Glossary of Economic Terms in Use During the Middle Ages

Vagabond (arabic: ‫ – )ﺶﺎﺒﻮﺍ‬a thug, a scoundrel, a vagabond.

In the Middle Ages, this word was used to refer to
individuals who wandered aimlessly without engaging
in any kind of economic activity, or to those who
raised their hands against their masters while
demanding their rights.
Levy (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺖﺍِﺬﺮﺍﻮﺍ‬a type of extraordinary tax. (Amir
Temur abolished this type of tax.)
Number (arabic: ‫ – )َدﺩﻋ‬a word form that denotes concepts
such as number, digit, or ordinal number; it is also
used in the sense of quantity or "piece."
Huckster (arabic: ‫ – )ﻒﻵﻋ‬herb seller; a person engaged in
selling firewood and brushwood; a trader who sells
grain and flour in the market.
Estate (arabic: ‫ – ) ﻝﺍﻮﻤا‬private property belonging to an
individual, wealth, capital.
Commander military commander, authority figure, military chief,
ruler. A title given by Arab caliphs to governors of
various lands under their control. Amir Temur and the
rulers from the Manghit dynasty, as they were not
from royal or khan families, referred to themselves as
amir. Under this title, they governed the country as
military commanders in the name of the caliph, khan,
or king. During the reign of Amir Temur’s
descendants and later dynasties, the title amir was
 granted by the supreme ruler to ministers and local
governors.
Command (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺮﻤﺍ‬an outdated term for the concept of
“order” or “command.”
Perfumer (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺎﻃﻋ‬a small-scale merchant trading in
perfumes and fragrant cosmetic products. Later, attars
also began selling household items, everyday
necessities, medicines, and similar goods.
Perfumery (arabic: ‫ – )ﻜﻳﻠﺭﺎﻃﻋ‬the name of a profession related to
selling cosmetics such as perfume and powder, as well
as various everyday household items; a row or section
in the market where attars' shops are located.
Property (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺮﺎﻘﺍ‬a social term denoting immovable
property, land and water, territory. During the Timurid
period in Central Asia and Iran (within the territories
ruled by the Timurids), immovable properties such as
land and water, orchards, mills, canals, shops,
workshops, and markets were called aqor. Aqor could
be turned into a waqf (endowment) through a will.
Pact (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺪﻬﻋ‬a firm word, decision, promise; a
contract or agreement made between parties regarding
a particular matter.
Due 1) a payment made in exchange for something; 2)
another item corresponding in value to something; 3)
later: a membership fee or due paid by an individual
to support an organization, society, etc., of which they
 are a member.
Bazzoz (arabic: ‫ – ) ذاذﺒ‬a merchant or shopkeeper who trades
in thread and fabric. Bazzoz were engaged in the sale
of fabrics in markets and also practiced mobile trading
by loading fabrics onto carts.
Cook a low-ranking military official in the XII–XIV
centuries who supervised merchants’ payment of
customs (tamgha) duties at designated locations; after
the XV century, a military officer responsible for
overseeing food preparation for the king, khan, or
army; in later centuries (XVIII, XIX, and XX), a cook
or the person in charge of preparing meals at
weddings.
Barlas – one of the Turkic tribes. Barlas were a highly
militant tribe among the Uzbek clans, mainly engaged
in livestock farming; they lived in mountainous and
foothill regions. Amir Temur belonged to the Barlas
tribe. During the Timurid era, many beks and amirs
came from this tribe.
Writ (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺕﺍﺮﺒ‬a letter, royal or khan-issued
certificate; patent, name.
1. A royal or khan-issued decree for exemption
from taxes or payments; a certificate permitting
the collection of taxes, money, grain, or fodder
from the people for a specific period; a special
document granting rights to a property or
 position under certain conditions.
2. In modern Iran, a document for receiving money
or other valuable papers sent by post.
3. The eighth month in the Hijri calendar (Sha'ban).
4. A male given name.
Grocer (arabic: ‫ – ) ﻝ ﺎﻗﺒ‬a small-scale merchant selling
everyday household items, fruits, sweets, vegetables,
medicinal products, rice, mung beans, etc., in markets,
alleys, or in small shops next to their own yard.
Value (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺎﻬﺒ‬1) the monetary value of an item or
property; 2) importance, worth, value; 3) at present: a
score or grade assigned in educational institutions
based on academic performance.
Corvée (indian) – the obligation to work for rulers or
landowners for free in Central Asia and the Middle
East. Begor existed in Iran from the 8th century and in
Central Asia, India, and Afghanistan from the 10th
century.
Toll (arabic: ‫ – ) جﺎﺒ‬tax, levy, payment. A special tax or
levy collected in Central Asia from the early Middle
Ages for crossing from one country to another, during
internal unrest for moving from one region to another,
or from merchants in internal markets.
Bozargon (persian ‫ – )ﻥﺎﮔَﺭ ﺰﺎﺑ‬merchant, trader. In the Middle
Ages, a person who traveled between countries and
provinces to trade; a market vendor, a merchant.
 Khans and sultans (rulers) often sent their envoys
along with bozargons. Besides engaging in trade,
bozargons also acted as spies.
Camp – individuals engaged in trade around the army during
followers military campaigns.
Bolish – a gold or silver coin used among the Mongols and
partially among the Turks (XIII–XIV centuries). One
bolish equaled 75 dinars. In some sources, one bolish
is recorded as equal to 300 dinars. The weight of a
bolish ranged from 150 to 600 misqals, and gold and
silver bolish coins had no seals or inscriptions.
Baskak (mongolian) – during the Middle Ages, a special
official sent by the supreme authority to conquered
countries to monitor the activities and behavior of
local rulers. Bosqoqs were mainly responsible for
collecting taxes and levies. They were accompanied
by a special military unit and treasury officials.
Great Silk – from the second half of the first millennium BCE to
Road the 16th century CE – until the establishment of sea
routes through geographic discoveries – the ancient
main caravan route that connected the East and the
West. Through the Great Silk Road, ancient India,
Central Asia, and Asia Minor mainly exported silk.
Therefore, this road gained fame in history as the
“Silk Road.” The Great Silk Road played a special
role in Amir Temur’s military and economic policy.
Stipend (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻓﻳﻅو‬salary, wage, task, duty, service. 1.
In ancient times, this referred to a fixed amount of
food or goods periodically provided by the ruler to
dignitaries and clergy. 2. It also meant a pre-assigned
duty, chore, or service to be fulfilled.
Weight (arabic: ‫ – ) ﻥﺯو‬measure; weight, mass. 1) The
measurable heaviness of an object; 2) Meter in poetry.
Saqiya (arabic: ‫ – ) ﻪﻗﻳﺛو‬an official document (contract)
regarding the sale or purchase of property in the
countries of the Near and Middle East.
Waqf (arabic: ‫ – ) ﻒﻗو‬stability, permanence, immovability;
state-allocated property; rest, pause, silence; mark. 1.
In poetry, it refers to meter, and in Qur’an recitation, it
means stopping at the end of each verse. 2. It also
refers to property endowed by rulers or landowners
for religious and charitable purposes—such as
schools, madrasas, hostels, orphanages, hospitals, and
religious institutions—under the condition that it be
used but not sold. A waqf made by a person is called
Waqf-i Ahliy, one for descendants is Waqf-i Aulad, for
cemeteries is Abwab al-birr, and for charitable
institutions is Abwaf al-khayr. Waqf properties were
not leased for more than three years and were not
exempt from taxes like kharaj, ushr, or zakat. 3. A
pause or short silence in musical performance. 4. A
diacritical mark in Arabic script indicating that a
 consonant should not become a vowel. 5. A dot used
in writing. 6. A rule in classical aruz prosody.
Waqfnama – a document regarding the transfer of property,
wealth, or other income-generating assets as a waqf to
the ownership of a mosque, madrasa, religious leader
(eshon), mufti, or Sufi communities. After being
approved by a qazi (judge), a waqfnama was
considered a legal document, and it clearly specified
the reason for the endowment, the name of the owner,
the appointed mutawalli (manager), and the usage
rules of the property. During the reign of Amir Temur,
allocating property as waqf was practiced, and
waqfnamas were considered important legal
documents.
Beneficiaries – individuals who benefit from waqf property or live
off the income generated by the waqf.
Heir (arabic: ‫ – ) ﺚﺮﺍﻮ‬1. a person entitled to inherit, heir,
future inheritor; 2. one who possesses the material and
spiritual wealth passed down from ancestors.
Inheritance – a set of sharia and legal norms ensuring the transfer
law of inherited property into the hands of heirs.
Shoemaker (persian: ‫ – ) ﺵﻮﺭﻓ ﺍﻮ‬a shopkeeper selling footwear
in markets and streets.
Gaz – a unit of length measurement approximately equal to
49.875 cm.
Pledge (persian-tajik: ‫ – ) ﻮﺍﺮﮔ‬1. the act of leaving a valuable
item or wealth with a lender as a guarantee to fulfill a
 specific obligation, condition, or repay a loan on time;
2. a condition or bet made between two parties
disputing over something.
Banditry – the way of life involving survival through theft and
robbery without engaging in any form of economic
activity.
Broker (arabic: ‫ – )ﻞﻻد‬a person in Eastern countries who, for
a certain fee, mediates in trade and commercial
dealings.
Daniki (persian-tajik: ‫ﮓﻧد‬، ‫ – ) ﮏﻳَﻨد‬one-sixth part of
something. For example, one-sixth of a dinar or
dirham. From the 14th to 19th centuries, one Bukhara
daniki equaled 0.8 kg.
Revenue (persian-tajik: ‫ – ) ﺪﻣﺍﺮد‬income; entry. 1. The money
or profit received by a merchant, craftsman, farmer, or
others in return for their activities. 2. Introduction,
preface, or generally the opening part of a musical
composition.
Exempted (persian: ‫ – ) ﻥ ﺎﺧﺮد‬in the Middle Ages, a privileged
group and exempted tribe, clan, or official released from
taxes, levies, and other obligations, or granted certain
concessions.
Page – a junior servant in medieval royal courts responsible
for setting the table before the khan and his guests.
Dahsar (persian: ‫ – )ﺭﺳ ﻩد‬a unit of weight measurement. One
dahsar equaled ¼ of a batman. The batman varied and
was used in measures of 4, 8, 12, or 16 poods. In
 Khwarazm, dahsar was known as unsir.
Diwan (persian: ‫ – ) ﻥﺍﻭﻳﺪ‬1. the office of the supreme ruler.
During the Timurid era, this included departments
such as Devoni Oli, Devoni Mol, Devoni Tavochi,
Devoni Amlok, Devoni Yarg‘u, Devoni Insho, and
Devoni Muhtasib, each responsible for specific tasks.
For example, Devoni Mol was the financial
department mainly managing treasury affairs. 2. A
poet’s collection of poems arranged alphabetically
according to rhymes (radif).
Grand Vizier – the head of the divan. 1. In the Middle Ages, this
person was the head of the tax collection institution
and later was entrusted with all financial affairs of the
state.
Dinor (latin) – 1. the main monetary unit in Muslim states of
Asia, North Africa, and Spain during the 7th–10th
centuries.
Dirham (greek) – 1. a silver coin used in Muslim countries of
Asia, North Africa, and Spain from the 7th to the 14th
century; it was equal to seven-tenths of a misqal (4.8
g), i.e., 3.36 g of silver or copper. 2. The dirham was
minted even during the Mughal era in 16th-century
India.
Dorugha (mongol: “daraxu” – supervisor, chief; daraxt – to
press or crush) – 1. during the Middle Ages in the
Golden Horde, Central Asia, and Iran, this referred to
 the governor of a province, region, or city. 2. The
dorugha was mainly responsible for population
registration and tax collection.
Tribute – money or other material wealth collected for the
benefit of the city governor; the salary or fee of the
dorugha.
Steppe – 1. uncultivated steppe land; dry, unused land.
Yam (mongol: yol) – in the Middle Ages, a place where
envoys and couriers would stop, the old name for a
station. At the yom, they were provided with lodging,
food, and fodder for their horses. If necessary, their
horses were replaced before departure. Chinggis
Khan’s youngest son, Ögedei Khan, paid special
attention to building yoms. Amir Timur also strictly
supervised that the yoms performed their duties. Place
names such as Yom and Jom originated in locations
where yoms once stood.
Ingot (mongol: yomba, chinese “yuane bao”) – 1) a piece of
cast silver (silver ingot). Initially used as money in
large trade transactions. First appeared in China; 2) a
solid ingot or a natural piece of gold or silver.
Yomchi – worker of the yom or yom house, station overseer.
The yomchi was responsible for providing envoys,
couriers, and pilgrims with lodging and food, and, if
necessary, replacing their horses before departure.
Firman (turkish: decree, order) – 1) a written order given by
 rulers to relevant officials to organize various events
and public works such as gathering troops, digging
canals, or building roads, and to mobilize people for
them; 2) an official document, confirmed with the
ruler’s own seal, granting a privilege to emirs or
clergy; 3) in later centuries: a special mark placed on
livestock indicating its type, length, quantity, price,
etc.; 4) at present: an official document.
Sud (mongol: sud) – 1) law, court session, verdict,
punishment, revenge; 2) in the Middle Ages, a fine
collected from peasants who refused to pay taxes,
duties, and levies; 3) also used in the sense of
commotion, shouting, outcry.
Judge – in the Mongols, a lawmaker, an official who passed
judgment based on the law (according to Chinggis
Khan’s yasa).
Yasa – law, rule, decree; the order of the khan. The law
introduced by Chinggis Khan.
Vakh (persian: ‫ – )ﻭﺧ‬a unit of weight, a grain of barley:
equal to 0.045 grams.
Jarib (arabic: ‫ – )ﺏﻳﺮﺧ‬a unit of volume, weight, and area
measurement used in Eastern countries, including
Central Asia, from the 7th century onwards. In
official-legal documents of Central Asia, a jarib
represented one tanob (one jarib equaled 3,600 square
gaz, approximately equal to one tanob of land area).
 The official responsible for land measurement was
called a jaribkash or jarib amin.
Herald – a minor official who announced the decrees of kings
and khans among the people. Together with the
tavochi, they also gathered troops. Jarchis would
publicly proclaim the decrees, announcements, and
summons of kings, khans, emirs, and beks in streets,
neighborhoods, markets, and bazaars, loudly
informing the people. They also announced messages
on behalf of those who had lost something or
merchants wishing to advertise goods.
Jagir (persian: ‫ ﺭﻳﮔﺎﺟ‬,‫ – )ﺭﻳﮕﻳﺎﺟ‬one of the widespread forms
of land tenure in India during the Mughal era. The
jagir holder received a portion of the state tax
collected from the jagir. In return, he was obliged to
maintain a certain number of cavalry and pack
animals, as well as build and repair bridges and
irrigation facilities. Jagir lands could be reassigned by
the ruler at any time. From the second half of the 17th
century, jagir lands gradually began to become the
private property of their holders.
Jagirdar – jagir holder. A land, water, or property owner who
received such grants in return for services rendered
before the throne. The term “jagir” is synonymous
with “suyurgol” and was in use in India during the
Mughal period (1526–1858).
Bounty (persian: ‫ – )ﺩﻭﺟ‬gift, donation; generosity, open-
handedness.
Jizya (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻳﺯﺟ‬initially, in the Arab Caliphate and
later in other Muslim states (including Central Asia), a
poll tax collected from non-Muslim citizens. Jizya
was levied on those who had reached maturity (the
elderly, women, children, slaves, beggars, and monks
were exempt) and was collected mainly in cash or in
kind.
Zakat (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﺎﻜذ‬1) in Islamic countries, according to
Sharia law, the voluntary charity given by wealthy and
property-owning Muslims from their wealth, being
one of the obligatory acts of Islam. The rules for the
collection, amount, and method of zakat are set forth
in the Qur’an; 2) in Central Asia, zakat was an annual
tax amounting to one-fortieth of livestock and
property, collected for the benefit of the treasury.
Zakat (arabic: ‫ – )ﻯﭼﺗﺎﻛﺯ‬an official tax collector responsible
Collector for gathering zakat from the provinces and districts of
the khanate for the state treasury.
Ijarah (arabic: ‫ – )ﻩﺭﺎﭼﻳﺍ‬one of the conditions under which
landowners would lease their land to poor laborers,
requiring the tenant to pay the landowner’s share in
cash.
Islah (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﺎﺣﻻﺼﺍ‬reform, radical change; rebuilding
or reorganizing.
Land grant (arabic: ‫ – )ﻉﺎﻁﻗﺍ‬section, piece; a plot of land. In the
Middle Ages, a grant of state-owned land and water
given to princes and emirs for exceptional service
before the throne. An iqtaʿ was usually not given for
life; it could be taken back at any time and granted to
another person. From the 9th century, iqtaʿ lands
began to become the private property of their holders.
During the Seljuk and Ilkhanid periods, iqtaʿ lands
greatly increased. In the Timurid era, the terms tiyul
and suyurgol were used in place of iqtaʿ, and in the
Mughal Empire, the term jagir was applied.
Patriarch (persian: ‫ – )ﺍﺩﺧﺩﻛ‬1) here: elder of a city; 2) ruler,
king; 3) a married man, head of the household.
Elder (persian: ‫ – )ﺭﺗﻧﺎﻟﻜ‬village elder.
Handicraft (persian-tajik ‫ – )ﻪﻧﺳﻛ‬goods produced at home by a
hired artisan or craftsman, and this method of
working.
Cottage (persian-tajik ‫ – )ﻯﭼﻧﺳﻛ‬a hired artisan or craftsman
artisan working from home.
Loss (arabic: ‫ – )ﺩﺎﺳﻛ‬1) loss caused by the absence of
buyers or demand, leaving goods unsold in the
market; 2) misfortune, damage.
Denga (mongol) – a gold and silver coin issued during the
reign of Chagatai Khan Kepak Khan (1318–1326).
Sharecropper (persian-tajik ‫ – )ﻩﺩَﻧرﺎﻛ‬a peasant who works the land
in exchange for a share of the harvest (from ¼ to ½).
Artisan (arabic: ‫ – )ﺏﺳ ﺎﻛ‬a craftsman producing goods by
hand for the market. Craftsmen usually make products
themselves and sell them themselves. Most craftsmen
have a shop where they produce and sell their goods.
Kurux (indian) – a unit of distance, one kurux is
approximately equal to two kilometers; 50 kurux
equals 100 kilometers.
Present – a gift given upon first seeing a newborn child or a
bride.
Mann (arabic: ‫ – )ﻥﻣ‬a unit of weight used in the Middle
Ages; one mann was approximately equal to 23.6 kg.
Touchstone – a black-colored stone used to determine the purity of
gold and silver.
Miskal (arabic: ‫ – )ﻝﺎﻗﺛﻣ‬a unit of weight. In Eastern
countries, the weight of precious items was measured
in misqal. One misqal in Afghanistan equaled 4.6 g; in
Algeria – 4.27 g; in Egypt and Sudan – 4.08 g; in
Turkey – 4.81 g; in Iran – 4.64 g; in Khwarezm (14th
century) – 4.55 g; in Bukhara (16th–19th centuries) –
4.8–5 g. In Amir Timur’s time, one misqal was equal
to a gold coin weighing 4.8 g. This unit of weight is
still used in the Near East.
Tithe (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﺎﻬﭼﻝﺎﻣ‬a tax paid in cash or in goods.
Mol-u jihot was a type of tax collected in kind from
agricultural products, amounting to one-fifth or one-
third of the income.
War (Moli amon ‫ – )ﻥﺎﻣﺍﻝﺎﻣ‬a special payment collected
indemnity from the defeated side’s population in favor of the
victor after war; tribute.
Messenger (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺷﺑﻣ‬an official responsible for delivering
the orders, letters, and other correspondence of kings
and khans to provinces or regions.
Sharecropping (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻋﺭﺍﺯﻣ‬in Muslim countries, the leasing of
irrigated land in exchange for a portion of the harvest;
sharecropping. Muzaraʿa became customary around
the 14th century. The muzaraʿa contract was drawn up
in writing, and the rent to be paid in kind was clearly
specified.
Annex (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﺎﻓﺎﺿﻣ‬related, relative, attached,
appended; lands belonging to a certain city or
province.
Fief (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺟﻟﻣ‬land assigned to each amir during a
siege.
Property (arabic: ‫ – )ﻛﻟﻣ‬1) possessions, property, land,
buildings, and other wealth at hand; 2) country,
province; 3) homeland; 4) world, universe.
Estate (arabic: ‫ ﻛﺎﻟﻣﺍ‬- ‫ – )ﻛﻟﻣ‬all property, possessions.
Landlord (arabic-persian: ‫ – )ﺭﺍﺩﮑﻟﻣ‬large landowner, zamindar.
Private land – privately owned land subject to kharaj (tax).
Initially, Mulki kharaj was levied on non-Muslim
landowners (those who accepted Islam were
exempted). From the 8th century onward, it began to
 be collected from Muslims as well to cover war
expenses.
Tax-exempt – land exempt from all taxes. In the Middle Ages
land (from the 13th–14th centuries), rulers granted
zamindars, amirs, and beks who rendered special
services exemption from state taxes by a special
decree. This privilege was inherited by descendants.
The decree concerning Mulki hurriy xolis was also
confirmed by newly enthroned khans and amirs.
Mulki hurriy xolis was also called mulki xolis, mulki
hur, or mulki hukm.
Trade (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻟﻣﺎﻌﻣ‬in economics: the exchange of labor
products through buying and selling.
Administrator (arabic: ‫ – )ﻰﻟﻭﺗﻣ‬head, manager. A religious official
managing waqf property for mosques, madrasas, and
mausoleums. The mutavalli leased out waqf lands and
distributed the income. The mutavalli received 10% of
the waqf income as salary.
Treasurer (arabic: ‫ – )ﻰﻓﻭﺗﺳﻣ‬in kingdoms and khanates, an
official in charge of finance (income and expenditure);
accountant; bookkeeper.
Collector (arabic: ‫ – )ﻞﺳﺎﺣﻣ‬collector of produce, indemnity
collector.
Seal (persian: ‫ – )ﺭﻬﻣ‬a special tool made of sealing wax,
resin, or metal that produces a relief or intaglio
imprint on paper. Seals were made of clay, copper,
 steel, bronze, silver, or gold and shaped rectangular,
circular, elliptical, etc. In the past, in Central Asia,
every rich man, eshon, mufti, qazi, amir, khan, court,
and state enterprise had its own seal. The surface of
the seal bore the owner’s name, title, and year of
manufacture.
Inspector (arabic: ‫ – )ﺏﺳﺗﺣﻣ‬an official appointed by Muslims
to ensure compliance with Sharia law, as well as to
monitor weights, measures, and prices in markets.
Muhtasibs were often chosen from among sayyids.
Price (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﺥﺭﻧ‬the monetary value or price of an
item or object.
Sharecropping (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﮏﻳﻟﺭﺎﮑﻣﻳﻧ‬in the Middle Ages and
later centuries, a method of cultivating someone else’s
land. In nimkorlik, a poor peasant or one lacking draft
animals planted crops on a zamindar’s land, taking
half the harvest as payment.
Coin shower (persian: ‫ – )ﺭﺎﺛﻧ‬scattering; coins scattered over the
heads of kings, khans, and sultans during meetings.
Agent (arabic: ‫ – )ﻞﻣﺎﻋ‬1) tax collector; 2) a force, cause, or
factor bringing about an event or process; 3) one who
acts, worker.
Ration – 1) a unit of measure; 2) during military campaigns,
grain and food collected from the population for the
army’s needs; 3) grain, cereals.
Present (persian: ‫ – )ﺵﻛﺵﻳﭘ‬gift, present. A special gift given
 to kings, khans, sultans, and their wives and children.
Copperplate – an inscription engraved on a copper plate granting
inscription certain privileges.
Subjects (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﻳﻋﺭ‬in Near and Middle Eastern
countries, the taxpaying population, the common
people. Initially all citizens; from the 9th century,
taxpaying classes – peasants and townspeople. Later,
peasants bound to zamindars’ land were considered
raiyyat.
Chairman (arabic: ‫ – )ﺱﻋﺭ‬to administer, to lead. In the Middle
Ages and later in the Central Asian khanates, an
official monitoring compliance with Sharia law
among the population and checking the accuracy of
scales and measures in markets; 2) later: heads of
some elective bodies, institutions, organizations, and
societies; 3) a person chairing a meeting or assembly.
Bazaar row (persian-tajik:‫ – )ﻪﺗﺳﺭ‬1) a row of shops built by
merchants along the edge of the street in city markets
and villages; 2) rescued, freed.
Alms (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻗﺪﺻ‬among Muslims, a gift given as
charity to widows, orphans, and the poor. Sadaqa may
be given to prevent or avert misfortune or disaster, as
well as out of generosity.
Chief (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺩﺳ‬chest, front, rank; chief, head. 1. A
religious official overseeing the income from waqf-
owned lands, water, and other property. 2. A
 mourning custom. 3. In music, a specific rhythmic
pattern and the instrumental melodies corresponding
to it. 4. The first word of the first line of a couplet.
Poll tax – a per capita tax, head tax.
Main trading (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﻪﻳﺎﻣﺭﺳ‬main trading capital. In
capital small-scale trade, the circulating capital was called
dastmoya.
Money (arabic: ‫ – )ﻑﺍﺮﺻ‬money changer. A person who,
changer sitting in trading rows and streets, broke large
currency into smaller denominations and exchanged
valuables for money. Sarrafs also exchanged the
money of foreign merchants into local currency;
assessed precious stones, gold, silver, and others,
determining their value; and provided safekeeping for
money and valuables for a certain period.
Harvest tax (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﻯﺭﻧﺩﻳﻓﺳ‬in Mawarannahr, a tax
levied on autumn grain crops such as barley, flax,
chickpeas, lentils, millet, and foxtail millet. Collected
in the amount of 1/3 or 3/4 of the harvest, sometimes
more.
Dowry – property presented by parents and relatives to a
bride upon marriage.
Tribute (turkish gift, present) – in the Middle Ages, a
voluntary gift made by the raiyyat to the king or khan
in addition to the kharaj tax.
Offering – a gift or valuable present collected from the
 population when kings or khans passed through
provinces and cities.
Fief (mongol: gift, present) – a reward granted by the
supreme ruler to amirs, princes, high-ranking officials,
poets, and prominent Muslim clergy for great services
rendered before the throne, in the form of land,
property, clothing, pedigree horses, etc. The suyurgal
was widespread during Amir Temur’s rule. The
Conqueror granted some provinces of conquered lands
as suyurgal to their former owners, his sons,
grandsons, distinguished amirs, and army
commanders. The suyurgal estate was inherited and
exempt from state taxes. The suyurgal holder had the
right to manage the property at will.
Offering – a gift consisting of money, clothing, and food
presented by relatives, close acquaintances, and
friends on the occasion of a wedding or funeral.
Seal – 1) in ancient Mongol times, a special badge or
emblem signifying the right to keep livestock; 2) later,
a seal, sealed document, or charter; 3) a money tax
introduced by the Mongols in the Near and Middle
East; 4) in the 13th–15th centuries in Russia, a tax on
trade transactions; 5) a special mark placed on
documents, objects, livestock, and horses; 6) a state
emblem, seal.
Coin – a monetary unit made of metal, a medium of
 exchange and payment. In Central Asia, coins were
minted as early as the 3rd century BCE. In the
monetary reform carried out by Amir Temur in the
1380s, full-value silver coins were struck.
Prestigious (arabic: ‫ – )ﻕﻳﺻﻧﺗ‬rare and valuable items such as
gifts cloth, clothing, and goods. A gift or reward given by
local rulers to kings and khans.
Salary (arabic: ‫ – )ﺎﺣﻧﺗ‬in Amir Temur’s state, a reward given
as salary to military commanders and junior court
servants. A tanho could consist of land or a portion of
the kharaj collected from a certain area.
Hirt (arabic: ‫ – )ﻩﺭﺗ‬an item used for storing, wrapping, and
transporting goods.
Scale (arabic: ‫ – )ﺽﺍﺭﺗ‬a special device for determining the
mass of objects based on the force of gravity.
Privilege – 1) in the Middle Ages, including among the
charter Mongols, during Amir Temur’s reign and the Timurid
period, a privileged title granted to distinguished
amirs. Tarxans were exempt from taxes and levies,
had the right to enter the khan’s presence freely, and
were not subject to punishment until committing a
crime nine times; 2) land, property, or water exempt
from state taxes; 3) in Russia, a type of privilege
charter.
Large dish (persian: ‫ – )ﺕﺷﻁ‬large dish, basin. Tashtkhona – a
storeroom for items necessary for the daily life and
 reception ceremonies of the supreme ruler. Its head
was called a tashtdor.
Harb – during military campaigns, grain collected from
village to village for the needs of the army.
Drop (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﻡﻳﺗ‬1) in ancient times, covered trade
stalls built in the city center, near open markets and
caravanserais; 2) drop, droplet.
Yassa – laws and rules in force among the Turkic-Mongol
peoples.
Giving nine of – the custom among Turkic-Mongol peoples of giving
each item nine of each item as a gift to kings and khans.
Donative – special gift distributed to soldiers before battle.
Ulus (mongol) – 1) in the early 13th century, groups of
families who were subjects of the Mongol state and
lived a nomadic life in its territories; 2) the first feudal
state established by Chinggis Khan; 3) land, water,
property, and the population inhabiting it granted to
certain tribes or princes; 4) later, during the feudal
fragmentation period, a large feudal estate; 5) also
means people, nation, place.
Salary (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻓﻭﻟﻋ‬salary, food, and provisions given to
soldiers.
One-tenth. (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺷﻋ‬one tenth. In Muslim countries, a tax
levied in kind or cash at the rate of one-tenth of
income. Ushr was collected from agricultural,
livestock, fishing products, and others. Initially, it was
collected from sayyids, prominent Muslim clerics,
 certain amirs, and from the people of districts that
“voluntarily submitted to the Islamic army.” Later, in
various periods, different local forms emerged, such
as iqto’, dimos, tenths, dahyak.
Camp – 1) tents in which the wife, children, and servants of
an amir or khan lived; 2) a caravan carrying the royal
family members and their household belongings.
Parasang (arabic: ‫ – )ﺦﺳﺭﻓ‬an ancient unit of distance
measurement used in Central Asia. One farsakh equals
6–8 km (6–8 miles, 9–12 thousand steps).
Treasury (arabic: ‫ – )ﻪﻧﻳﺯﺧ‬1) a place where the money,
valuables, and other material wealth of kings, khans,
and amirs were stored; 2) hidden treasures or precious
metals (coins); 3) nowadays: the treasury as the total
of the state's financial reserves.
Exchequer – state treasury.
Expenditure (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﺟﺮﺨ‬expense, expenditure. Money spent
for something.
Load (persian: ‫ – )ﺭﺍﻭﺭﺧ‬weight measure. A donkey-load:
about 105–150 kg.
Purchase (arabic: ‫ – )ﺩﻳﺭﺧ‬purchase of something (land, water,
property, goods, food, etc.).
Land tax (arabic: ‫ – )ﺝﺍﺭﺧ‬a land tax introduced in Central Asia
from the 7th century. Later, land taxes collected by the
state were also called kharaj. Initially, it was used
synonymously with the term jizya and was levied both
 on non-Muslims and on Muslims who owned land.
Khan (turkish: qoon, khan – ruler) – the supreme title of
Turkic and Mongol rulers. Khan initially meant tribal
chief, later supreme ruler.
Steward – table setter, servant who spreads the tablecloth.
Mina – an ancient unit of weight measurement used in
Central Asia.
Fals – small coin made of copper, bronze, or similar
metals.
Quarter (persian-tajik: ‫ – )ﮎﺭ ﺎﭼ‬one quarter. An old unit of
weight in Central Asia. In some places, equal to five
puds, in others, equal to five qadoqs (about two kg).
Charity feast – a custom of collecting flour, grain, oil, and other
products from well-to-do households, cooking them,
and distributing for free to the poor and needy; a folk
tradition.
War treasury – a treasury where war tribute taken from conquered
cities was stored.
Banquet – shilon, communal meal, royal feast. Funds collected
from the people for the khan’s banquet.
Preemption (arabic: ‫ – )ﺕﻌﻓﺷ‬to take the side of. A preferential
right to purchase property. Under Sharia law, an
owner of immovable property had to notify neighbors
of its sale, and only if the neighbors declined could the
property be sold to others. This right was often
enjoyed by landowners.
Forage – during military campaigns, a raid on villages along
the route to replenish the army's supplies of food and
fodder.
Yassa (mongol) – prohibition, law or regulation.
Booty – weapons, tools, items, and mounts taken from the
defeated in war. In the Middle Ages, property and
captives seized from conquered lands were also
considered spoils.
Tithe – land tax collected annually based on the area of
cultivated land and the amount of harvest.
Bazaar – market occasionally set up near the khan’s court
during military campaigns.
Pound – ancient unit of mass and weight. One qadoq equals
409–512 g.
Assessor – official responsible for determining the amount of
kharaj based on the harvest.
Loan (arabic: ‫ – )ﺽﺭﻗ‬1) money, goods, grain, etc., lent or
borrowed with the condition of repayment; 2) duty,
obligation.
Cubit (arabic: ‫ ﻯﺭﺎﻗ‬, ‫ – )ﻯﺭﻗ‬a unit of length measuring
about one meter (70 cm).
Yam (Old uzbek) – envoys, khan’s couriers, passing
officials, soldiers; obligation to provide lodging and
food for the khan and his guards during official visits,
as well as to feed their horses.
Ghazi (arabic: ‫ – ﻯﺰﺎﻏ‬ghazot fighter) – participant in a holy
war against non-believers. In ghazw campaigns
 against infidels, every Muslim man with a horse and
weapons was obliged to participate, except the poor,
slaves, disabled, and elderly.
Draft (arabic: ‫ – )ﺭﺷﺣ‬1) group, crowd; 2) in the past, mass
mobilization of workers for digging canals, opening
land, building roads and bridges; 3) type of voluntary
aid.