. Functions of Family
There are following important functions of the institute of Family:
(a) To provide for the rearing of children.
(b) To provide a sense of identity or belonging among its
members.
(c) To transmit culture between generations.
IV. Changes in the functions

43 | P a g e
Following are changes in the functions of the Family according to
modern time:
(A) Changes in the reproductive function
With the progress of science and technology, particularly with the
development of genetic engineering, test-tube babies are born which
greatly affects the reproductive function of the family. Due to lack of
spare time and economic reasons, less number of children is referred.
(B) Changes in the child-rearing function

Unlike the family members who do the rearing of children, these

functions of the family have been shifted to certain external agencies
such as hospitals, maternity homes, daycare centers, etc. As a result,
children are devoid of family affection and ties.

(C) Changes in protective functions

In ancient time‟s families used to protect their members against all
odds. It is the primary duty of the family to provide security and
protection to the old, aged, diseased, handicapped, etc. But nowadays,
this important function of family has been taken over by other
specialized institutions such as hospital, clinics, old age home, etc.

(D) Changes in the Socialization function

In the past, the family used to play a significant role in the process of
socialization of the child. The child attains a full-fledged personality
through socialization. But in modern times, the family plays a very
little role in socializing its children. Some of the socialization functions
of the family now are being performed by many other specialized
agencies such as schools, universities, etc.

(E) Changes in the educative function

The traditional family used to be the first school for children where he
learned the basics of life such as social norms, values, and some
occupational education from family. But in present days the role of the
family in education has declined a lot as school, college, universities and

44 | P a g e
technical institutions became a substitute to parents. Moreover, it is
also not possible to acquire modern education from family.

(F) Changing in the economic functions

In ancient times, the family was the main center of production,
consumption and distribution. It used to produce almost everything
needed for its members. But at present family remain only a
consumption unit than a center of production. Most of its production
function is being performed by the factory or industrial units. Family
members now prefer to work in offices, industries than to work in
agriculture.

(G) Changes in health-related functions

In the past, the family used to play an important role in providing
treatment to its diseased members and in taking care of the health of its
members. But now this role of the family has been performed by health
centers, clinics, etc.

(H) Changes in religious functions of family

In traditional society, the family was the center of worship and
religious activities. But in modern times, this religious function of
family has also undergone a great change. The work pressure and
secularism have loosened the inclination towards one‟s religion.
Consequently, religious practices and festivals have lost their
traditional importance.
(I) Changing in the recreational functions of the family
In traditional society, the family used to be the center of all kinds of
recreation. But in modern times, the recreational functions of the family
have been shared by different external agencies such as hotels, parks,
clubs, movies, etc. Instead of listening to stories from grandparents,
now, children prefer to watch television and prefer to go picnic and
outings.

(J) Changes in the social functions

Traditional families acted as an important agency of social control. It
exercised direct control over its members and as a result, they became
45 | P a g e
good human beings. But in modern times, this function of family has
sharply declined. It fails to exercise the same authoritative control over
its members. Because of this family became disorganized .Although
changes have occurred in all the functions of the family it is not
completely devoid of these functions. Family, even today continue to
perform these functions but with some modifications.

V. Sociological view
In sociological view, now families are changed into the functional,
conflict and social internationalist.
VI. Conclusion
Social institutions are systems of social relationship for meeting various
felt human needs. There are different social institutions. Family is one
of the pertinent social institutions. There are different functions of
family such as rearing of children, sense of identity and transmit
culture between generations.
6. Write down a comprehensive note on the factors that have
brought socio-cultural change in Pakistani Society. (2017-A)
(2019-A)
 Define „Social Change‟. Explain factors that are responsible
for socio-cultural change in Pakistani society. Briefly
describe how law as an instrument of social change. (2020-A)
 Discuss factors that lead to social change in society with
examples from Pakistani society. (2017-S)
 In your opinion, have the Pakistani family structures and
culture undergone socio-culture changes in recent times. If
yes, list the changes and the factors responsible for it. (2018-
A)
Synopsis

46 | P a g e
 I. Prologue
II. Meaning of social change
III. Definition of social change
IV. Theories of change
V. Types of theories
VI. Factors responsible for social changes in Pakistani society
VII. Resistance to change
VIII. Conclusion

I. Prologue
Any changes occur in social organization such as structure and function
is called social change. No society remain constant it changes from time
to time. The changes in the society are inevitable. It is a continue
process. There are some changes in society which can be easily
accepted but some are not. Similarly, some changes neither accepted
nor rejected.
II. Meaning of social change
According to T.B. Bottmore,
Social change refers to change occurring in social structure or in
institution or in the relationship between the institutions.
III. Definition of social change
According to Kinsely Davis,
Social change is change which occurs in the social organization i.e. its
structure and function.

47 | P a g e
Social change may defined as, it is the process in which is discernible
significant alteration in the structure and functioning of a particular
social system.
IV. Theories of change
There are four types of theories of change, which are given bellows:
a. The first type deals with the existence of more or less general &
irreversible trends.
b. The second type deals with the form of conditional and structural
laws.
c. The third type deals with the forms of change.
d. The fourth type deals with causes or factors of changes.

V. Types of theories
There are three theories of change, which are given below:
a. Evolutionary
The sociology theory of social change became hugely popular in the
19th century and was influenced by Charles Darwin‟s Theory of
Organic Evolution. It created a landmark in describing the social
change and its causes and effects on society. Evolutionary theory is
based on the assumption that change is natural and inevitable and will
move gradually in stages. It puts the onus on the fact that society will
move in a linear direction and evolve into higher levels from simple to
complex and the ones that fail to adapt at the right time will lag. In
sociology, the evolutionary theory states that evolution is progressive
and continuous. Every society will pass through the same stages of
growth and development and these stages of change social cannot be
reversed.

b. Functionalism

48 | P a g e
In sociology, the functionalist theory state that society remains in a
state of equilibrium and this state is constant. As per this model the
society works for a stabilized state. When a problem occurs it will be
temporary and at such times other parts need to pay attention to
resolve issues. Social change as per the functionalist theory in sociology
occurs when events take place rapidly and the equilibrium is
compromised and when creative innovations take place within the
system.
c. Conflict
The conflict theory of social change in sociology states that social
structure is by nature competitive and unequal and it remains in a state
of constant disequilibrium and conflict. Many sociologists believed that
institutions continue to impact society because there are powerful
groups that can maintain the status quo. Groups and individuals may
keep fighting to take full advantage of the available benefits.
VI. Factors responsible for social changes in Pakistani society
There are many factors responsible for social changes in Pakistan
society. Following factors have brought socio-cultural changes in the
Pakistan society.
1. Physical Factors
Changes occurred in the physical environment are not rapid but the
occasional changes bring biggest changes in the society. for example,
Earthquake, storms, heavy rains, snow fall, environmental changes, etc.
this bring people to change culture, like genre of dressing and way of
life style including seasonal food.
2. Biological Factors

49 | P a g e
Biological factors have indirect influence upon social change. It is
qualitative effective to the heredity. This aspect of population is based
upon powerful and great men and their birth is dependent to a large
extent.
3. Technological Factors
A technology factor has immense influence in social change. This
change is usually in the material environment.
4. Economic Factors
Karl Max has given economic interpretation of social changes. The
society changes in its structure and function due to economic factor.
Economic conditions in the countries do affect the health, marriage,
divorce rate, suicide, crime and emigration, etc.
5. Cultural Factors
Cultural changes are the main changes in the social change. Changes in
culture are inevitable. Culture gives speed and direction to social
change.
6. Environmental Factors
The environmental changes are similar to the physical changes. It
cannot be denied that heavy rains, earthquake and change of seasons
have significant effect upon social relationships.
7. Psychological Factors
Psychological factors are also important element in social change. The
cause of psychological changes is man himself. Man is naturally a lover
of change. Therefore, changes in culture, traditions and customs attract
more.
8. Other Factors
50 | P a g e
There are also some other factors changes in the society, such as
dowry, caste system, female education system.
VII. Resistance to change
All changes belongs to the society cannot be easily accepted. There are
various factors which hinder the social change.
1. Inertia
People should feel the dissatisfaction with existing situation then only
social change can take place. But many times people are so much used
to that lethargic situation that they do not wish to change the situation
and to change it. Such attitude is one of the obstacles in social change.
2. Habit
Habit is developed through repeated actions for a long period of effect
to break that habit is always resisted.
3. Custom & tradition
People have included the tradition & custom through fore father so
much that any revolutionary idea to change the custom is always
criticized.
4. Vested interest
Resistance to change comes from such group of people who would be
threatened by that change.
5. Lack of proper knowledge
Social change is resisted by those who lack the knowledge of a new
discovery.
6. Desire for stability

51 | P a g e
Any change disrupts normal routine life in which people find stability.
They are not sure that the change is going to be beneficial or harmful.
It is the desire for stability people resist change.
VIII. Conclusion
Change is the main essential of society. All societies change
continuously. Society is not static; there are changes in culture and
environment. There are different factors of social change in the society
of Pakistan such as Physical factor, environmental factor, biological
factor, technological factor, economic factor, cultural factor,
environmental factor and psychological factor.

7. Define „Culture‟. Discuss its components with examples.

(2017-A)
 Define Culture find explain the significance of studying
culture for individuals in legal professions. (2017-S)
 Define Culture. Discuss the relationship in any between
culture and crime in Pakistani society. (2018-A)
 Define Culture and discuss its types with examples. (2018-S)
 Define Culture and explain the elements of culture. (2019-A)
 Define the concept of „Culture‟. Discuss elements of Culture
in detail. (2019-A)
 Define Culture and its types. Write a detail note on
ethnocentrism. (2020-A)
 Define social and cultural change. Explain the factors that
are responsible for change in Pakistan society with suitable
examples. (2019-A)

Synopsis

52 | P a g e
 I. Introduction
II. Meaning of culture
III. Definition of culture
IV. Social meaning
V. History of culture
VI. Explanation of culture
VII. Features/ characteristics of culture
VIII. Element of culture
IX. Types of culture
X. Terminology of culture
XI. Culture diversity
XII. Relation between culture and crime
XIII. Factors responsible for change in Pakistani society
XIV. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Culture is the whole of social tradition. It is man-made part of
environment. It is one of the most important concepts in social
sciences. Culture and society both are very closely related concepts that
can never be wholly separated. Basically culture is continually
changing patterns of learned behavior and the products of learned
behavior including attitude, values, knowledge and material object.
II. Meaning of culture
According to Merriam Webster,
„The belief, customs, art, etc., of a particular society, group, place or
time‟.
III. Definition of culture

53 | P a g e
According to Beals and Hoijer,
Culture is the totality of designs for living practiced by man at all
places and times. Within all that time and space a culture is the mode of
activities which differentiates the people in one society from another.
According to Nadel,
It is the integrated totality of standardized behavior patterns.
According to Linton,
The culture is social heredity which is transmitted from one generation
to other with the accumulation of individual experiences.
According to Robert Bierstadt,
Culture is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think and
do and everything we have as a member of society.
According to Macionis,
It is set of values, beliefs, behavior and material objects that together
constitute a people‟s way of life.
According to David Bidney,
Culture is a product of agrofacts, cultivation, artifacts, industries, social
facts and mental facts (art, religion, language, etc.)
According to H.M Johnson,
Culture has two aspects explicit and implicit. The explicit aspect of
culture consists of those aspects of which bearers are fully conscious
e.g. language. On the other hand, the implicit aspects of culture consist
of those aspects which bearers are not able to describe exactly. But the
meaning of culture will be more clear if we analysis some of its
characteristics.

54 | P a g e
 IV. Social meaning
According to Britannica Dictionary,
Social is relating to or involving activities in which people spend time
talking to each other or doing enjoyable things with each other
V. History of culture
All the human societies have complex ways of life that differ from each
other. There ways came into existence in 1871.
Edward Taylor gave us the first definition of culture „as that complex
whole which includes belief, art, law, morals custom and other
capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society‟.
VI. Explanation of culture
Culture is the symbolic-expressive dimension of social life. In common
usage, the term “culture” can mean the cultivation associated with
“civilized” habits of mind, the creative products associated with the arts,
or the entire way of life associated with a group. Among sociologists,
“culture” just as often refers to the beliefs that people hold about
reality, the norms that guide their behavior, the values that orient their
moral commitments, or the symbols through which these beliefs,
norms, and values are communicated. The sociological study of culture
encompasses all these diverse meanings of “culture.” Amid this
diversity, what unifies the sociology of culture are two core
commitments: that the symbolic-expressive dimension of social life is
worthy of examination, both for its own sake and because of its impact
on other aspects of social life; and that culture can be studied using the
methods and analytic tools of sociology.
VII. Features/ characteristics of culture
Following are characteristics of culture:
55 | P a g e
 1. Culture is acquired
Culture is acquired quality or behavior
2. Culture is social
Culture is not individual but social in nature.
3. Culture is Trans missive
Culture is transmitted from one generation to another.
4. Culture fulfill needs
Culture fulfills many psychological, moral and social needs of
individual.
5. Culture is shared
Culture is not possessed by a single or a few individual. It is shared by
majority of individuals. Hence culture is collective in nature.
6. Culture is idealistic
Culture is idealistic in nature.
7. Culture is accumulative
Culture is not created in one day or one year. It gradually accumulates
through centuries.
8. Culture is adaptive
Culture possesses adaptive capacity.
9. Culture is variable
Culture is variable and changeable.
10. Culture is originated

56 | P a g e
Culture has an order or system. According to Taylor, culture is a
complex whole. It means different parts of culture are well organized.
11. Culture is communicative
Culture is based on symbol and it communicates through different
symbols.
12. Language is the chief vehicle of culture
Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next. It never
remains static. Culture is learned through language.
13. Culture is total of social heritage
Culture is a social product. It is linked with past. Through transmission
past continues to live in culture. It is shared by all.
VIII. Element of culture
There are some basic elements of culture, which are given below:
1. Language
A group of words or ideas having common meaning ad is shared to a
social situation is called language. Language is entrance to a culture.
Language is a source of communication. Language is like a vehicle
through which we can carry our complex social activities.
2. Symbols
Culture is a system of symbols. Symbols direct to guide our behavior.
For example, flag, picture, status, anthem, etc.
3. Norms

57 | P a g e
Norms as elements of culture are the rules and the guidelines which
specify the behavior of an individual. It moulds our behavior and gives
as knowledge about wrong and right.
4. Values
Anything getting importance in our daily life becomes our values.
5. Beliefs
Every sect within a culture having some beliefs for cultural refuge.
Muslim beliefs in God, Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him), the day of
judgment, recitation of Holy Quran, Hajj, etc.
6. Cognitive elements
Cognitive elements of culture are those through which an individual
know how to cope with an existing social situation.
IX. Types of culture
There are four types of culture, which are given below:
1. Real Culture
It is that kind of culture which can be observed in our social life. The
culture which plays an important role in our social life belongs to real
culture. For example, we are Muslim but we do not follow Islam fully
in our social life. It means the part of Islam which we follow is our real
culture. Hence, the whole of the culture is never real because a part of it
remains without practices.
2. Ideal Culture
The culture which is presented as a pattern or precedent to the people
is called idea culture. The part of ideal culture practiced in social life is

58 | P a g e
called real culture. Islam is our ideal culture. Both cultures real and
ideal are related to each other and different too.
3. Material Culture
Material culture refers to physical objects, resources and spaces that
people use to define their culture. For example, material culture can be
food, clothing, architecture, tools, devices, vehicles, artifacts, etc.
Hence, the touchable, concrete and physical aspects of a culture are
known as Material culture.
4. Non-Material Culture
The untouchable, abstract and non-physical aspects of a culture are
known as non-Material Culture. For example, norms, beliefs, customs,
values and language, etc.
X. Terminology of culture
„Cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to
or borrowing traits from another culture.‟
Acculturation:
The partial change of a group or individual's culture as a result of
contact with a different culture is said acculturation. It may be the
result of prolonged contact or a sudden, major traumatic event or
charismatic change.
Assimilation:
When a group gradually gives up its traditional ways of life and
conforms to the standards of the dominant group.
Cultural Awareness:

59 | P a g e
Cultural awareness is being knowledgeable about one's own thoughts,
and feelings as well as the ability to reflect on how these can affect ones
inter-actions with others.
Cultural Brokerage:
The deliberate use of culturally competent strategies to bridge or
mediate between the patient's culture and the biomedical health care
system is said to cultural brokerage.
Cultural Competence:
Is defined as the attitudes, knowledge, and skills necessary for
providing quality care to diverse populations is said to cultural
competence.
Cultural Competent Care:
The interface of care delivery between the culture frameworks of health
care providers and the culture frameworks of patients and their families
is of central importance to the successful outcomes of the healthcare
interventions and the establishment of culturally sensitive care.
Cultural Conflict:
Occurs when there is a lack of awareness, understanding, acceptance, or
responsiveness between members of different cultural groups
concerning their distinct cultural experience. For example, cultural
conflict may result when the beliefs of members of the Hispanic culture
that leaving a candle burning at the bedside of family members who are
ill will protect them from evil clash with the hospital culture's beliefs
that this activity is a fire hazard.
Cultural Integration:

60 | P a g e
A culture is not simply a random collection of traits, but a system
where the different parts must fit for functioning. This fitting together
of cultural traits is known as cultural integration.
Cultural Relativity:
Asserts that any culture is different from, but not superior or inferior
to, any other culture. Every culture must be judged on its own terms to
avoid ethnocentrism.
Cultural Sensitivity:
Refers to an individual's awareness of which issues or concerns are
important to one's own culture and the culture of others. This is a first
step in transcending ethnocentric biases; however, to become culturally
sensitive nurses also need to become familiar with other cultures.
Culture Shock:
Disorienting, rapid culture change. Refers to the difficulties that people
experience in adjusting to a foreign culture.
Discrimination:
Differential unequal behavioral treatment based solely on ethnic, racial
or religious group affiliation, national origin, gender, age, disability,
sexual orientation, and familial and marital status.
Dominant Culture:
The group that functions as guardian and sustainer of the controlling
value system and allocates rewards and punishments.
Enculturation:
The process by which one learns appropriate ways of acting and
meeting one's needs. It refers to the development of behavioral patterns

61 | P a g e
in children that conform to norms of the culture. It is communicated in
childrearing and through education, religion and art.
Ethnic Groups:
Groups with distinctive social and cultural characteristics. An
important factor in the way an ethnic group is defined is the
recognition by others of some social difference. In a true ethnic group,
recognition of social differences comes not only from others, but also
from members of the group. An ethnic group has shared feelings of
"peoplehood".
Ethnic Nursing Care:
The nurse's effective integration of the patient's ethnic cultural
background into his/her nursing process-based patient care.
Ethnicity:
Refers to affiliation with a group based on hereditary and cultural
traditions, such as language and religion. For example, Hispanics and
Irish are classified as ethnic groups.
Ethnocentrism:
The tendency to evaluate other cultures in terms of our own. The belief
that one's culture or way of life is superior to that of other cultural
groups.
Ethnoscience:
The study of the way of life of a designated cultural group with the
purpose of obtaining an account of people's behavior, and how they
perceive it.
Generalizations:

62 | P a g e
Generalizations are based on facts that help us to understand and
anticipate behaviors.
Health Disparity:
Are differences in the incidence, prevalence, mortality and burden of
disease and other health conditions that exist among specific population
groups in the United States.
Ideology:
Refers to all concepts and their relationships within a cultural system.
These concepts label concrete or material objects and their boundaries
and attach a word or symbol to them. The material objects include art,
religious artifacts, eating utensils, dress, and their use. These concepts
are organized and form proverbs, folklore, myths, etiquette and law,
technical manuals, religious and scientific doctrines, and philosophies.
Institution:
A formal and stable way of pursuing an activity that is important to the
society.
Minority group/Culture:
A minority group is a recognizable group in a society which suffers
some disadvantage due to prejudice or discrimination. A minority
culture is a group that is singled out from the rest of society based on
their physical appearance or cultural practices.
Norm:
Any standard which defines what people should or should not do, think,
or feel in any given situation.
Prejudice:

63 | P a g e
A negative attitude acquired without any prior adequate evidence or
experience with a group.
Race/Racial:
Refers to a group of people (family, tribe or nation) who descended
from a common ancestor and possess common interests, appearances,
or habits. Black and Caucasians are examples of races of people. Groups
with distinctive physical characteristics are racial groups: Ex:
Biological characteristics, i.e., hair, skin color, stature, facial features,
etc.
Racism:
Any ethnocentric activity -- cultural, individual, or institutional,
deliberate or not -- that is based on the belief that one racial group is
superior to another. Racism is often the basis for oppression and
control of groups of people.
Religion:
Refers to an organized system of worship with central beliefs, rituals,
and practices. Can be characterized as having four dimensions:
A. theoretical, consisting of myths, beliefs, and
B. doctrines; practical, consisting of rites, prayers, and moral codes;
C. Sociological, relating to churches, leaders, and functionaries; and
D. Experiential, pertaining to emotions, visions, and various
sentiments.
Religion can provide a framework for spiritual belief, but many people
express their spiritual beliefs outside the framework of organized
religion.

64 | P a g e
Social Relationships:
Include behavior between and among people, behavior toward
possessions, work, learning, worshipping, and other processes. Social
behavior also includes the feelings that are attached to the behaviors.
Social Structure:
Social organization; relationships that hold a society together.
Society:
A group of people in a specific locality that share a common culture and
are dependent on each other for survival. Members of the society have a
sense of group identity and depend on each other in economic and
family relationships.
Spirituality:
Can be defined as a belief in or a relationship with a higher power,
divine being, or creative life force. Behaviors are seen as reverence and
awe seeking and striving for inspiration, perspective, meaning, and
purpose. The spiritual dimension in human beings seeks harmony and
answers about the infinite and is practiced in all religious affiliations.
Stereotyping:
A response to a person or group based on preconceived negative labels
without an objective assessment of the individual or group.
Subculture:
When a group of people within the culture formulate a way of behaving
that includes some of the features of the dominant culture, but also
includes certain features not found elsewhere in society.
Transcultural Reciprocity:

65 | P a g e
Collaborating interaction based on an exchange of cultural respect and
understanding between nurse and client. A process in which both client
and nurse are equal participants, with nurses shaping care to the
parameters of a client's culture.
Value:
An idea about what is good, right, or wise, or beneficial.

XI. Culture diversity

As an all-inclusive concept and includes differences in race, color,
ethnicity, national origin, and immigration status, religion, age, gender,
sexual orientation, ability/disability, political beliefs, social and
economic status, education, occupation, spirituality, marital and
parental status, urban vs. rural residence, and other attributes of groups
of people in society.
XII. Relation between culture and crime
 Law and Culture
The law of a society is designated according to the framework of its
culture. The cultural values, sentiments, customs rituals, ceremonies
and other customary ways pave way for the law. According to
sociology, the laws also develop from mores and folkways when they
seek importance in society. A law is a guardian of cultural values. The
importance of value increases the importance of law.
 Law and Crime
Violation of law is crime. The types of laws give us the types of crime.
Crime is fashion, in a changing society because the laws change rapidly
in only changing societies. New laws of modern society give us new
types of crime.
66 | P a g e
 XIII. Factors responsible for change in Pakistani society
There are following factors responsible for changes in Pakistani
society:
1. Change in tradition
A rapid change in tradition in the society of Pakistan is main factor for
changes in culture.
2. Change in thoughts about religious person
Change in thoughts about religious person is another factor.
3. Change in job opportunity
As the nature of job and opportunities both are changes with the time
this factor is also responsible for changes in the society.
4. Changes in social get together
There are rapid changes in the social get together which another factor
responsible is also.
5. Changes in marriage pattern
There are many changes in the marriage pattern which is another
factor of changes in the society such as extra events like bridal shower
etc.
6. Change in lifestyle
A change in the life styles of the community is another factor
responsible.
7. Changes in political processes, media consumerism and education

67 | P a g e
A change in political processes, media consumerism and education is
also factor responsible for changes in the society. as education is the
root of success. A modern change in education system is online
education system.

XIV. Conclusion
Culture has two aspects explicit and implicit. The explicit aspect of
culture consists of those aspects of which bearers are fully conscious
e.g. language. On the other hand, the implicit aspects of culture
consist of those aspects which bearers are not able to describe
exactly. But the meaning of culture will be more clear if we analysis
some of its characteristics. There are four types of culture, real, ideal,
material and non-material. Language, norms, symbols, values and
beliefs are element of culture.

8. Define social stratification? What according to you are

important criteria‟s social stratification in Pakistan? Give
examples. (2017-A)
 What is social stratification? According to you, is Pakistani
society socially stratified? Discuss your opinion with relevant
examples. (2017-S)
 Explain social stratification and its dimensions with
examples from Pakistani society. (2018-A)
 Explain social stratification and its dimensions with
examples from Pakistani society. (2019-A)
 Define „social stratifications‟ and explain the systems of
stratifications. (2020-A)

68 | P a g e
  “Caste and Class” are the basis of social stratification in our
society. Discuss the importance of each with example. (2019-
A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of social stratification
III. Definition of social stratification
IV. Characteristics of social stratification
V. Basis system of stratification
VI. System of stratification in Pakistan
VII. Dimensions of social stratification
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
The people in every society have different ranks according to their
classes as high or low. The distribution of people of society in groups
on the basis of their status is called social stratification. This
distribution may be on the basis of occupation, caste, education, sources
of income, prestige and political power.
II. Meaning of social stratification
According to Melvin M. Tuman,
Social stratification refers to arrangements of any social group or
society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to
power, property, social evaluation and or psychic gratification.
III. Definition of social stratification
According to Merv O. Hogan,

69 | P a g e
A relatively permanent ranking of statutes and roles in a social system
ranking from small group to a society in terms of differential privileges,
prestige, influence and power is called social stratification.
IV. Characteristics of social stratification
There are three characteristics of social stratifications, which are given
below:
1. Rankings
The rankings apply to social categories of people who share common
characteristics without necessarily interacting or identifying with one
another. For example, a woman may be ranked different as compare to
man, similarly wealthy people different from poor people.
2. Experiences and Opportunities
People‟s life experiences and opportunities depend heavily on how their
social category is ranked. Being male or female, black or white, upper
or lower class, working class makes a difference in terms of your life
chances.
3. Ranks of Different Social Categories
The ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over
lime.
V. Basis system of stratification
Sociologists have distinguished between two systems of stratification:
closed and open. Closed systems accommodate for little change in social
position. It is difficult, if not impossible, for people to shift levels and
social relationships between levels are largely verboten.
1. Slavery

70 | P a g e
Slavery and indentured servitude are likely the most rigid types of
social stratification. Both of these involve people being treated as actual
property and are often based on race or ethnicity. The owner of a slave
exploits a slave's labor for economic gain. Slavery is one of the lowest
levels in any stratification system, as they possess virtually no power or
wealth of their own. Slavery is thought to have begun 10,000 years ago,
after agricultural societies developed, as people in these societies made
prisoners of war work on their farm. As in other social stratification
systems, the status of one's parents often defines whether or not
someone will be put into slavery. However on a historic level, slavery
has also been used as a punishment for crimes and as a way of
controlling those in invaded or enemy territories.

2. Caste system
Caste systems are closed stratification systems, meaning that people
can do very little to change the social standing of their birth. Caste
systems determine all aspects of an individual's life, such as appropriate
occupations, marriage partners, and housing. Those who defy the
expectations of their caste may descend to a lower one. Individual
talents and interests do not provide opportunities to improve one's
social standing. The Indian caste system is based on the principles of
Hinduism.

3. Class system
Class systems are based on both social factors and individual
achievement. Classes consist of sets of people who have similar status
based on factors such as wealth, income, education, family background,
and occupation.Class systems, unlike caste systems, are open. This

71 | P a g e
means that people can move to a different level of education or
employment status than their parents. A combination of personal
choice, opportunity, and one's beginning status in society each play a
role. Those in class systems can socialize with and marry members of
other classes.

VI. System of stratification in Pakistan

Following points can be explained in system of stratification of
Pakistan:
A. Occupation In Pakistani society
B. High class
The high class professionals are owner cultivators, industrialists‟ big
and wholesale businessman and high class government and semi-
government officials.
C. Middle class
In middle class, come the small owned cultivators-cum-tenants, middle
class, servicemen, and small partners in industrial units. The skilled
labor also comes in this category.
D. Lower class
All menial workers like cobbler, carpenter, blacksmith, washer man,
peon, chowkidar, sweepers and unskilled laborers, street vendor‟s
hawker, shoes-mender and other are included.
E. Prestige
If individual has high prestige in social life, he is regarded most
respectful person. The social prestige in our society is depends upon the
following factors:

72 | P a g e
 (i) Nobility of individual
(ii) Harmless person for others.
(iii) Helping the needy and worried.
(iv) He is true to his words.
(v) It also means he is not liar.
An individual in Pakistan society claiming these trails enjoys high
prestige in the community. Here the prestige is attained by spending
the economic resources in their social life.
F. Power
Power is one of the most important social stratification in our society.
G. Caste
In Pakistan society, caste is considered an important element of
stratification. Some castes are believed to be higher in status like Syed,
Rajput, Pathan, Jutt and Taga.
H. Education
The standard of education is also determines a social class. The
illiterate persons belong to lower class. Those who got education up to
college may be placed in upper or middle class.
VII. Dimensions of social stratification
There are three dimensions of social stratifications:
(1) Education
People with high school degree are classified in one group. And People
with college degree put into another class.
(2) Occupation

73 | P a g e
Occupational prestige is very subjective and varies from country to
country. Such as, physicians, Judges, University Professors, CEOs.
(3) Income
Of the three variables income is perhaps the least reliable as a predictor
of SES. Assuming that a person‟s income is derived mostly from his or
her job, the salary he or she receives is subject to influence by a variety
of factors:
o Geographical region
o Size of company
o Educational level
o Work experience
VIII. Conclusion
In conclusion, historically there are four basic systems of stratifications
slavery, caste, estates and class. A relatively permanent ranking of
statutes and roles in a social system ranking from small group to a
society in terms of differential privileges, prestige, influence and power
is called social stratification. Rankings, opportunities and experiences
and ranks of different social categories are characteristics of social
stratifications.
9. Explain social norms and discuss their types with examples.
(2017-A)
 Write a note on Social norms? (2017-S) (2018-S)
Synopsis
I. Preface
II. Meaning of norms
III. Definition of norms
IV. Features of Norms
V. Types of social norms
74 | P a g e
 VI. Functions of social norms
VII. Conclusion

I. Preface
There are different elements of culture such as language, symbols,
values, norms and beliefs. Norms are element of culture. It explains the
rules and guidelines which specify the behavior. It molds our behavior
and gives as knowledge about wrong and right.
II. Meaning of norms
The term norm refers to that which is most common or that which is
normal.
III. Definition of norms
According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology,
„A norm is a shared expectation of behavior that connotes what is
considered culturally desirable and appropriate.
According to M. Haralambos,
A norm is a specific guide to action acceptable and appropriate behavior
in particular situation.
IV. Features of Norms
Following are features of norms:
a. Proscriptive
They are both prescriptive they tell us what they should do and
proscriptive.
b. Established standard of behavior
75 | P a g e
Norms are established standard of behavior maintained in a society.
c. Norms are relative
In different societies there can be different norms for some particular
behavior.
d. Not static
They are not static, but change from time to time and society to
society.
V. Types of social norms
Norms can be classified in many ways but the most important
distinction is between prescriptive and proscriptive.
(a) Prescriptive norm
A prescriptive norm is positive in form and spells out forms of behavior
which role-players are expected to follow. A perspective norm involves
behavioral degrees of conformity.
(b) Proscriptive norm
A prescriptive norm is one which directs a role-player to avoid or
abstain from certain type of activity.
(c) Formal norms
Formal norms have generally be written down and involve strict rules
for punishment of violators.
(d) Informal norms
Informal norms are generally understand but are not precisely
recorded.
(e) Classification by relative importance to society

76 | P a g e
Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society.
VI. Functions of social norms
Social norms perform the following functions:
1. They direct regulate and control the human behavior.
2. They help in satisfying our social needs.
3. They help in establishing social order by mitigating tensions
and conflicts in society.
4. They act as ideals and objectives in certain situations.
5. They help in predicting behavior.
VII. Conclusion
It is very clear from the above discussion that the term norm refers to
that which is most common or that which is normal. A norm is a
specific guide to action acceptable and appropriate behavior in
particular situation. There are different classifications of norms such as
prescriptive, proscriptive, formal and informal. Norms are element of
culture. They have various functions, they help in predicating behavior
and regulate and control human behavior.
10. Define „Status and Role‟. Explain the determinants of
„ascribed‟ and „achieved‟ status with examples.
(2017-A)(2019-A)
 What is social role? Also explain the concepts of role set,
role conflict, role strain, and role exit with examples.
(2018-S)
 Write a note on social status? (2018-S)

Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Status
77 | P a g e
 III. Role
IV. Role conflict
V. Role strain
VI. Role exit
VII. Determinants of ascribed and achieved status
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
The relationship among social institutions is called social structure.
Statuses are socially defined positions that people occupy. Common
status may pertain to religion, education ethnicity and occupation. A
role is the function of status. The individual in a society has been
assigned certain rights and duties. Hence, a character assigned or
assumed is said to role.

II. Status
Status exists independent of the specific people who occupy them.
Interpretation of status
According to Horton & Hunt,
Status is defined as the rank or position of a person in a group or of a
group in relations to other groups.
Illustration
Status of politician, bank teller, police officer, butcher, insurance
adjuster, thief and prostitute.

78 | P a g e
 Sociological point of view
It is very pertinent to know that from a sociological point of view
status does not refer as it does common usage to the idea of prestige.
For example, in America research has shown that of lawyer which in
turn has more prestige than that of sociologist.
III. Role
A role is the function of status. The individual in a society has been
assigned certain rights and duties constituting status. These rights and
duties when performed is said to have performed roles or
corresponding status.
Meaning of role
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
„A character assigned or assumed‟.
Example
(a) He being a teacher in college is a role.
(b) He is a husband of his wife.
(c) A father of several children.
(d) An active member of the Pakistan Sociological Association, a
member of his caste.
(e) The president of college tennis club, etc.
Hence, teacher, husband, father, member and president are the status
having their respective roles performed by him.

IV. Role conflict

The clash of expectations concerning some aspects of a role has usually
been called role conflict. The term „role conflict‟ has been used in
79 | P a g e
various senses. It takes several different forms—role collision, role
confusion, role incompatibility, inadequate role preparation, or failure
in role performance.
V. Role strain
In sociology role strain is when a particular role a person needs to
fulfill is strained due to excessive obligations or multiple demands on
time, energy or available resources.
VI. Role exit
In sociology, the role exit refers to the process of disengaging from a
role that is true to one‟s self-identity, in order to take up a new role and
identity.
VII. Determinants of ascribed and achieved status
Ascribed Status describes a person‟s religion, gender, values, customs,
and traditions. It is used in making personal relationships and
following traditional values. Ascribed status is achieved without any
efforts and does not require fulfilling any conditions. Ascribed status
helps to satisfy inner feelings and affects the role of a person in
traditional society. Achieved status describes the professional
accomplishments of a person. It changes with the change in skills,
experience, and profession.

Difference between ascribed status and achieved status

Sr. Difference Ascribed status Achieved status
No
1. As to It is a status obtained It is a status obtained
definition by birth. by education and
skills.
2. As to A person need not A person requires
Requirements fulfill any education
requirements to qualification, skills,
80 | P a g e
 achieve ascribed and expertise based on
status. the profession he
wants to achieve.
3. Examples Gender, religion, The profession of a
caste, and race. person.
4. As to Society Ascribed status is Achieved status is
significant in vital in the modern
Traditional society. and industrial
community.
5. As to Status The status is fixed and The status changes
unchanged over time based on
throughout life. one‟s efforts.

VIII. Conclusion
To conclude it, social structure relationship among institutions is
called social structure. A role is the function of status. Ascribed
status are status by birth for example gender, religion, caste etc.
similarly status by education and skill is called achieved status such
as lawyer, doctor, professor, politician, etc. there are difference
between ascribed and achieved status as to example, status and
society.
11. Define Deviance and discuss any two theories of
deviance to explain crime in society. (2017-A)
 Define deviance and give the sociological explanation of why
people do deviance despite having the mechanism of social
control. (2017-S)
 Discuss deviance and social control. (2018-S)
 Differentiate between “deviance and crime”. Why deviance is
functional for the society. Elaborate. (2020-A)
 Define Deviance and briefly explain the reasons why there
exist deviance in any society? (2019-A)

81 | P a g e
 Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of Deviance
III. Definition of Deviance
IV. Meaning of Crime
V. Definition of crime
VI. Theories of deviance
VII. Relationship between deviance, crime and social control
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Deviance is the violation of norms. It is breaking of norms in society.
Deviance is breaking social manners, social code of conduct in business
and mutual agreements between the parties. In simple words, any
violation of norm is called deviance. It is natural that man deviates
from norm.
II. Meaning of Deviance
According to Merriam Webster Dictionary,
Deviant quality, state or behavior.
III. Definition of Deviance
According to Horton and Hunt,
Any failure to confirm to customary norms is called Deviance.
According to Weston,
Behavior that is contrary to the standards of conduct or social
expectations of a given group or society defines as Deviance.

82 | P a g e
According to Ian Robertson,
Deviance that violates significant social norms and is disapproved by
large numbers of people as result.
IV. Meaning of Crime

Crime means “Activities that invoke breaking the law an illegal act or
activity that can be punished by law”.
V. Definition of crime
According to Black stone,
An act committed or omitted in violation of a public law forbidding or
commanding it.
It was further defined in case law Mellor Vs Denhum „Crime is the
conviction for the breach of by law‟.
VI. Theories of deviance
Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and usually
sufficient to warrant disapproval from the majority of society.
Following are theories of deviance:
(A) Differential- Association Theory
Edwin Sutherland coined the phrase differential association to address
the issue of how people learn deviance. According to this theory, the
environment plays a major role in deciding which norms people learn
to violate. Specifically, people within a particular reference
group provide norms of conformity and deviance, and thus heavily
influence the way other people look at the world, including how they
react. People also learn their norms from various socializing agents‟
parents, teachers, ministers, family, friends, co‐ workers, and the media.
In short, people learn criminal behavior, like other behaviors, from
83 | P a g e
their interactions with others, especially in intimate groups. The
differential‐ association theory applies to many types of deviant
behavior. For example, juvenile gangs provide an environment in
which young people learn to become criminals. These gangs define
themselves as countercultural and glorify violence, retaliation, and
crime as means to achieving social status. Gang members learn to be
deviant as they embrace and conform to their gang's norms.
Differential association theory has contributed to the field of
criminology in its focus on the developmental nature of criminality.
People learn deviance from the people with whom they associate.
Critics of the differential association theory, on the other hand, claim
the vagueness of the theory's terminology does not lend itself to social
science research methods or empirical validation.
(B) Anomie theory
Anomie refers to the confusion that arises when social norms conflict or
do not even exist. In the 1960s, Robert Merton used the term to
describe the differences between socially accepted goals and the
availability of means to achieve those goals. Merton stressed, for
instance, that attaining wealth is a major goal of Americans, but not all
Americans possess the means to do this, especially members of minority
and disadvantaged groups. Those who find the “road to riches” closed
to them experience anomie, because an obstacle has thwarted their
pursuit of a socially approved goal. When this happens, these
individuals may employ deviant behaviors to attain their goals, retaliate
against society, or merely “make a point.” The primary contribution of
anomie theory is its ability to explain many forms of deviance. The
theory is also sociological in its emphasis on the role of social forces in
creating deviance. On the negative side, anomie theory has been
criticized for its generality. Critics note the theory's lack of statements
concerning the process of learning deviance, including the internal
motivators for deviance. Like differential association theory, anomie
theory does not lend itself to precise scientific study.

(C) Control theory

84 | P a g e
According to Walter Reckless's control theory, both inner and outer
controls work against deviant tendencies. People may want at least
some of the time to act in deviant ways, but most do not. They have
various restraints: internal controls, such as conscience, values,
integrity, morality, and the desire to be a “good person”; and outer
controls, such as police, family, friends, and religious authorities. Travis
Hirsch noted that these inner and outer restraints form a person's self-
control, which prevents acting against social norms. The key to
developing self-control is proper socialization, especially early in
childhood. Children who lack this self-control, then, may grow up to
commit crimes and other deviant behaviors. Whereas theory also
suggests that people society labels as “criminals” are probably members
of subordinate groups, critics argue that this oversimplifies the
situation. As examples, they cite wealthy and powerful businesspeople,
politicians, and others who commit crimes. Critics also argue that
conflict theory does little to explain the causes of deviance. Proponents
counter, however, by asserting that the theory does not attempt to
delve into etiologies. Instead, the theory does what it claims to do: It
discusses the relationships between socialization, social controls, and
behavior.

(D) Labeling theory

A type of symbolic interaction, labeling theory concerns the meanings
people derive from one another's labels, symbols, actions, and reactions.
This theory holds that behaviors are deviant only when society labels
them as deviant. As such, conforming members of society, who
interpret certain behaviors as deviant and then attach this label to
individuals, determine the distinction between deviance and non-
deviance. Labeling theory questions who applies what label to whom,
why they do this, and what happens as a result of this labeling.
Powerful individuals within society politicians, judges, police officers,
medical doctors, and so forth typically impose the most significant
labels. Labeled persons may include drug addicts, alcoholics, criminals,
delinquents, prostitutes, sex offenders, retarded people, and psychiatric

85 | P a g e
patients, to mention a few. The consequences of being labeled as
deviant can be far reaching. Social research indicates that those who
have negative labels usually have lower self-images, are more likely to
reject themselves, and may even act more defiantly as a result of the
label. Unfortunately, people who accept the labeling of others be it
correct or incorrect have a difficult time changing their opinions of the
labeled person, even in light of evidence to the contrary. William
Chambliss in 1973 conducted a classic study into the effects of labeling.
His two groups of white, male, high school students were both
frequently involved in delinquent acts of theft, vandalism, drinking, and
truancy. The police never arrested the members of one group, which
Chambliss labeled the “Saints,” but the police did have frequent run‐
ins with members of the other group, which he labeled the
“Roughnecks.” The boys in the Saints came from respectable families,
had good reputations and grades in school, and were careful not to get
caught when breaking the law. By being polite, cordial, and apologetic
whenever confronted by the police, the Saints escaped labeling
themselves as “deviants.” In contrast, the Roughnecks came from
families of lower socioeconomic status, had poor reputations and grades
in school, and were not careful about being caught when breaking the
law. By being hostile and insolent whenever confronted by the police,
the Roughnecks were easily labeled by others and themselves as
“deviants.” In other words, while both groups committed crimes, the
Saints were perceived to be “good” because of their polite behavior
(which was attributed to their upper class backgrounds) and the
Roughnecks were seen as “bad” because of their insolent behavior
(which was attributed to their lower class backgrounds). As a result,
the police always took action against the Roughnecks, but never
against the Saints. Proponents of labeling theory support the theory's
emphasis on the role that the attitudes and reactions of others, not
deviant acts per se, have on the development of deviance. Critics of
labeling theory indicate that the theory only applies to a small number
of deviants, because such people are actually caught and labeled as
deviants. Critics also argue that the concepts in the theory are unclear
and thus difficult to test scientifically.
VII. Relationship between deviance, crime and social control
86 | P a g e
 a. Deviance
According to sociologist William Graham Summer, deviance is a
violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether
folkways, mores, or codified law.
b. Crime
A crime is therefore an act of deviance that breaks not only a norm but
a law. Deviance can be as minor as picking one‟s nose in public or as
major as committing murder.
c. Social control
An adult belching loudly is avoided. All societies practice social control,
the regulation and enforcement of norms.
VIII. Conclusion
To conclude it, deviance is a violation of established contextual,
cultural or social norms. Any violation of norm is deviance. There are
four theories of deviance such as differential-association theory, anomie
theory, control theory and labeling theory.

12. Write a note on “Social Mobility”. (2017-A) (2018-A)

(2019-A)
 Define the “Social Mobility”. Discuss types of social Mobility
in detail. (2019-A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Meaning of Social Mobility

87 | P a g e
 III. Definition of Social Mobility
IV. Essentials of Social Mobility
V. Types of Social Mobility
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
In simple words, social mobility is a movement from one condition to
another. It is the process from shifting one social status to another,
commonly to a status which is either higher or low. For example, a
child a day of laborers who achieves the status of professor after getting
education it is social mobility.
II. Meaning of Social Mobility
Mobility stands for shift, change and movement. The change may be of
a place or from one position to another. Furthermore, it is value free. It
cannot be said that change should be good or bad.
III. Definition of Social Mobility
According to Horton and Hunt,
Social mobility may be defined an act of moving from one social class to
another.
According to Stephen,
Social mobility is moving of an individual or group of people from one
status to another.
According to Fairchild,
Social mobility is a movement from one condition to another.
In simple words,
88 | P a g e
Social mobility is a moving individual from one group to another or
from one status to another.
IV. Essentials of Social Mobility
There are three main essentials of social mobility, which are given
below:
1. Movement
There must be a movement of an individual or group of people from
one condition to another or from one status to another.
2. Adaption
There must be adaption of a change which may be social progress.
3. Rejection
There must be a rejection of previous social conditions and adjusting
into the new changes of life.
V. Types of Social Mobility
There are some types of social mobility which are given below:
1. Territorial mobility
Territorial mobility deals with the changes of residence from one
place to another.
Rural areas of Pakistan
In rural areas of Pakistan mostly people dislike to leave their ancestor
place of living.
Urban areas of Pakistan
In urban areas of Pakistan, people sell one house and purchase another.

89 | P a g e
 2. Vertical mobility
Vertical mobility is defined as any upward or downward change in
absolute or relates rank of any individual or group.
Illustration:
Promotion in job, change in income, marrying a woman of high
status etc.
Types of vertical mobility
Vertical mobility is further divided into two types:
Upward mobility
The upward mobility is from down to upward for example, progressing
in income, status, job, education and any other.
Downward mobility
The downward mobility move takes place when there is loss in
business, loss in income and loss of wealth etc.
3. Horizontal mobility
An alteration of profession with no significant movement up or down in
the system of social status is called horizontal mobility.
4. Inter-Generational mobility
Inter-Generational mobility refers to a social mobility that takes place
between generations. For example, son of taxi driver earns a college
education and becomes doctor. Hence, inter-Generational mobility has
occurred.
5. Intra-Generational mobility
Intra-Generational mobility refers to change or changes in the social
status of an individual group of individuals within the same generation.
90 | P a g e
For example, among four brothers one become CSP officer and others
remain in low social status comparing with him. Hence, Intra-
Generational mobility occurs.
VI. Conclusion
It is concluded that social mobility is the change in status from one
group to another. Movement of individual, adaption of a change and
rejection of previous social institutions are essentials of social mobility.
There are different types of social mobility such as, territorial mobility,
vertical mobility, horizontal mobility, inter-generational mobility and
intra-generational mobility.
13. Write a note on Role Conflict. (2017-A) (2018-A) (2019-
A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Social structure
III. Causes of role conflict
IV. Consequences of role conflict
V. Solutions of role conflict
VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
In a social situation, when two or more than two different roles happen
to occur is called role conflict. In simple words, different roles occur in
one social situation and the actor is to act one role and reject the other.
The societies in which technology, education, industry and
urbanization expand happen to experience role conflict.
91 | P a g e
 II. Social structure
Relationship among institutions is called social structure. A group of
individual living under one roof and usually under one head is called
social structure.
III. Causes of role conflict
There are following causes of role conflict which are given below:
1. Extra busy life due
To education and advancement mostly remains busy in thought. It is
the cause of role conflict.
2. Incomplete or weak socialization
Incomplete or weak socialization is also another cause of role conflict.
3. New social values
With the advancement of industry, social change and modernization,
new social values are taking place that cause role conflict.
4. Material desire
Accumulation of wealth and other economic resources forced man to
involve more in work, hence cause role conflict.
5. Violation of religious values
Violation of religious values is also another reason of role conflict.
IV. Consequences of role conflict
Following are consequence of role conflict:
1. Tension and worry
Individual becomes worried and tensed due to role conflict.
92 | P a g e
 2. Poor decision perform
The decisive power of the individual becomes weak.
3. Sleeplessness
Thinking habit develops which create sleeplessness.
4. Short temperament
Person becomes short temperament due to cause of role conflict.
5. Ill health
Such people face acute condition of role conflict may face
6. Neurosis
Such persons may face mental problem neurosis and physical disorder.
7. Social problems
Social problems are also increasing day by day due to role conflict.
V. Solutions of role conflict
Following are solutions of role conflict:
1. Simple life
Simple life must be adopted for the solution of role conflict.
2. Socialization
Process of socialization must be changes and there should be training
regarding socialization.
3. Training of role performance
There should be training of role performance to people.

93 | P a g e
 4. Division of labor
Role conflict can be reducing due to proper division of labor among
groups.
5. Social planning
Role conflict can be reduced by planning role performance according to
situation called social planning.
VI. Conclusion
In conclusion, we can say in the discussion of social situation, when two
or more than two different roles happen to occur is called role conflict.
There is extra busy life, incomplete socialization; material desire and
violation of religious values are cause of role conflict. In the outcome of
it, tension and stress, poor decisions perform, sleeplessness and ill
health arises in consequences. It is very clear from the above discussion,
that Simple life, training for socialization and division of labor should
be solution of Role Conflict.
14. Write a note on institution of education and its
functions in Pakistani society. (2017-S)
 Define Education; also explain problems of education system
in Pakistan with Possible solution. (2019-A)
 Define education. Discuss the functions of education system
in Pakistani society. (2020-A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Social institution
III. Functions of education system in Pakistan
IV. Problems in education system of Pakistan
V. Solutions

94 | P a g e
 VI. Conclusion

I. Introduction
According to Brigham Young, “You educate a man; you educate a man.
You educate a woman; you educate a generation.” Education is the root
of success. There is always education behind the success of every state.
To get education is very pertinent. It is our fundamental right.
Institutions are the systems of social relationship for meeting various
felt human needs. There are many social institutions education is one of
the foremost social institutions.
I. Social institution
According to Maciver and Page,
Maciver and Page considered institution as: established forms or
conditions of procedure.

II. Importance of education in Pakistan

According to Article 25-A of The Constitution Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, 1973, “The state shall provide free and compulsory education
to all children under the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as
may be determined by law”.
III. Functions of education system in Pakistan
As education plays a great role in every society. We are also promoting
education since independence of Pakistan. There are following
functions of education:
1. Education towards individual

95 | P a g e
Education provides guidance through a pre-planned educational
program. The educational programs will modify and re-direct the
child‟s instincts to desirable ends, resulting in a worthwhile progressive
and harmonious growth. Education provides this sense of direction, and
the learner‟s activities become purposeful.
2. Education towards society
Education is a powerful tool for positive socialization and has the
ability to reconstruct life experiences for the overall growth of society.
Man is a social being. A person is the sum of his interactions with his
social environment. The elders of the society pass on to the younger
generation their experiences, interests, discoveries, conclusions,
traditions, and attitudes. All of these have a significant impact on the
growth and development of future generations. The continuity of the
societal function is thus successfully maintained.
3. Education towards nation
The promotion of civic responsibility is regarded as the most important
function of education. The quality of education determines how well
people function in all areas, including social, political, religious, and
educational activities. The educational system aims to promote unity in
diversity, including unity in religion, language, diet, dress, habit, and
physical environment. True education aims to educate individuals to
overcome narrow prejudices of caste, community, and region and to
look to a broader national perspective.

IV. Problems in education system of Pakistan

Education is the root of success. It should be very clear and free from
problems but there are some problems in education system of Pakistan:
1. Theoretical education

96 | P a g e
The main problem in education system of Pakistan is it is focused upon
theoretical material and which is non-practical.
2. Old curriculum
Curriculum for schools, colleges and universities is always same Which
is affecting the education system of Pakistan.
3. Low teaching quality
Teaching is low which is also affecting the education system of
Pakistan.
4. No unity
Every institute follows different syllabus, hence, there is no unity
among educational institutions.
5. Limited field offered
Limited fields are offered in our education system which is another
problem in education system of Pakistan.
6. Absence of career counseling
There is no concept of career counseling in education system of
Pakistan.
7. Ignorance of skill education
Ignorance of skill education is very common in education system of
Pakistan.
8. Profitable business
Education has become business for everyone. Hence, everyone focus on
the earning from educational institute.
9. No check and balances
97 | P a g e
There are no proper checks and balances in education system of
Pakistan.
10. Online education system
There are many benefits of online education but it is also a problem for
old students who had not early education thorough online system.
11. Cramming (Rattalization)
Rattalization is promoted in the education system of Pakistan
instead of giving focus to conceptual study.
Drawbacks of education system of Pakistan
As we have discussed problems in education system of Pakistan but
there are some drawbacks:
1. Child labor
As child labor is very common in Pakistan because Pakistan is a
developing country. Parents have not enough sources to educate their
child.
2. Poverty
Maximum population is suffering from poverty due to which there are
no educational institutes in backward areas.
3. No respect of degree
There is no respect of degree in present time. There are very less
people who get education and respect as well.
4. No major invention
Due to problems in education system our youth is unable to invent new
something new in education system of Pakistan.

98 | P a g e
 V. Solutions
As we know, every problem has solution. Therefore, following are
solution for problems in education system of Pakistan.
1. Free education
According to Article 25-A of The Constitution Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, 1973, “The state shall provide free and compulsory education
to all children under the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as
may be determined by law”. Hence, there should be implementation of
Article 25-A.
2. Scholarships
There should be facilities of scholarships to hard working and
intelligent students.
3. Focus on the parents
There should be focus on parents.
4. Practical education
There should be focus on practical education instead of theoretical.
5. Career counseling
There should be career counseling for youth.
6. Competent teachers
There should be competent teachers in schools, colleges and
Universities.
7. Deletion of rata system
The root of rata system should be delete for forever.

99 | P a g e
 8. Teachers training
There should be monthly or weekly teachers training.
9. Up dated curriculum
Curriculum should be up dated every year.
10. Unity
There should be unity among educational institutes.
11. Political influence
Students should be free from political influence.
12. Skilled training
There must be focus on skilled training.
13. Technical education
There should be focus on technical education.
14. Policy planers
There should be policies in education system for new initiates and
success.
15. Freelancing
There must be freelancing education and training institutes.
VI. Conclusion
Education is the root of success. There is a story behind every success.
Hence, education is an integral part of every society. It is very
important social institution. Education is compulsory for all according
Islam and law as well. There are some problems in education system of
Pakistan which can be resolve by taking positive steps for it.
100 | P a g e
 15. Define social institutions. Discuss the political
institution and its role in society with relevant examples.
(2018-A)
 Write a note on “Religion as a social Institution”. (2020-A)
 Define religion; also explain the functions of religion in
Pakistani society. (2019-A)

Synopsis
I. Social institutions
II. Meaning of social institutions
III. Definition of social institutions
IV. Illustration
V. Types of social institution
VI. Religion as a social institution
VII. Political institution
VIII. Conclusion

I. Social institutions
A social institution is defined as a collection of individuals banded
altogether. It common purpose is to granting certain rights and
privileges. Members of a social institution also possess certain
delineated duties, responsibilities and liabilities.
II. Meaning of social institutions
According to Maciver and Page,

101 | P a g e
Maciver and Page considered institution as: established forms or
conditions of procedure
III. Definition of social institutions
According to Betrand,
Institutions are systems of social relationship for meeting various felt
human needs.
IV. Illustration
Religious organizations representations represent a prime example,
schools of all types, etc.
V. Types of social institution
There are different types of social institution:
1. Government
2. Education
3. Family
4. Religion
5. Political institution
6. Health & Medicine
7. Economy & work
VI. Religion as a social institution
Religion is very important social institution. It has great importance in
life of every individual.
According to John Macionis:
“Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based
upon a conception of the scared”.
According to Emile Durkheim,

102 | P a g e
“A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to the
scared things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden-beliefs and
practices, which unite into one single moral community called the
Church, all those who adhere to them.
Major world religions
There are following major world religious:
1. Christianity
It is derived from Judaism. It is the most worldwide religion. It is based
on the belief of Jesus Christ.
2. Islam
The followers of Islam are Muslims. It is second largest religion of the
world. Muslims believed that true word of God was revealed to the
Prophet Muhammad around 570 AD.
3. Judaism
Judaism is a monotheistic religion that predates Christianity.
4. Hinduism
Hinduism is the oldest major world religion. It is very dominant in
India. They believe in the principle of karma.
5. Buddhism
Buddhists most of whom live in Japan, Thailand, Cambodia and Burma
follow the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a spiritual teacher of the
sixth century.
Types of religious Institution
Following are types of religion:

103 | P a g e
 1. Church
A church is a religious group integrated with society. For example, The
Roman Catholic Church is well integrated in the society in Spain.
2. Sect
A sect is a religious group that sets itself apart from society as a whole.
3. Cult
A cult is a religious group that is outside standard cultural norms,
typically centered on a charismatic leader.
Functions of religion
Following are functions of religion:
1. Religion as an integrative force.
2. Creating a moral control.
3. Provides of rites of passage.
4. Religion as emotional support.
5. Religion as source of identity.
6. Religion controls sexuality.
7. Religion acts as psychotherapy.
8. Religion acts as an agent of social change.
VII. Political institution
The Political institutions are the organizations that design, regulate
and monitor the norms of political coexistence of a country or a
region.The public service that derives from these institutions is
directed to watch over the basic behaviors and customs for a society.
According to the aimed virtual encyclopedia, an institution from a
complementary point of view is
"An entity that regulates fundamental aspects of collective life. The
institution survives the men who inhabit it at any given time. It is an

104 | P a g e
autonomous entity, by means of which the human aggregate is transformed
into an active community".
Key points
1. Among the main functions of political institutions is to
create structures and mechanisms that regulate the social
order. These are nourished by approaches and theories from
the social sciences such as anthropology, sociology,
philosophy, psychology, Political science and economics.
2. Political institutions are characterized as transcendent,
enduring, and stable and provide legal continuity in a
society. They are an individuality of the collective
expression of a population that superimposes the interests of
the territory and the citizens over everything else.
3. It is an elementary subject of study for the juridical sciences,
since the law intervenes in the elaboration of rules of a
society.

Objective of political institutions

1. Social order and justice are one of the aims pursued by
these institutions in every society. Any political regime is
democratic or dictatorial seeks to preserve order through
its political, coercive and legal institutions. However, its
functioning mechanism is modified in each society.
2. According to UNESCO in 1948 “Political institutions are
related to the aspects of orientation and pursuit of social
stability of society in order to preserve its evolution”
3. The new constitutionalism defines political institutions as
the legal-political scaffolding in which the life of a
country is supported. These, in turn, are made up of a set
of rules and values that are laws of the political system.

105 | P a g e
 Characteristics of political institutions

1. Effective participation
One of the functions of contemporary political institutions is to ensure
that citizens to whom they are entitled participate effectively in
decisions in whatever form. This aspect gives legitimacy to every
institution.

2. Freedom of expression
Institutions ensure that citizens can express their opinion freely by any
means. However, this freedom is penalized in some countries when
freedom of expression is used to instigate hatred, war, racism or
xenophobia.

3. Alternative Information
Freedom of information is the right of the media to freely broadcast
news without restrictions or threats. The fact of journalistic research
seeks to have informed citizens, a public opinion substantiated and to
achieve a more transparent society.

4. Autonomy to associate
Free association with political, social, professional or any other purpose
is one of the essential conditions that political institutions must
guarantee.

Functions of political institutions

1. Condition and regulate political life

Starting from the precepts of equality, equity and justice, political
institutions have the main function of conditioning the political life of a
country in order to achieve an increasingly stable, plural and
democratic order.

2. Meeting the proposed objectives

106 | P a g e
Trace the master plans in the development of coexistence, economics,
politics, social and ensure their effective compliance in time.

3. Meeting social needs

In every society there are vulnerable sectors, it is the function of the
public institutions to seek a mechanism so that all the inhabitants of a
country or region can satisfy the basic necessities and, thus, have a
decent life.

4. Exercise social control

Social control is understood as the system of norms that regulate the
life of a nation and the institutions that are empowered to restore order
under any circumstances.
VIII. Conclusion
To conclude it, Institutions are systems of social relationship for
meeting various felt human needs. There are many types of social
institutions. Religion is very important institutions. It has further
types. Similarly, a political institution has its own significances.

16. Write a note on types of crime. (2019-A)

Synopsis
I. What is Crime?
II. Cross reference
III. Meaning of crime
IV. Definition of crime
V. Crime in the light of The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860
VI. Essentials of crime
VII. Types of crime
VIII. Case law
IX. Conclusion

107 | P a g e
 I. What is Crime?
Any act which is contrary to legal code or law is called crime. It is an
act omitted or committed in violation of public law forbidding or
commanding it. According to law prescribed in Pakistan, Crimes means
an act which is punishable by the Pakistan Penal code. There are many
different types of crime.
II. Cross reference
Section 11, 44, 189, 190 and 385 of The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 is
deals with crime.
III. Meaning of crime
In simple words,
Crime means, “Activities that invoke breaking the law an illegal act or
activity that can be punished by law”.
In legal meaning,
Crime means, “Every offence punishable by law”.
IV. Definition of crime
According to Black‟s law dictionary,
A positive or negative act in violation of penal law.
According to Black Stone,
An act committed or omitted in violation of a public law forbidding or
commanding it.

108 | P a g e
According to Islamic Law,
In Islamic law, crimes are generally associated with sin, thus crimes
have to be morally wrong. Further morality is not based upon what
public may consider to be right or wrong, that is moral or immoral,
rather it is the law giver who determines the morality of an act.
According to Austin,
A wrong which is pursued at the discretion of the injured party or his
representatives in a civil injury, a wrong which is pursued by sovereign
or his sub ordinates is a crime.
According to Stephen,
A crime is violation of right considered in reference to evil tendency of
such violation as regards the community at large.
V. Crime in the light of The Pakistan Penal Code, 1860
1. Threat of injury to public servant under section 189, the Pakistan
Penal code, 1860.
2. Threat of injury to induce person to refrain from applying for
protection to public servant under section 190, the Pakistan Penal
Code 1860.
3. Putt any person in fear of omission or commission of offence.

VI. Essentials of crime

Following are essentials of crime:
1. There must be a person according to section 11 of the Pakistan
Penal Code 1860 person includes a company or association or a
body of a person whether incorporated or not.

109 | P a g e
 2. The second most important essential is MENS REA or evil
intent. There can be no crime without evil mind. Therefore,
MENS REA is a fundamental principle of penal liability.
3. Another essential is ACTS REA it is commonly defined as a
criminal act that was the result of voluntary bodily movement.
4. The last essential is injury. There must be injury cause illegally.
VII. Types of crime
There are different kinds of crime, which are given below:
1. Crimes against person
Personal crimes also called crimes against person, those crimes which
belongs exclusively to a body of person. For example, murder, rape,
assault, robbery and hurt.
2. Crimes against property
Those crimes which belong to the property of a person are called
crimes against property. For example, violence, fraud, stealth or
destruction etc.
3. Crimes against morality
Crimes against morality are also called victimless crimes because there
are no complainants or victim. For example, illegal gambling, illegal
drug use and prostitution etc.
4. White-collar crime
White-collar crime is those crimes committed by people of high social
status who commit their crimes in the context of their occupation. For
example, stealing money from one‟s employer, insider trading, tax
evasion and other violations of income tax laws.
5. Organized crime

110 | P a g e
Organized crime is committed by structured groups typically involving
the distribution and sale of illegal goods and services. E.g. illegal
gambling, drug trade, prostitution, etc.
VIII. Case law
Gul Afzal vs. The State, PLD 1992 Pesh 125c
Held:
It was held that the existences are non-existence of specific means rea is
crucial factor in a case of attempt to Qatl-i-Amd.
IX. Conclusion
A crime is violation of right considered in reference to evil tendency of
such violation as regards the community at large. In Islamic law,
crimes are generally associated with sin, thus crimes have to be morally
wrong. Further morality is not based upon what public may consider to
be right or wrong, that is moral or immoral, rather it is the law giver
who determines the morality of an act. There must be person, MENS
REA, ACTS REAS and injury in crime. There are different types of
crime such as crime against person, property, etc.

17. Briefly discuss Functionalism and Conflict perspective.

Which perspective, according to you explains the present
society better and why? (2018-A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Origin sociological perspective
III. Theories of sociological perspective
IV. Functionalism
V. Conflict perspective

111 | P a g e
 VI. Symbolic internationalism
VII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Every discipline or study conducted by humans is done from a unique
perspective. It offers meaningful insights into the subject of study.
Similarly, sociology studies society, its participants, and their
interactions through a sociological perspective that overarches the
individual perspectives of social beings. The view through the lens of
sociology always remains at the social or group level.
II. Origin sociological perspective
The sociological perspective is one that observes society through a lens
without personal opinions. It generalizes the causes and actions of
individuals into patterns and categories. However, it not only observes
these patterns of society but also tries to explain such patterns or
behaviours. One of the main objectives of the sociological perspective is
to find and understand patterns behind recurring features of social
interaction, as well as to examine the social impacts of these. With this
objective in mind, there have developed many sociological perspectives
but there are three major perspectives that have gained popularity.
III. Theories of sociological perspective
Following are theories of sociological perspective:
1. Symbolic internationalism
2. Conflict perspective
3. Functionalism

112 | P a g e
 IV. Functionalism
Functionalism serves as a thought school in which each institution,
relation, position, and convention that together makes up a society has
a purpose and each is essential for the sustained functioning of other
members and society in general. Social change has been seen in
structural-functionalism to be an adaptive reaction to some of society‟s
difficulties. If one element of the interwoven social structure changes,
friction is produced this is addressed by the change in the other areas
between this and other aspects of the system. According to the
sociologist Durkheim, social cohesion was brought about by the
interrelationship between the various components present in society,
which is a complex system that has its own dynamic traits, external to
people, but that influences their actions. According to this perspective,
different institutions, structures, and processes have a particular
purpose, one that is beneficial to the members of society. This includes
education contributing to the development of society, the legal systems
check the deviations in society, the government governs people and
protects citizens, and families contribute to reproduction and many
others. Even processes that others may regard through a negative lens
have a purpose from the functionalist‟s perspective. A criminal is
someone who is normally thought to be harmful to society, but
structural functionalists believe that criminals motivate people to
behave morally and keep the justice system running.
V. Conflict perspective
Conflict theory argues that when assets, power and social reputations
are divided unfairly across sections of society, then disputes develop
and these conflicts form the source of social change. Power may be
viewed in this sense as the control of productive capacity and acquired
riches, the influence over political and social institutions, and the social
position of everyone else. The theory of conflict emerges from Karl
Marx‟s writings, which concentrated on the determinants and
113 | P a g e
consequences of the bourgeois-proletarian class conflict in a capitalist
society. This system reinforced an uneven social order, producing
unanimity of values, objectives and standards by the intellectual
compulsion of the bourgeoisie. When the proletariat‟s social and
economic situation deteriorates, Marx predicted that they will become
aware of the class system, implying that the rich capitalist class exploits
them, resulting in a revolution with a demand for social change. This
perspective has evolved from Marx and includes a wide array of
conflicts and disputes that contribute to social change in society. Even
wars between nations are perceived to be caused by material or
ideological differences and the settlement of these leads to structural
change. Sociological perspectives like Marxism and Feminism are
derived from conflict theory and they both focus on particular conflicts,
differences, and their impacts on society. The theory of conflict has
been critiqued for its concentration on social stability change and
neglect. Some opponents recognize that societies are continuously
changing, but note that many changes are small or gradual, not
dramatic.

VI. Symbolic internationalism

The symbolic interactionism perspective, also called symbolic
interactionism, encourages researchers to explore symbols and nuances,
their meanings, and their influence on the interactive relationships of
daily life. As per this perspective, symbols are connected with their
meanings, and these symbols are perceived in a subjective manner.
Communication and the exchange of meaning through words and
symbols are thought to be the method by which humans comprehend
their social environments. Such subjective perception is particularly
evident through verbal interactions that use uttered words as main
symbols. Conversations are symbolic exchanges between people who
evaluate the environment surrounding them continuously. The
symbolic interactionism perspective stems from Max Weber‟s idea that
humans have an interpretation of their world and its meaning and their

114 | P a g e
actions are influenced by such meanings. Symbolic interactionism as a
perspective helps people understand each other‟s viewpoints and
also helps with the smooth functioning of society. It
promotes commonality and motivates the development of society.
Symbols such as flags are used during international conflicts, by
politicians and broadcasters, to encourage the concepts of unity, social
cohesion among citizens and seek their support to the armed forces.
Society has promoted the cultivation of symbols for various occasions.
In western countries, the symbols of carved pumpkins and horror
stories are associated with Halloween. A dove with an olive
branch indicates peace worldwide. Movements create symbols to spread
their causes and meanings. A rainbow flag, when seen, is directly
interpreted to relate to the LGBTQ+ community. Therefore, symbols
and signs play an important in society. Due to the limitations of
being objective, the viewpoint of symbolic interactionism
is frequently investigated and critiqued. Opponents
further criticize symbolic integrationists for their relatively
limited focus on symbols and communication in understanding society.

VII. Conclusion
Sociological perspectives are important as they provide a lens to view
society in a way that excludes personal biases and prejudices. It has its
own applicability across societies and can be altered as times change.
The three types of sociological perspectives discussed above are the
classical perspectives of sociology. However, there are other
perspectives like Marxism, feminism, and post-modernism among
others that provides different insights into the happenings of societies.
18. Why, in your opinion, sexual crimes against children
increased in Pakistan? Discuss the factors behind these
crimes and its implications on our society. (2018-A)
Synopsis
I. Preface
115 | P a g e
 II. Meaning of sexual crime against children
III. Status against sexual crime in Pakistan
IV. Factors behind the sexual crime
V. Suggestions/ recommendation
VI. Conclusion

I. Preface
According to Nelson Mandela, “There can be no keener revelation of a
society‟s soul than the way in which it treats its children”. Children are
future of every state. We bring them up determines the future of the
country. In a nutshell, children are assets of the state. In present time,
children are facing very trouble and different problems. Sexual crime is
in the top of the list of flaws facing children.
II. Meaning of sexual crime against children
According to NCTSN 2009,
“Child sexual abuse is any interaction between a child and an adult or
another child in which the child is used for the sexual simulation of the
perpetrator or an observer”.
III. Status against sexual crime in Pakistan
According to Sahil, 2022
Child sexual abuse cases reported 2211 in Pakistan from January 2022
to June 2022.
IV. Factors behind the sexual crime
There are always reasons behind every crime. Following are some
factors behind the sexual crime, which are given below:

116 | P a g e
 1. Low socioeconomic conditions
Children belongs from low socioeconomic condition are identified as a
victim of child abuse. Although, all social classes are affected by sexual
abuse but low socioeconomic at higher risk of sexual abuse. Low
socioeconomic condition includes poverty, unemployment and
illiteracy.
2. Children with disabilities
Children with disabilities are three times more likely than children
without them to be victims of sexual abuse. Children with intellectual,
physical and mental disabilities are more vulnerable to sexual abuse as
compare to other.
3. Family dynamics
Families with a history of sexual abuse, living with non-biological
father and poor family bonding are also at the risk of sexual abuse.
4. Gender, age and ethnicity
Gender and age is the major factor in sexual abuse. Age and ethnicity
are important factors to determine sexual abuse.
5. Indicators of child sexual abuse
Indicators are the signs and symptoms that appear in person who has
been sexually abused.
6. Physical indicators
Physical indicators are such as injuries in the genital area, bruises,
infections, pain and bleeding. Sometime, child shows inappropriate
sexual behaviors like frequent touching of genital parts.
7. Social indicators

117 | P a g e
These are signs and symptoms of social dysfunction in a child. The
victim becomes isolated from friends, family and other community.
8. Psychological/ behavioral indicators
Sexual abuse has a devastating psychological impact on the child. It
creates short term and long term psychological and mental problems.
V. Suggestions/ recommendation
There are some suggestions to cope against child abuse:
1. Awareness about causes of sexual abuse
There should be awareness about the causes of sexual abuse to every
child.
2. Raise voice
Individual or group who is victim of child abuse should raise voice
against it.
3. Self-protection skills
Self-protection skills should be thought to the children.
4. Sessions
Awareness sessions should be arranged.
5. NGO‟s
There must be institutions like NGO‟s that legally fight cases against
it.
6. Psychotherapy and counseling sessions
There must be Psychotherapy and counseling sessions to avoid such
kind of crimes and prevent the children health.

118 | P a g e
 VI. Conclusion
According to child welfare Information Gateway 2012, it is designed to
reduce negative emotional and behavioral responses following child
sexual abuse. Child abuse is a sexual contact between child and
perpetrator. There are different solutions to prevent child from sexual
assault like awareness and Psychotherapy and counseling sessions.
19. “An understanding of the concepts of feminism is
necessary for a people working in the field of law”. Do you
agree or disagree with this statement? Discuss with
examples. (2018-S)
Synopsis
I. Feminism
II. Meaning of feminism
III. Concept of feminism
IV. Understanding feminism in the field of law
V. Feminism in sociological perspective
VI. Feminism at global level
VII. Development of feminism
VIII. Feminist theory
IX. Conclusion

I. Feminism
Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality of the
sexes. Feminism argue that a lot of mainstream sociology has been
focused in the corns of male stream sociology and has failed to deal
with concerns of women and the unequal position they have
traditionally occupied in society.

119 | P a g e
 II. Meaning of feminism
According to Merriam Webster,
“The theory of the political, economic and social equality of sexes”.
III. Concept of feminism
At its core, feminism is the belief in full social, economic, and political
equality for women. Feminism largely arose in response to Western
traditions that restricted the rights of women, but feminist thought has
global manifestations and variations.
IV. Understanding feminism in the field of law
According to Feminist Philosophy of law,
Feminist philosophy of law identifies the pervasive influence of
patriarchy on legal structures, demonstrates its effects on the material
condition of women and girls, and develops reforms to correct gender
injustice, exploitation, or restriction
V. Feminism in sociological perspective
If we study feminism from sociological perspective it is very clear that
it has never really about woman.
VI. Feminism at global level
At global level, man having wealth, white and gender and heterosexual
are in power. Hence it is a contemporary part. It is especially common
in westerns nations. They determine that it is all based on their own
perspective, experiences and interests, which more often than not serve
to create unequal and unjust systems.
VII. Development of feminism

120 | P a g e
The concept of feminism was developed from Europe in the 19 th
century. Later on, it spread over the whole world. And it is a worldwide
topic now. Early feminism includes both man and woman who
advocated equality for women in public institutions. The first was
about to the right of women such as right of vote. The second wave
focused on gender inequality. Feminism plays a vital role in the
previous centuries and still continues.
VIII. Feminist theory

Many people incorrectly believe that feminist theory focuses

exclusively on girls and women and that it has an inherent goal of
promoting the superiority of women over men. In reality, feminist
theory has always been about viewing the social world in a way that
illuminates the forces that create and support inequality, oppression,
and injustice, and in doing so, promotes the pursuit of equality and
justice. That said, since the experiences and perspectives of women and
girls were historically excluded for years from social theory and social
science, much feminist theory has focused on their interactions and
experiences within society to ensure that half the world's population is
not left out of how we see and understand social forces, relations, and
problems. While most feminist theorists throughout history have been
women, people of all genders can be found working in the discipline
today. By shifting the focus of social theory away from the perspectives
and experiences of men, feminist theorists have created social theories
that are more inclusive and creative than those that assume the social
actor to always be a man.

IX. Conclusion
In conclusion, feminism is the belief in full social, economic, and
political equality for women. The theory of feminism belongs to both
man and woman. It is very wrong concept that it only belongs to girls
and woman. The development of this theory was in last centuries and it
is still continue.

121 | P a g e
 20. Define the term “social Movements”. Explain the types
of social movements with examples. (2020-A)
Synopsis
I. Social movements
II. Types of social movement
III. Origin of social movement
IV. Conclusion

I. Social movements
Organized effort by a large number of people to bring about or impede
social, political, economic, or cultural change. Defined in this way,
social movements might sound similar to special-interest groups, and
they do have some things in common.
II. Types of social movement
Sociologists identify several types of social movements according to the
nature and extent of the change they seek. This typology helps us
understand the differences among the many kinds of social movements
that existed in the past and continue to exist today.
1. Reform movement

Reform movement which seeks limited, though still significant, changes

in some aspect of a nation‟s political, economic, or social systems. It
does not try to overthrow the existing government but rather works to
improve conditions within the existing regime.
2. Political movement

122 | P a g e
Reform and revolutionary movements are often referred to
as political movements because the changes they seek are political in
nature.
3. Revolutionary movement

A revolutionary movement goes one large step further than a reform

movement in seeking to overthrow the existing government and to
bring about a new one and even a new way of life.
4. Reactionary movement

Another type of political movement is the reactionary movement, so

named because it tries to block social change or to reverse social
changes that have already been achieved.
III. Origin of social Movement
To understand the origins of social movements, we need answers to
two related questions. First, what are the social, cultural, and other
factors that give rise to social movements? They do not arise in a
vacuum, and people must become sufficiently unhappy for a social
movement to arise. Second, once social movements do begin, why are
some individuals more likely than others to take part in them?
IV. Conclusion

It is concluded that social movements are purposeful, organized groups

striving to work toward a common social goal. A movement happens in
our towns. There are four kinds of social movement such as reform
movement, revolutionary movement, political movement and
reactionary.
21. Write a note on following:

123 | P a g e
(a) Cultural Relativism (2019-A)
Synopsis
I. Introduction
II. Origin of Cultural Relativism
III. Overview of Cultural Relativism
IV. Example of Cultural Relativism
V. Conclusion

I. Introduction
Cultural relativism refers to the idea that the values, knowledge and
behavior of people must be understood within their own culture. It is
the most basic concept in sociology, as it recognizes and affirms the
connections between the greater social structure and trends and the
everyday lives of individual people.
II. Origin of Cultural Relativism
The concept of cultural relativism was originated by the Germer-
American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th century.
III. Overview of Cultural Relativism
In the context of early social science the concept of cultural relativism
become an important tool for pushing back on the ethnocentrism that
often tarnished research at that time. As we know that practice of
viewing and judging someone else‟s culture based on the values and
beliefs of one‟s own is known as ethnocentrism. Similarly, if we
recognize that many cultures of the world have their own beliefs, values
and practices. It makes a sense that they would differ from our own and

124 | P a g e
that one necessarily right or wrong or good or bad then we engaged
the concept of cultural relativism.
IV. Example of Cultural Relativism
Doing business with dictatorships: Western democracies
have embraced cultural relativism when it comes to doing
business with dictatorships. While the suppression of
democratic values offends them, they still want to do business,
so cultural relativism becomes convenient to endorse.
Genital mutilation: This practice for both boys and girls
occurs worldwide. Some cultures find it offensive while others
embrace it. Cultural relativists would take a backseat and
choose not to judge.
Gender discriminating cultural conventions: Some societies
enforce gender roles more than others. It is hard for liberal
nations to accept the treatment of women in some more
traditionalist cultures because gender equality is a core value of
liberalism.
Women‟s dress codes: An enforced covering for women has
long been a touch point for cultural relativist debates. On the
one hand, western liberals might see the practice as patriarchal,
but they still respect a woman‟s right to participate in their
own culture‟s modes of dress.
Diverse marriage arrangements: Historically, some cultures
have embraced polygamy; while today, same-sex marriage is
increasingly accepted in the west. Cultural relativism would
observe but not judge each culture‟s approach to marriage.
Child Labor: Whereas developed nations tend to see child
labor as inappropriate, people in developing countries often see
it as a necessity for family survival.
Public nudity: European nations have been known to accept
public nudity far more than the United States. Suspending
judgment of one another‟s cultures‟ practices related to nudity
would be an example of cultural relativism.

125 | P a g e
 V. Conclusion
Basically, the concept of cultural relativism gives importance to all
culture. It gives significance that no culture is superior to other. It is
discussed especially in comparison of systems of morality, law, politics,
etc. The concept of cultural relativism was originated by the Germer-
American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th century.
22. Define Juvenile delinquency and discuss how criminal
justice system of Pakistan deals with it.
(2018-A) (2019-A) (2019-S)
 Write a note on Juvenile delinquency. (2019-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Discuss how juvenile delinquency
should be treated according to law. (2020-A)
 Define Juvenile delinquency. Write a note juvenile justice system
and the role of juvenile courts in Pakistan. (2021-A)

Context
I. Introduction
II. Famous Notion
III. Meaning of Juvenile
IV. Interpretation of Juvenile Delinquency
V. Definition of Juvenile Delinquency
VI. Basic causes of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
VII. Ways for prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
VIII. Role of Juvenile Courts
IX. Conclusion

I. Introduction

126 | P a g e
Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal acts performed by juveniles. It
is being very common due to illiteracy and short temperament. Youth
crime is an aspect of crime which receives great attention from the
news media and politicians. In Pakistani society children are dependent
to their parents and are thought immature commit crime due to lack of
training by family, educational institutions and society.
II. Famous Nation
Famous nation believe that “Save the youth of today from becoming the
criminals of tomorrow”.
III. Meaning of Juvenile
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,
“A person who has not reached the age at which one should be treated
as an adult by the criminal Justice system”.
IV. Interpretation of Juvenile Delinquency
According to Black‟s Law Dictionary,
Antisocial behavior by a minor; especially behavior that would be
criminally punishable if the actor were an adult, but instead as usual,
punished by special laws pertaining only to minor.
V. Definition of Juvenile Delinquency
Legal definition:
Only those juveniles who after arrest by police, after due process of law
are officially labeled by the courts as delinquents having been convicted
of an offence are known as Juvenile delinquents which are creating
Juvenile Delinquency.
According to Merriam Webster,

127 | P a g e
A conduct by a juvenile characterized by anti-social behavior that is
beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal violation.
According to Oxford Dictionary,
Offences committed by people below the age of legal responsibility.
VI. Basic causes of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
There are some basic causes of juvenile delinquency in Pakistan:
1. Customary causes
Tradition and customs exists in our society attracts juvenile to commit
crime. For example, it is very famous, Zun, Zar, Zameen, we can say
money grab, property, honour and habit.
2. Sociological causes
The social structure of our society also attracts juvenile to commit
crime. For example, bad company, ignorance by others, etc.
3. Mental causes
Mental causes are also very big source of juvenile‟s crime. For example,
drug addict, psychotic, cable, internet and pornography, etc. as brain is
the main part of the body so by controlling it through drugs enhances
the chances of criminality.
4. Economic causes
It is another cause that juvenile attracts to commit crime due to
economic causes. For example, poverty, unemployment, black
marketing etc.
5. Family causes

128 | P a g e
Family causes are also another reason because happy family always
attracts positivity and happiness. But in case of toxic family, juvenile
attracts to commit crime. For example, Broken home, step mother or
father or brother or sister, irritant parents and deprivation, etc.
6. Moral neglect
Moral neglect is also another reason of juvenile crimes because juvenile
has not proper education of moral values.
7. Neglect of Religion
As the religion is the source of revolution in the human life and society.
The juvenile of today seems to be unaware of their religion which paves
their way to bad life.
VII. Ways for prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
There are following ways which can prevent Juvenile Delinquency:
1. Family counseling
Society should place a high priority on the needs and well-being of the
family and of all its members. Family counseling is a good step to
prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
2. Basic Educational Programs for parents and Juveniles
The Government should introduce basic educational programs for
parents and juvenile to prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
3. Community based services
There must be community based services to prevent the society from
juvenile delinquency.
4. Mass Media

129 | P a g e
The role of mass media plays a vital role. The mass media should
encourage ensuring that young persons have access to information and
material from a diversity of national and international sources.
5. Community Involvement
Community involvement of girl‟s scouts and boys scouts can also
prevent the society from juvenile delinquency.
6. Educational support
Illiteracy is the main cause of crim. There must be educational support
to youth for the purpose to prevent the society from juvenile
delinquency.
7. Recreational Activities
One of the immediate benefits of recreational activities is that they fill
unsupervised after school hours.
8. Youth sheltering
Youth sheltering is used in two meanings one is that to provide
protection to those children who are homeless having no parents alive
and relative denies accepting them. Secondly to provide shelter to those
children who run away from their home due to some social issue.
Hence, by providing shelter to both kind of children can prevent the
society from juvenile delinquency
9. Parent-child Interaction: Training Program
Parents and children have always some gap due to busy schedule of
their lives. In west, parent child interaction training program is started
and it strengthens the relation between both parents and children.
There must be some training Centre to prevent the society from
juvenile delinquency.

130 | P a g e
10. Termination of child labour
According to Article 11 of The Constitution of Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, 1973 slavery and forced labour is prohibited. But
unfortunately this law is not practical in our country. Termination of
child labour is very necessary to prevent the society from juvenile
delinquency.
VIII. Role of Juvenile Courts
Definition of Juvenile Courts:
Juvenile courts means a court established under section 4 of the
Juvenile Justice system Act, 2018.
Disposal of cases:
a) Neglected juveniles may be sent to care or welfare homes such as
Edhi center and others.
b) Delinquent juvenile may be dealt in a slightest manner to advise
them and extreme action may be an order of custody in Borstal
special School or to release on probation.
Juvenile courts under section 4 of the Juvenile Justice system
Act, 2018:

(1) The Government in consultation with the concerned High Court

shall by notification in the official Gazette establish or designate one
or more juvenile Courts, within a period of three months of the
commencement of this Act.
(2) A Juvenile Court may be established for one or more sessions
divisions and in that case the Juvenile Court may hold trial of a case
at such place as the High Court may specify.

131 | P a g e
(3) No person shall be appointed as a judge of a juvenile Court unless
he is or has been a Sessions Judge or an Additional Sessions Judge or
a Judicial Magistrate vested with powers under section 30 of the
Code or a practicing advocate who has at least ten years standing at
Bar and the latter shall be appointed on such terms and conditions as
the Government may determine in consultation with the concerned
High Court.
(4) The Juvenile Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction to try cases
in which a juvenile is accused of commission of an offence.
(5) Subject to Sub-section (4), on commencement of this Act all cases
pending before a trial court in which a juvenile is accused of an
offence shall stand transferred to the Juvenile Court having
jurisdiction.
(6) The Juvenile Court shall not, merely by reason of a change in its
composition or transfer of a case under sub-section (5) be bound to
recall or re-hear any witness who has given evidence and may act on
the evidence already recorded.
(7) If any court taking cognizance of an offence finds that an accused
brought before it is a juvenile, it shall transfer his case to the
Juvenile Court for further proceedings.
(8) On taking cognizance of an offence, the Juvenile Court shall
decide the case within six months.
(9) Where the case is not decided within six months in terms of sub-
section (8) the Juvenile Court shall seek extension from the High
Court concerned explaining the reasons for not being able to decide
the case within prescribed time limit. If no such extension has been
sought by the Juvenile Court, the complainant or the juvenile may
make an application to the High Court in this respect.

132 | P a g e
 (10) The Juvenile court may hold its sitting at a place, other than the
place in which the ordinary courts hold sittings for trial of other
cases.
Trial:
1. The state must make available to child legal aid.
2. The court while deciding the case must prefer the interest of the
child.
3. The child must have right to have an adverse Judgment.
Sentence:
1. No child under the age of 18 should be punished with death
sentence and life imprisonment.
2. During detention the juvenile delinquents must be kept separate
from the adult criminals.

IX. Conclusion
In conclusion, a conduct by a juvenile characterized by anti-social
behavior that is beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal
violation is said Juvenile Delinquency. There are some causes of
juvenile delinquency such as customary, economic, family and mental
causes which attract children to commit crime. But, there are also some
ways which can prevent the society from juvenile delinquency, such as
family counseling, youth shelter to needy, termination of child labour,
educational activities and parent-child training program. The juvenile
Justice system Act, 2018 exclusively deals with the juvenile
delinquency.
* ** * *

133 | P a g e
THE END.

134 | P a g e