This article was downloaded by: [Marshall University]

On: 08 June 2013, At: 15:25

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Educational Research
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rere20

Trained and untrained secondary

school teachers in Barbados: is
there a difference in classroom
performance?
a
Mildred Jones
a
Caribbean Examinations Council, The Garrison, St
Michael, Barbados, West Indies
Published online: 09 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Mildred Jones (1997): Trained and untrained secondary school teachers
in Barbados: is there a difference in classroom performance?, Educational Research, 39:2,
175-184

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0013188970390205

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-

conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-
licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly
forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any
representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The
accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently
verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of
the use of this material.
 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997 175

Trained and untrained

secondary school teachers in
Barbados: is there a difference
in classroom performance?
M i l d r e d Jones, Caribbean Examinations Council, The Garrison, St
Michael, Barbados, West Indies

Summary
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

Sixty-nine trained and untrained secondary school teachers in Barbados were

observed during classroom teaching. Data derived from these observations were
subjected to the ANOVA procedure which indicated that there were no signifi-
cant differences in the total performance scores of trained and untrained teachers
irrespective of the subject taught (English or Science). Further investigation into
their performance on specific indicators of effective and ineffective teaching
revealed small differences between the two groups in their treatment of instruc-
tional organization and development, and presentation of subject-matter. The
results have implications for teacher education, as well as for school supervision.

Keywords: pedagogy, performance, behaviours, evaluation, training

Introduction

In an almost global pursuit of improvement in the delivery of education and

increased student achievement, the effects of teacher training and subsequent
classroom performance are logical subjects for investigation. These two areas
assume an even greater significance in Barbados and other Caribbean countries
where the full-time employment of untrained teachers is standard practice.
Sarason, Davidson and Blott (1962) and Silberman (1971) are among those
educators who have criticized the content and structure of education pro-
grammes, describing them as irrelevant to the actual teaching task, and as 'a mass
of platitudes and generalities'. Other critics and researchers, such as Friedman,
Brinlee and Ayes (1980), Giroux (1981), Smith (1980), Griffin et al. (1983) and
Silberman (1971), have all called for a reconceptualization of, and new emphases
in, teacher education.
A limited amount of research has focused on the effects of training on the class-
room performance of teachers. The general consensus suggests that there are
problems encountered by trained teachers as they settle into classroom teaching,

Address for correspondence: Dr Mildred Jones, 30 Ealing Park North, Christchurch,

Barbados, West Indies.
 176 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997
and that there is no ample evidence of pedagogical skills. Lortie (1975),
Brousseau, Brook and Byers (1978) and Feiman-Nemser et al. (1987) have
shown that on entering a training programme, student teachers already think that
they know what they need, in order to teach effectively. This observation may be
even more significant in countries where teachers receive training only after they
already have teaching experience. Previous experience has been considered a
factor affecting the transfer of pedagogy, acquired during training, to classroom
practice. Beyer (1984) cited the existing school culture as another powerful factor
affecting teacher performance and the demonstration of pedagogical skills. Some
research reports, such as Educating a Profession (1976), A Nation at Risk (1983)
and that by the Holmes Group (1986), have commented on the absence of the
hallmarks of pedagogy in many classrooms. Ladson-Billings (1995) argues for a
more expansive view of pedagogy which embodies an understanding of culture,
and its functions in education.
Sternberg and Horvath (1995) suggested that since there is no well-defined
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

standard that all experts meet, and no non-experts meet, there should be a recon-
ceptualization of teaching expertise. The new concept would result from study-
ing experts and developing a prototype to represent the central tendency of
exemplars of expert teaching.
Few studies have focused specifically on a comparison of trained and untrained
teachers. Shim (1965), Popham (1971) and Cornett (1984) found no significant
differences in the classroom performance of trained and untrained teachers.
Fogarty, Wang and Creek (1983) found significant differences in their study of
eight teachers, and the 1990 Clarridge study revealed differences among six
teachers. Carter et al. (1987), experimenting with a simulated teaching situation,
found significant differences between novice and expert teachers of Science and
Mathematics.
Grossman and Stodolsky (1995) found that teachers from different fields
showed differences with regard to their conceptions of subject-matter and
instructional beliefs. Woolfolk and Hoy (1990), studying teachers' sense of effi-
cacy and beliefs about control, concluded that there were no statistically signifi-
cant differences between experienced teachers and those in a teacher preparation
programme. These findings were corroborated by Guskey and Passaro (1994).

Purpose of the study

In Barbados and other Caribbean countries, the majority of secondary school
teachers hold a degree, in particular subject areas, from a recognized university.
This first degree is accepted as an entry-level qualification into the teaching pro-
fession. After a minimum of two years' teaching experience, some teachers
achieve professional training status by successfully completing the in-service
Diploma in Education programme. Because of the structure of the programme,
it is accessible only to those teachers who are already practising in the profession.
In the system therefore there are both trained and untrained, practising teachers.
The standard practice of employing untrained teachers has never been investi-
gated, and it is not known whether the lack of training impacts negatively on class-
room teaching performance, or the extent to which the trained teachers
demonstrate those teaching skills acquired during their training.
In order to determine whether there were differences in the teaching behaviour
of trained and untrained teachers, this study investigated the performance of
 Trained vs untrained teachers 177
pedagogically trained and untrained Science and English teachers in secondary
schools.

Method

Subjects
From the 21 public secondary schools, 69 trained and untrained teachers were
selected using these criteria: they were holders of a university degree in English
or Science, with a minimum teaching experience of two years and a maximum of
ten. Staff lists indicated that there were 80 teachers satisfying the criteria. Only
11 teachers declined to participate. Of the 30 participating teachers of English,
15 had successfully completed the Diploma of Education teacher training pro-
gramme, whereas the remaining 15 received no teacher training. There were 39
teachers of Science, and of these, 16 were trained, holding the Diploma in Edu-
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

cation, and 23 were untrained.

Observers
Ten heads of department from secondary schools were trained over a four-day
period in preparation for making classroom observations. Observers were trained
to identify and code specific teaching behaviours which, according to the research
on teacher effectiveness, were considered important indicators of effective and
ineffective teaching. At the end of the training session, observers were required
to complete successfully an examination in coding teacher classroom perform-
ance.

Instrumentation

The Florida Performance Measurement System Summative Observation Instrument

(FPMS) was identified as a valid and reliable instrument relevant to the Barbadian
situation. A detailed comparison of the FPMS instrument and the schedule used
to assess Barbadian teachers revealed that the items listed on the FPMS consist-
ently matched with those essential teaching competencies emphasized in the train-
ing programme in Barbados. Unlike the schedule used in Barbados, however, the
FPMS has been tested, and reported reliability coefficients range from 0.91 to
0.98 (Teacher Evaluation Study, 1984-5).

Procedure
Each teacher was observed in his/her classroom by a different observer on two
separate occasions. Each observation lasted for a complete teaching period
ranging from 35 to 45 minutes. The 138 observations were conducted over a five-
week period by a team of ten observers. They did not know which teachers were
trained or untrained and were not aware that the study was investigating the per-
formance of trained and untrained teachers.
 178 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997
A total of 40 indicators (20 effective and 20 ineffective) were the foci of the
observations. These indicators were categorized under four domains: Instruc-
tional organization and development; Presentation of subject-matter; Com-
munication; and Management of student conduct. At the end of each
observation, observers tallied the frequencies with which teachers demonstrated
the specific indicators.
From the observation schedules, three scores were obtained for each teacher:
the score derived from the number of instances an effective teaching behaviour was
observed (Effective score); the score obtained from the observation of ineffective
teaching (Ineffective score) and a total score representing overall performance.

Results

Data were analysed for the subgroups: trained vs untrained, trained and untrained
teachers of Science and trained and untrained English teachers. A frequency distri-
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

bution of the participants' years of teaching experience is presented in Table 1.

According to the data in Table 1, all the trained teachers, whether Science or
English, had more years of teaching experience than those who were untrained.
This pattern is probably representative of Barbadian teachers in the educational
system since it is unlikely that teachers who complete the teacher training pro-
gramme would have less than three years' teaching experience. It is expected there-
fore that the highest number of untrained teachers (21) would have been teaching
for approximately two years. There were only two untrained teachers with more
than five years' teaching experience. This is also expected since teachers who do
not opt for training after teaching for a few years tend to leave the teaching service.
The available literature on teacher performance does not highlight years of
experience as a contributing factor to performance. In addition, the norming
study of the FPMS revealed that there was no significant correlation between
total scores on the FPMS instrument and the teacher's years of experience.
The means and standard deviations of performance scores for the trained and
untrained teachers are reported in Table 2. T-tests were performed on the three
sets of scores and there were no significant differences between trained and
untrained teachers on the Effective score (t = -0.43, p > 0.05), on the Ineffec-
tive score (t = 0.16,p > 0.05) or on the Total score (t = -0.32, p > 0.05). A further

TABLE 1 Years of teaching experience for trained and untrained teachers, by

subject
No. of years Science English Total

Trained Untrained Trained Untrained T U

2 0 14 0 7 0 21
3 4 4 3 3 7 7
4 2 1 2 2 4 3
5 3 1 1 2 4 3
6 3 1 4 1 7 2
7 1 0 2 0 3 0
8 1 1 1 0 2 1
9 1 0 1 0 2 0
10 1 1 1 0 2 1
Median 5.17 2.32 5.87 2.67 6.0 2.5
 Trained vs untrained teachers 179

comparison was made to determine differences in performance between subject

areas. Tables 3 and 4 present the means and standard deviations of the perform-
ance scores of Science and English teachers. The data in the tables indicate that
the vintrained teachers of English scored the highest mean on the Effective and
the Total scales. On the Ineffective scale, the trained Science teachers had the
smallest mean, whereas the trained English teachers had the highest mean.
Data from the three scales were subjected to the two-factor analysis of variance
technique to determine whether there were differences among the four subgroups
in their performance on the Total, Effective and Ineffective scales. Results for the
Total score are summarized in Table 5. There was no indication of a significant

TABLE 2 Means and standard deviations of classroom performance scores for

trained and untrained teachers
Training status
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

Trained Untrained
(n = 31) (n = 38)

Group M SD M SD
Effective 34.10 4.31 35.50 4.00
Ineffective 33.40 1.87 33.30 2.33

Total 68.00 5.32 68.40 4.71

TABLE 3 Means and standard deviations of performance scores for trained

and untrained Science teachers
Training status

Trained Untrained
(n=16) (n = 23)

Group M SD M SD
Effective 33.6 4.82 34.2 3.76
Ineffective 32.8 1.23 33.1 2.57

Total 66.8 5.94 66.7 4.97

TABLE 4 Means and standard deviations of performance scores for trained

and untrained English teachers
Training status

Trained Untrained
(n=15) (n = 15)

Group M SD M SD
Effective 34.7 3.77 35.1 4.43
Ineffective 34.0 1.00 33.5 1.97

Total 69.2 4.45 69.4 4.24

 180 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997
interaction effect (F < l).With regard to training, there was no significant differ-
ence (F < 1), neither was there a significant effect for the subject taught (F <1).
Therefore in their overall performance, teachers, whether trained or untrained,
and whether they were teaching Science or English, demonstrated no significant
differences.
Performance scores on both the Effective and Ineffective scales revealed no sig-
nificant differences. These results can be seen in Tables 6 and 7.
In the absence of significant differences in performances on the three scales,
an item-by-item analysis of all indicators was done to detect any possible patterns
of effective or ineffective teaching among trained or untrained teachers. These
descriptive statistics are presented in Tables 8 and 9.
The untrained teachers' mean scores in Domain 4 (Presentation of subject-
matter) and Domain 5 (Communication) were higher than the means obtained
by the trained group. However, in Domain 3 (Instructional organization and
development) the trained teachers appeared to demonstrate some effective
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

TABLE 5 Analysis of variance of total performance scores, by subject area and

training
Source df MS F
Subject 1 67.6957 2.74
Training 1 4.5625 0.19
Subject X training 1 2.2384 0.09
Error 65 24.6640
Total 68
p > 0.05.

TABLE 6 Analysis of variance of effective performance, by subject area and

training
Source df MS F
Subject 1 16.6632 0.96
Training 1 4.2246 0.25
Subject X training 1 2.1868 0.01
Error 65 17.4386
Total 68
p > 0.05.

TABLE 7 Analysis of variance of effective performance, by subject area and

training
Source df MS F
Subject 1 9.3080 2.05
Training 1 0.0537 0.01
Subject X training 1 1.9704 0.43
Error 65 4.5405
Total 68
p > 0.05.
 Trained vs untrained teachers 181
TABLE S Means and standard deviations of frequency scores on effective items
for trained and untrained teachers
Effective items Trained Untrained

M SD M SD

Domain 2
Stops misconduct 2.20 2.79 2.80 3.94
Maintains momentum 0.40 0.61 0.40 0.67
Domain 3
Begins promptly 0.80 0.37 0.80 0.39
Handling materials 0.80 0.85 0.60 0.82
Orients students 3.20 4.51 4.50 5.80
Lesson review 1.00 1.14 1.20 1.58
Low-order questions 12.40 9.77 10.70 7.07
High-order questions 4.80 4.95 5.50 6.27
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

Feedback 8.60 6.42 8.20 6.88

Specific praise 0.40 1.10 0.30 0.79
Practice 0.90 0.81 1.10 1.48
Home/seat work 1.40 1.46 1.10 1.28
Circulates/assists 0.80 1.27 0.60 1.07
Domain 4
Concepts 1.00 1.52 1.90 2.63
Cause and effect 1.00 1.78 1.40 2.74
Academic rules 0.80 1.86 1.00 2.18
Value judgements 0.30 0.94 0.70 1.68
Domain 5
Emphasis 2.40 3.01 3.60 3.98
Enthusiasm 0.90 1.51 1.10 1.59
Body language 1.70 1.95 1.80 2.15

behaviours more frequently than untrained teachers. Table 9 suggests that, across
domains, there was a small tendency for the untrained to exhibit more ineffective
teaching indicators than the trained teachers.

Conclusions and discussion

From the results obtained in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1 There is no significant difference in the classroom performance of pedagogi-

cally trained Barbadian teachers (English and science) and those without
pedagogical training.
2 Trained and untrained Barbadian teachers demonstrate similar patterns in
their classroom teaching. Both groups appeared to demonstrate most fre-
quently indicators such as low- and high-order questions, positive feedback to
students, student orientation and the emphasizing of important points during
instruction. With regard to ineffective teaching behaviour, both groups showed
a strong tendency to allow unison student response.

The results of this study corroborate the findings of Shim (1965), Popham
(1971) and Cornett (1984).
 182 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997
TABLE 9 Means and standard deviations of frequency scores •on ineffective
items for trained and untrained teachers
Ineffective items Trained Untrained

M SD M SD

Domain 2
Delays desist 2.50 6.00 2.50 4.61
Loses momentum 0.60 1.70 0.86 2.62
Domain 3
Delays 0.20 0.39 0.20 0.39
Disorganized 0.20 0.60 0.20 0.40
Unrelated talk 0.40 0.97 0.50 1.15
Unison response 6.90 6.56 6.30 7.09
Multiple questions 0.70 1.20 1.00 2.21
Non-academic questionsi 2.20 3.95 2.90 5.58
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

Poor response 0.60 1.17 0.90 2.09

General praise 1.60 2.55 0.80 1.56
No practice 0.04 0.22 0.10 0.58
No feedback 0.10 0.41 0.10 0.34
Remains at desk 0.20 0.42 0.40 0.54
Domain 4
Poor concepts 0.90 1.57 1.80 3.80
Poor cause and effect 0.10 0.47 0.20 0.54
Poor academic rules 0.10 0.33 0.00 0.00
No criteria 0.10 0.90 0.02 0.16
Domain 5
Vague discourse 0.50 1.61 0.20 0.71
Poor vocalizations 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.11
Poor body language 0.08 0.27 0.30 1.21

The instrument used in this investigation measured key criteria of effective and
ineffective teaching. These criteria are empirically sound and also constitute the
focus of the regional university's Diploma in Education training programme.
Therefore the results from this study have important implications for the teacher
training programme currently offered to teachers in Barbados, other Caribbean
countries and elsewhere.
Since no significant differences were found between pedagogically trained and
untrained teachers, efforts to improve the delivery of teacher education should
be seriously considered. One important consideration is an extension of the
practicum experience. As trainees are provided with increased opportunities to
practise effective classroom teaching, the chances of implementing and main-
taining such behaviour should logically increase.
In addition, it was seen that the trained teachers more frequently demonstrate
effective indicators in the domain, Instructional organization and development.
The untrained teachers, however, paid more attention to the actual presentation
of subject matter. It would seem that the trained teachers depended greatly on
their training in methodology, whereas the untrained teachers depended more on
their knowledge of content and made greater efforts to present it as thoroughly
as possible. The teacher training programme is probably not equally emphasiz-
ing all the domains of effective teaching.
 Trained vs untrained teachers 183

It is also probable that the training programme is equipping teachers with skills
which are so basic to successful teaching that untrained teachers quickly acquire
those skills during the first or second year of teaching. Further research on the
performance of trained teachers and those just entering the teaching service
should be enlightening.
Another factor contributing to the results of this study may be the lack of a
cooperative teacher system or a supervisory system in which newly trained
teachers are assisted in transferring, establishing and constantly demonstrating
pedagogical skills learnt during training.
Since teachers in Barbados and the Caribbean begin training only after they
become practising teachers, an important recommendation is the assessment of
teachers before and after pedagogy. This would gauge the extent to which train-
ing brings about fundamental changes in the classroom practice of teachers. It
would also be worthwhile to conduct further research focusing on additional indi-
cators of teacher effectiveness which were not assessed in the present study.
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013

References
BEYER, B. K. (1984). 'Improving thinking skills -- defining the problem', Phi Delta
Kappan, 65, 7, 486-90.
BROUSSEAU, B. A., BOOK, C. and BYERS, J. L. (1978). Relationship between teach-
ing experience and educational predispositions and beliefs. Paper presented at Annual
Meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Washington,
DC, April.
CLARRIDGE, P. B. (1990). 'Multiple perspectives on the classroom performance of cer-
tified and uncertified teachers', Journal ofTeacher Education, 41, 4, 15-25.
FEIMAN-NEMSER, S., McDIARMID, W., MELNICK, S. and PARKER, M. (1987).
Changing beginning teachers' conceptions: a study of an introductory teacher edu-
cation course. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, Washington, DC, April.
FOGARTY, J. L., WANG, M.C. and CREEK, R. (1983). 'A descriptive study of experi-
enced and novice teachers' interactive instructional thoughts and actions', Journal of
Educational Research,77,1, 22-32.
FRIEDMAN, M. I., BRINLEE, P. S. and AYES, P. B. (1980). Improving Teacher Education.
New York and London: Longman.
GIROUX, H. A. (1981). Ideology, Culture and the Process of Schooling. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press.
GIROUX, H. A. (1988). Teachers as Intellectuals: Toward a Critical Pedagogy of Learning.
Mass.: Bergin and Garvey.
GRIFFIN, G., BARNES, S., HUGHES, R. Jr, O'NEAL, S., DEFINO, M., EDWARD,
S. and HUKILL, M. (1983). Clinical Preservice Education. Rep. No. 9025. Austin, Tex.:
University of Texas.
GROSSMAN, P. L. and STODOLSKY, S. S. (1995). 'Content as context: the role of
school subjects in secondary school teaching', Educational Researcher, 24, 8, Novem-
ber, 5-11.
GUSKEY, T. R. and PASSARO, P. D. (1994). 'Teacher efficacy: a study of construct
dimensions', American Educational Research Journal, 31, 3, 627-43.
LADSON-BILLINGS, G. (1995). 'Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy',
American Educational Research Journal, 32, 3, 465-91.
LORTIE, D. (1975). School Teacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
POPHAM, W. J. (1971). 'Performance tests of teaching proficiency: rationale, develop-
ment, and validation', American Educational Research Journal, 8, 1, 105-17.
 184 Educational Research Volume 39 Number 2 Summer 1997
SARASON, S. B., DAVIDSON, K. and BLOTT, B. (1962). The Preparation of Teachers.
New York: Wiley.
SHIM, C. (1965). 'A study of the cumulative effect of four teacher characteristics on the
achievement of elementary school pupils', Journal of Educational Research, 59, 1, 33-4.
SILBERMAN, C. E. (1971). Crisis in the Classroom: The Remaking of American Education.
New York: Vintage Books.
SMITH, B. O. (1980). A Design for a School Pedagogy. Washington, DC: US Department
of Education.
STERNBERG, R. J. and HORVATH, J. H. (1995). 'A prototype view of expert teaching',
Educational Researcher, 24, 6.
TEACHER EVALUATION STUDY: REPORT (1983-4). Document No. SPO 27191,
University of South Florida College of Education, Tampa, Fla.; ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 226122.
WOOLFOLK, A. E. and HOY, W. K. (1990). 'Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and
beliefs about control', Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 181-91.
Downloaded by [Marshall University] at 15:25 08 June 2013