DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by:

Ankit (2K21/EE/49)
Anshul Gautam (2K21/EE/58)
Hemang Jaswani (2K21/EE/130)

Under the supervision of

Dr. Ashish Rajeshwar Kulkarni

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042
MAY 2025
 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

We, the undersigned — Ankit (2K21/EE/49), Anshul Gautam (2K21/EE/58), and Hemang Jaswani

(2K21/EE/130), students of B. Tech in Electrical Engineering — hereby declare that our project

report titled "Dual Axis Solar Tracking System" has been submitted to the Faculty of Electrical

Engineering at Delhi Technological University. We also confirm that this work is original and has

not been submitted previously, in part or in full, for the award of any degree, diploma, scholarship,

or any other academic or professional recognition.

Place: Delhi ANKIT(2K21/EE/49)

Date: 30 May, 2025 ANSHUL GAUTAM(2K21/EE/58)
HEMANG JASWANI(2K21/EE/130)

ii
 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

CERTIFICATE

We hereby certify that the Project Dissertation titled "Dual Axis Solar Tracking System", submitted

by Ankit (2K21/EE/49), Anshul Gautam (2K21/EE/58), and Hemang Jaswani (2K21/EE/130) of the

Electrical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, has been carried out under my

supervision as part of the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of

Technology (B.Tech) degree. To the best of my knowledge, this project work is original and has not

been submitted, either in part or in full, to this university or any other institution for any academic

or professional recognition.

Place: Delhi Dr. Ashish Rajeshwar Kulkarni

Date: 30 May, 2025 SUPERVISOR

Assistant Professor, (EE)

Delhi Technilogical University

iii
 ABSTRACT

This study explores the development of a dual-axis solar tracker specifically designed for vehicles.

Unlike fixed solar panels, this system dynamically adjusts in both horizontal and vertical axes,

continually facing the sun for optimal energy capture throughout the day. This approach

significantly increases solar energy production compared to static panels, particularly for vehicles

that experience frequent changes in direction.

The abstract outlines the project's objectives, which may include:

 Developing a control system using sensors (e.g., light dependent resistors) to track the sun's

position.

 Designing a mechanical structure with motors or actuators for movement on both axes.

 Integrating the control system and mechanical components for autonomous operation.

The project will evaluate the performance of the dual-axis tracker compared to a fixed panel. The

abstract highlights the potential benefits of this technology for various applications. It can extend

the range of electric vehicles by generating additional power for propulsion or auxiliary systems.

It can also provide reliable off-grid power for campervans, mobile workstations, or research

vehicles. The design considerations for a robust and mobile tracking system will be addressed,

including factors like weight, wind resistance, and power consumption of the tracking mechanism.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the course of working on our project, we received valuable guidance and support from several

individuals, to whom we are deeply grateful.

First and foremost, we would like to express our heartfelt thanks to our project supervisor, Dr. Ashish

Rajeshwar Kulkarni, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological

University, for his invaluable guidance, continuous support, and encouragement throughout the duration

of our work. His insights and mentorship were instrumental in shaping the direction and success of this

project.

We are also sincerely thankful to all those who, directly or indirectly, contributed to the completion of

this project. Additionally, we extend our gratitude to the Department of Electrical Engineering,

Delhi Technological University, for providing us with the opportunity and resources to undertake this

project. Lastly, we would like to thank the evaluation panel members for their time, feedback, and

encouragement during the project assessment process.

Thank You.

ANKIT(2K21/EE/49)

ANSHUL GAUTAM(2K21/EE/58)

HEMANG JASWANI(2K21/EE/130)

v
 CONTENTS

Candidate’s Declaration ii

Certificate iii

Abstract iv

Acknowledgement v

Contents vi-vii

List of figures viii

List of Tables ix

List of Symbols, abbreviations x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Solar Tracker 1
1.2. Photovoltaic Effect 3
1.3. Motivation 5
1.4. Electrical vehicle charging 7

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

CHAPTER 3 COMPONENTS USED 10
3.1 ARDUINO UNO R3 10

3.2 LDR Sensor 13

3.3 10 RPM Motor 16
3.4 L293D Motor Driver 17
3.5 Solar panel 23
3.6 Other Accessories 24
CHAPTER 4 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 25
CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURE FOR PROJECT 27
CHAPTER 6 WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKER 28

vi
 6.1 Single Axis Solar Collector 28
6.2 Dual Axis Solar Tracker 32
CHAPTER 7 OBSERVATION AND RESULT 36
7.1 Single Axis Solar Collector 36
7.2 Dual Axis Solar Tracker 38
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 40
CHAPTER 9 REFERNCES 41

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Truth table showing the working logic of the H-Bridge in the L293D motor driver IC.
Table 2: Detailed pin configuration and description of each pin in the L293D IC.
Table 3: Truth table summarizing how the motor driver behaves based on different input
combinations.
Table 4: Voltage comparison data recorded on a sunny day using a single axis tracking system.
Table 5: Voltage comparison data recorded on a cloudy day with the single-axis tracker.
Table 6: Comparison between a static solar panel and a tracking panel in terms of voltage output

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1.1 Solar Tracker Mechanism

Fig 1.1.2 Working of Solar Tracker

Fig 1.2.1 Photovoltaic process

Fig 3.1.1 Diagram of Arduino Uno R3

Fig 3.1.2 Block Diagram with Pin specified Fig 3.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor

Fig 3.2.2 Pin Diagram of LM393 Fig 3.2.3 Working of LDR

Fig 3.2.4 LDR Resistance vs Flux Fig 3.2.5 Detailed LM393 Working Fig 3.3.1 Solar panel
Installed

Fig 3.3.2 Photovoltaic Effect

Fig 3.4.1 L293D Motor Driver and its Pin Specified Fig 3.4.2 H Bridge Creation

Fig 3.4.3 Working of H-Bridge Fig 3.4.4 Pin Diagram of L293D Fig 3.5.1 Worm Gear Motor

Fig 4.1.1 Inverse square law Fig 4.1.2 Lamberts Cosine law Fig 5.1.1 Metal Base for Project

Fig 5.1.2 Wooden Base for Project Fig 6.1.1 Single Axis Solar Tracker

Fig 6.1.2 Working Condition for Single Axis Tracker Fig 6.1.3 Types of Single Axis Tracker

Fig 6.1.4 Circuit Diagram for Single Axis Tracker

Fig 6.1.5 Arduino Code

Fig 6.2.1 Dual Axis Solar Tracker

Fig 6.2.2 Circuit Diagram for Dual Axis Tracker

Fig 7.1.1. Line chart for the data from two LDRs in sunny day

Fig 7.1.2. Line chart for the data from two LDRs in cloudy day

IX
101
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS:

LDR - Light Dependent Resistor

MOSFET - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor PV - Photovoltaic Cell

IDE - Integrated Development

Environment DC - Direct Current

ADC - Analog-to-Digital

Converter LUX - Luminous Flux

(Lumens/m²) PWM - Pulse Width

Modulation USB - Universal

Serial Bus

CMOS - Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

EEPROM - Electrically Erasable programmable Read-Only

Memory SRAM - Static Random Access Memory

I/O - Input/ Output

GND - Ground

VCC - Supply Voltage

AREF - Another RDF Encoding Form

PCINT - Pin Change Interrupt Library

101
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The Powerhouse Sun: Sun power is the radiant mild and warmth emitted from the solar. It is the

maximum ample power source on the planet, with the amount of sunlight hitting our planet in only an

hour and a half of exceeding the whole international's power desires for 12 months! We can harness

this energy using various technology to generate strength, warmness water, and even create comfy

living spaces. Sun electricity is one of the fastest growing industries inside the international. A report

amount of over 256 GW of renewable power potential became delivered globally in the course of

2020. because the solar strength is a renewable source of energy, it is a great energy supply, especially

for growing nations like India, China and many others. to fulfill the demand for clean strength.

1.1 Solar Tracker

Solar tracking systems may be categorized via the mode in their movement. those monitoring
systems have the floor that may be rotated/tilted round axes to derive a proper perspective that could
help them get the most daylight. while motion or adjustment of the surface occurs with the aid of
rotating round two axis, its miles referred to as dual-axis monitoring.

Fig 1.1.1 Solar Tracker Mechanism

Capturing the Sun's Rays - There are two main ways to capture solar energy:

 Photovoltaic (PV) Panels: These familiar panels contain solar cells made from
materials like silicon. When sunlight hits the cells, it creates an electric current through
12
 a process called the photovoltaic effect. Multiple solar cells are wired together to form a solar

panel, and several panels combined make a solar array. These arrays can be

installed on rooftops, in large solar farms, or even integrated into building materials.
 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): These systems use mirrors or lenses to focus a large area of
sunlight onto a receiver, heating a liquid to high temperatures. The hot liquid then transfers its
heat to generate electricity through a steam turbine, similar to a traditional power plant.

Solar energy can be used for a variety of applications:

 Electricity Generation: Solar panels can generate electricity for homes, businesses,
and even entire utility grids.
 Solar Water Heating: Solar thermal systems can heat water for domestic use,
swimming pools, or industrial processes.
 Building Design: Solar architecture uses passive techniques like building orientation,
natural ventilation, and strategically placed windows to maximize sunlight for heating
and lighting, reducing reliance on conventional energy sources.

Benefits of Solar Energy Fig 1.1.2 Working of Solar Tracker

 Renewable and Sustainable: Sunlight is a constantly replenished resource, unlike

finite fossil fuels.
 Clean Energy: Solar power generation produces no harmful emissions, curbing air and
water pollution.
 Reduced Energy Costs: Over time, solar panels can significantly reduce electricity
bills for homeowners and businesses.
 Scalability: Solar systems can be sized for individual homes or scaled up to meet the
needs of large communities.

The Future of Solar: Technological advancements are constantly improving the efficiency and
affordability of solar energy. Government incentives and falling equipment prices are also accelerating
solar adoption. As solar energy continues to develop, it is expected to play an increasingly important
13
role in our transition to a clean and sustainable energy future.

1.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT: Conversion of Solar Energy to Electrical Energy

Photovoltaic conversion, the heart of solar panels, is the process by which sunlight is transforms into
electricity.

Components for Photovoltaic effect

1. Photons: Packets of light energy from the sun. Different wavelengths (colors) of light carry
varying amounts of energy.
2. Semiconductor: The workhorse material in a solar cell, typically silicon. Its special
properties allow for controlled electron movement.
3. P-type layer: One side of the semiconductor doped with elements that create "holes" - positive
charge carriers.
4. N-type layer: The other side doped with elements that contribute extra electrons - negative
charge carriers.
5. Electric Field: An invisible force established within the cell due to the doping, pushing
electrons and holes in opposite directions.
The Act of Conversion:
1. Photon Arrival: Sunlight falls on the solar cell. Photons—tiny packets of light energy—hit the
surface, and those with sufficient energy are absorbed by the silicon atoms in the semiconductor
material.

2. Electron Excitation:
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is transferred to an electron in the silicon atom. This boosts
the electron to a higher energy state, freeing it from its atomic bond. This process also leaves
behind a "hole"—an empty space where the electron used to be.

3. Charge Separation:
Inside the solar cell, there's a built-in electric field (usually created at the junction of P-type and N-
type layers). This field pushes the excited electrons toward the N-type layer and pulls the holes
toward the P-type layer, effectively separating the charges.

4. Current Generation:
If the electrons and holes are successfully separated and don’t recombine, the electrons are directed
through an external circuit (doing useful work like lighting a bulb), while the holes flow internally to
complete the circuit. This movement of electrons through the external path creates an electric current.

5. P-N Junction Magic: The P-N junction, the area where the two doped layers meet, is
14
 critical. It acts as a one-way valve, allowing electrons to flow from N to P type layer but
hindering their flow back in the opposite direction. This helps maintain the current flow.

Fig 1.2.1 Photovoltaic process

Factors Affecting Efficiency:

 Photon Energy: Photons with too little energy won't excite electrons, while those with
excessive energy can create heat instead of promoting current flow.
 Recombination: Electrons and holes can recombine before reaching their respective layers,
wasting the captured energy.
 Material Properties: The quality and bandgap (energy difference between electron states)
of the semiconductor material significantly impact efficiency.
Beyond the Basics:

 Different solar cell designs exist, like p-n junction, Schottky, and dye-sensitized solar cells,
each with its advantages and limitations.

 Multi-junction solar cells are designed to capture a broader range of sunlight

wavelengths, which can significantly enhance their overall efficiency.

 The performance of any solar cell, however, is influenced by several key factors—
most importantly, the type of material used in its construction and the intensity of
sunlight it receives.

 Not all sunlight is perfectly absorbed or converted into electricity. Some photons pass through the
cell or not have enough energy to excite electrons. 

15
1.3 Motivation
As we know that solar energy is not as famous as wind energy due to its efficiency and
solar energy is famous only in equator region due to high intensity of sun-light as,
equator region is closer to sun.

We were inspired from the sunflower which also face towards the sun. here we came
with the idea that if we able to make a solar panel which follow the sun light will change
the conventional method to fix the solar panel. So here with the help of Arduino uno R3
microcontroller, 2,4 LDR, L2983D Motor driver at last we innovate a single axis and
double axis solar tracker.

In this assignment, we're going to reveal you a way to make a solar tracker using
Arduino uno. The sun panel tracker is designed to comply with the sun motion in order
that most mild intensity hits at the sun panel, therefore increasing the electricity
efficiency. Use of a solar tracker circuit inside the area of energy production will boom
its efficiency by nearly 30%- 60% (information taken from Helio movement). This
gadget can also be efficaciously carried out in different sun strength-primarily based
projects like in water warmers and additionally in steam generators.

Basically, there are sorts of Arduino sun tracker. One of them is unmarried axis solar
tracker and other is twin axis sun tracker. In single axis solar tracker device, it actions
the sun panel from east to west in an afternoon pointing closer to the sun and in the
twin axis sun tracker makes use of motor to move the sun panel in all four instructions
(from North-south & East- West)

Solar panels are a fantastic clean energy technology, but their efficiency can be
significantly improved by using a dual-axis solar tracker. Here's a breakdown of the
motivations behind this project.

16
 Maximizing Sunlight Capture:

 The Fixed Panel Dilemma: Traditional, fixed solar panels are typically angled towards
the equator to capture sunlight throughout the day. However, this static position isn't
ideal. As the sun's position changes throughout the day and seasons, the angle of
sunlight hitting the panels varies, reducing overall electricity generation.
 Dual-Axis Advantage: A dual-axis tracker addresses this limitation. By constantly
adjusting its position on two axes (horizontal and vertical), it tracks the sun's movement
across the sky, ensuring the panels receive direct sunlight throughout the day. This
significantly increases the amount of sunlight captured, maximizing electricity
production.
Potential Benefits of a Dual-Axis Tracker Project:

 Increased Energy Output: Studies suggest that dual-axis trackers can generate 25-

40% more electricity compared to fixed-tilt panels, depending on location and weather

conditions. This translates to a significant boost in the effectiveness of your solar energy

system.
 Improved Return on Investment (ROI): While dual-axis trackers have a slightly
higher initial cost due to the additional motors and control systems, the increased energy
production can lead to a faster payback period. In essence, you get more "bang for your
buck" in terms of electricity generation.
 Educational Opportunity: Building a dual-axis tracker project allows you to gain
practical experience with solar technology, electronics, and control systems. It's a
fantastic way to learn about the science behind solar energy and how to optimize its
efficiency.
 Potential for Innovation: Your project can serve as a platform for experimentation.
You could explore different tracking algorithms, motor types, or sensor configurations
to further enhance the tracker's performance.

Overall, a dual-axis solar tracker project is a compelling choice for those seeking to maximize the
potential of their solar energy system. The increased efficiency, educational value, and potential
for innovation make it a worthwhile endeavour for those with the technical skills and interest.

17
1.2 Electrical Vehicle charging

The concept of combining a dual-axis solar tracker with an EV charging station is an innovative
and sustainable approach to powering electric vehicles. Here's how it works:
Harnessing the Sun's Power:

 Dual-Axis Advantage: As discussed previously, a dual-axis solar tracker maximizes

sunlight capture throughout the day by constantly adjusting the solar panels' position.
This translates to generating more electricity compared to fixed-tilt panels.

EV Charging Integration:

 Direct Current (DC) Connection: The electricity generated by the solar panels is
typically direct current (DC). This DC power can be directly connected to a compatible
EV charger, eliminating the need for an inverter to convert it to alternating current (AC).
This simplifies the system and reduces energy losses.
 Battery Storage (Optional): While solar panels generate electricity during sunlight
hours, EV charging may not always coincide with peak sun availability. A battery
storage system can be integrated to store excess solar energy and provide power for EV
charging even at night or on cloudy days.

Benefits of this System:

 Clean and Sustainable: This system utilizes renewable solar energy to charge EVs,
reducing reliance on fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions. It promotes a greener
transportation future.
 Cost-Effective: Over time, the electricity generated from the solar panels can
significantly offset the cost of charging your EV. This translates to long-term savings
on electricity bills.
 Self-Reliant Charging: With sufficient solar panel capacity and potentially battery
storage, you can achieve a certain level of independence from the traditional electricity
grid for charging your EV.
 Scalability: This system can be scaled depending on your needs. A single tracker with
a small solar array can cater to personal EV charging, while larger installations can be
18
used for public charging stations.
Challenges and Considerations:

 Initial Investment: The combined cost of the dual-axis tracker, solar panels, EV
charger, and optional battery storage system can be significant. However,
government incentives and long-term energy cost savings can help offset this
initial investment.
 Space Requirements: Setting up a solar array and tracker system requires
sufficient space. Additionally, local zoning regulations may need to be
considered.
 Weather Dependence: While the dual-axis tracker helps maximize sunlight
capture, solar energy production can still be impacted by cloudy or rainy days.
Battery storage can help mitigate this, but it adds complexity and cost.

Overall, a dual-axis solar tracker system for EV charging offers a promising solution for
sustainable and cost-effective electric mobility. Carefully considering the benefits,
challenges, and your specific needs will help determine if this is the right approach for
you.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Hossein Mousazadeh et al. (2011), in their study published in the Journal of Solar Energy

Engineering (Vol. 133), explored ways to maximize the electricity generated from an

onboard photovoltaic (PV) array installed on a solar-assisted plug-in hybrid electric tractor

(SAPHT). They developed and evaluated a solar tracking system mounted on a mobile

platform using four light- dependent resistive (LDR) sensors. The experimental results

demonstrated that the solar tracking system was able to collect approximately 30% more

energy compared to a stationary, horizontally fixed PV system. Each pair of LDR sensors

was separated by a shading barrier to detect the direct sunlight more effectively. A

microcontroller-based electronic control board served as the interface between the system’s

hardware and software. Power MOSFETs were employed to drive the actuators controlling

each motor. Overall, the system proved to be stable and highly efficient.

K.S. Madhu et al. (2012), in the International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Studies (Vol.

3) , explained that single-axis solar trackers follow the Sun’s east-to-west movement throughout

the day, while dual-axis trackers also account for the Sun’s seasonal declination movement.

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems, which use lenses or mirrors along with tracking

mechanisms, focus sunlight onto a small area to generate heat or electricity. Photovoltaic

(PV) systems convert sunlight directly into electricity through the photoelectric effect.

Their findings indicated that solar tracking systems can increase energy efficiency by 26%

to 38% on clear days compared to fixed solar panels. Even on cloudy or rainy days, the

performance of tracking systems showed noticeable improvement, although the gain varied.
20
 CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS USED

3.1 ARDUINO UNO R3

The Arduino Uno is a widely used microcontroller board built around the
ATmega328P chip. It’s especially popular among beginners, students, and hobbyists for
learning electronics and programming.
The board features:
 14 digital input/output pins, 6 of which support PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) output
 6 analog input pins
 A 16 MHz ceramic resonator
 USB connection for programming and power
 A power jack for external power supply
 An ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header
 A reset button
The Arduino Uno R3 is known for its simplicity and versatility. It can be used to
control LEDs, sensors, motors, displays, and various other components. Its open-source
nature and wide community support make it an ideal platform for prototyping and
DIY electronics projects

Fig 3.1.1 Diagram of Arduino Uno R3

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Core Components:

 Microcontroller: At the heart of the board is the Atmega328P, an 8-bit microcontroller

from Microchip Technology. It runs at a clock speed of 16 MHz, which is fast enough to
handle most basic tasks like reading sensors or controlling devices.
 Digital Input/Output (I/O) Pins: The Uno has 14 digital I/O pins. You can use them as inputs
(to read data from devices like sensors) or outputs (to control things like LEDs or motors). Out
Of these, 6 pins support PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), which is useful for tasks like
Dimming LEDs or adjusting motor speed.
 Analog Input Pins: There are 6 analog input pins that can read varying voltage levels (from 0
to 5 volts). These are ideal for sensors that output analog signals, like temperature or light
sensors.
 USB Connection: You can connect the Uno to a computer using a USB Type-B cable. This
connection powers the board and lets you upload your code directly to the microcontroller.
 Power Jack: If you're not using a computer, you can power the board through the DC barrel
jack using an external power source (typically 7–12 volts).
 ICSP Header: This set of pins allows advanced users to program the microcontroller directly
using an In-Circuit Serial Programmer (ICSP). It's often used for tasks like updating the
bootloader.
 Reset Button: Pressing this button will restart the program running on the board, which can be
helpful during testing or troubleshooting

Additional Features:

 Power LED: This small LED lights up when the board is powered, letting you know it's on.
 TX and RX LEDs: These LEDs blink when the board is sending (TX) or receiving (RX)
data
through the USB connection.
 3.3V and 5V Pins: These provide a steady voltage output of 3.3 volts or 5 volts, which can
be
used to power other components in your project.
 GND Pins: These ground pins are essential for completing electrical circuits on the board.

22
Advantages of Arduino Uno R3:

 Beginner-friendly: The Arduino Uno is a great starting point for learning electronics
and coding due to its simple design and extensive online resources.
 Versatility: The Uno can be used for a wide range of projects with various sensors,
actuators, and other components.
 Large Community: There's a vast and supportive Arduino community online, offering
tutorials, project ideas, and troubleshooting help.
 Affordable: The Uno is a relatively inexpensive microcontroller board compared to
other options.

23
Overall, the Arduino Uno R3 is a powerful and accessible tool for anyone interested in getting
started with electronics and programming. Its user-friendly design, vast resources, and wide
range of applications make it a popular choice for hobbyists, educators, and makers alike.

Fig 3.1.2 Block Diagram with Pin specified

SUMMARY
Microcontroller ATmega168
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7–12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6–20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 16 KB (ATmega168) or 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 2 KB used by bootloader
SRAM 1 KB (ATmega168) or 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 512 bytes (ATmega168) or 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
In Built LED
Length and width of the Arduino are 68.6 mm X 53.4 mm
The weight of the Arduino board is 25 g

24
2.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) Module

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) sensor is a simple yet effective tool for measuring the amount of
light in an environment. LDRs work by changing their resistance based on the intensity of visible or
infrared light falling on them—as the ambient light increases, their resistance decreases.

The most common type of LDR is made from a semiconductor material like silicon or germanium.
This material is usually housed in a protective plastic epoxy casing to shield it from environmental
factors such as moisture or temperature fluctuations, which could otherwise affect performance or
damage nearby electronic components.

When properly installed, LDR sensors offer reliable and accurate detection of changing light
conditions within their designed range, making them ideal for use in various light-sensing applications

Fig 3.2.1 Light Dependent Resistor

The LM393 series are dual independent precision voltage comparators capable of single or split
supply operation. These devices are designed to permit a common mode range−to−ground level
with single supply operation. Input offset voltage specifications as low as 2.0 mV make this
device an excellent selection for many applications in consumer, automotive, and industrial
electronics
Description:

 Using a wide voltage LM393 comparator

Fig 3.2.2 Pin Diagram of LM393

25
  With a mounting screw hole, easy to install
 Using the sensitive type photosensitive resistance sensor
 Output Voltage Compatible with DTL, ECL, TTL, MOS, and CMOS Logic Levels 
 The comparator output signal clean waveform is good, driving ability, then 15mA 
 With adjustable potentiometer can adjust the brightness of the light detected
 Working voltage: 3.3V-5V
 Size(L*W): Approx. 1.26 x 0.55 inch/ 3.2cm x 1.4cm
 Output: DO digital switch output (0 and 1), AO analog voltage output. 

Interface Description (4-wire)

 VCC: positive power supply 3.3–5V
 GND: power supply is negative
 DO: TTL switching signal output
 AO: analog output

How to use:

 Photosensitive resistor module most sensitive to environmental light depth is commonly used
to hit upon the ambient brightness and light intensity.
 Module light situations or mild depth attain the set threshold, DO port output excessive,
whilst the external ambient light intensity exceeds a hard and fast threshold, the module D0
output low.
 Digital output D0 directly connected to the MCU, and stumble on high or low TTL, thereby
detecting ambient light intensity adjustments.
 Digital output module DO can at once drive the relay module, which may be composed
of a photoelectric transfer.
 Analog output module AO and advert modules can be related via the ad converter,

you could get a greater correct light depth price

Fig 3.2.3 Working of LDR Fig 3.2.4 LDR Resistance vs Flux

26
 Fig 3.2.5 Detailed LM393 Working

How does an LDR work?

An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) has two electrodes—one acts as the cathode and the other as the

anode. When the sensor is exposed to a certain level of light, such as sunlight or artificial lighting, its
27
resistance decreases. This change in resistance generates a small voltage that is directly proportional

to the intensity of the incident light. This light-sensitive behavior makes LDRs ideal for applications

such as solar panel controllers, security systems, and automatic lighting controls. Their

functionality is based on the photoelectric effect: the photons in the incoming light have more energy

than the band gap of the semiconductor material used in the LDR. This energy allows electrons to

jump from the valence band to the conduction band, thereby increasing conductivity and reducing

resistance. The graph below (not shown here) represents the typical relationship between resistance

and illumination for an LDR. As expected, resistance decreases as light intensity increases,

forming a hyperbolic curve. In simple terms, the more light that hits the LDR, the lower its

resistance. Common materials used in LDRs include cadmium sulphide (CdS), cadmium selenide

(CdSe), thallium sulphide (Tl₂S), and lead sulphide (PbS), each chosen for its sensitivity to Different

wavelengths of light.

2.3 Solar Cell / Panel

Fig 3.3.1 Solar panel Installed

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system. The individual cells can
vary from 0.5 inches to 4 inches across. One cell can however produce only 1 or 2 watts that is not
enough for most appliances. Performance of a photovoltaic array depends on sunlight. Climatic
conditions like clouds and fog significantly affect the amount of solar energy that is received by the
array and therefore its performance. Most of the PV modules are between 10 and 20 percent efficient.
28
Sun panels are created from photovoltaic cells that convert the Solar’s electricity into power. Photovoltaic

cells are sandwiched among layers of semi-accomplishing materials including silicon. each layer has

distinctive electronic properties that energize whilst hit via photons from sunlight, creating an electric

subject. that is known as the photoelectric impact – and this creates the current

had to produce energy.

Fig 3.3.2 Photovoltaic Effect

solar panels generate an immediate modern of power. that is then surpassed thru an inverter to

convert it into an alternating modern-day, which may be fed into the national Grid or utilized by the

domestic or enterprise that the solar panels are attached to.

2.3 (L293D) Motor Driver Module

Fig 3.4.1 L293D Motor Driver and its Pin Specified

L293D is a basic motor driver integrated chip (IC) that enables us to drive a DC motor in either direction or also
control the speed of the motor. The L293D is a 16 pin IC, with 8 pins on each side, allowing us to control the
motor. It means that we can use a single L293D to run up to two DC motors. L293D consist of two H-bridge
circuit. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for changing polarity across the load connected to it.

29
The L293D is a popular and easy-to-use integrated circuit (IC) that functions as a dual H-bridge
motor driver. It essentially acts as an intermediary between your microcontroller (like Arduino)
and your DC motors, allowing you to control their direction and speed. Here's a comprehensive
breakdown of the L293D:

Core Functionality:

 Dual H-Bridge Design: The L293D consists of two independent H-bridges. An H-

bridge is an electronic circuit that enables you to control the direction of current flow
through a load (in this case, your DC motor). Each H-bridge within the L293D can drive
one DC motor.
 Directional Control: By applying high or low voltage signals to specific control pins,
you can determine the direction the motor rotates (clockwise or counter-clockwise) and
even brake it.
 Speed Control (Optional): While the L293D doesn't offer built-in speed control, you
can achieve it using a technique called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). By rapidly
switching the motor on and off (varying the duty cycle of the PWM signal), you can
effectively control the average voltage applied to the motor, influencing its speed. 
Technical Specifications:

 Supply Voltage: 4.5V to 36V (operating range for the IC itself)

 Output Current: Up to 600mA per channel (typical) with a peak of 1.2A (be mindful
of heat dissipation)
 Input Control Voltage: TTL/CMOS compatible (works well with common
microcontrollers)
 Number of I/O Pins: 16 pins (2 input pins and 2 enable pins for each motor)

Typical Applications:

 Controlling Small to Medium DC Motors: The L293D is suitable for driving various DC motors
in robots, line following applications, and small control systems. 
 Bidirectional Motor Control: The ability to control direction makes it ideal for applications 
where motors need to rotate in both directions.
 Interfacing Microcontrollers with Motors: The L293D bridges the gap between your
30
 microcontroller's control signals and the power requirements of your DC
motors.

Benefits of Using L293D:

 Simple to Use: The L293D requires minimal external

components and is straightforward to integrate into your project.
 Cost-Effective: It's a relatively inexpensive solution for motor control.
 Versatility: It can handle a decent range of DC motors and control
their direction effectively.
A motor driver is essentially a type of current amplifier. It takes a low-current control signal
from a microcontroller and converts it into a higher-current signal strong enough to drive a
motor. This is necessary because most microcontrollers can't supply the power needed to run
motors directly.
In many cases, a simple transistor can be used to act as a switch, allowing current to flow
and control the motor in one direction. Motor drivers are especially useful in projects where
precise motor control is required, such as in robots, fans, or automated systems.

Turning a motor ON and off requires most effective one transfer to control an unmarried Motor in
an unmarried course. The simple answer is to reverse its polarity. this could be Accomplished by
using four switches which are organized in a wise manner such that the circuit now not handiest
drives the motor however additionally controls its course. Out of many, one of most common and
clever designs is an H-bridge circuit where transistors are arranged in a shape that resembles the
English alphabet “H”.

Fig 3.4.2 H Bridge Creation

31
 An H-bridge is an electronic circuit that allows you to control the direction of voltage applied across a
load, such as a DC motor. This means it can make the motor spin forward or in reverse, depending on
how the switches are activated. H-bridges are widely used in robotics and automation systems, where
motors need to change direction.
Besides motor control, H-bridge circuits are also found in power electronic converters such as DC-DC,
DC-AC, and AC-AC converters. They are especially essential for driving bipolar stepper motors,
which always require H-bridge configurations for precise movement control.
An H-bridge is typically built using four switches, often labeled as S1, S2, S3, and S4. Here's how it
works:
 When S1 and S4 are closed (turned on), a positive voltage is applied across the motor, making it spin
in one direction.
 To reverse the motor's direction, S1 and S4 are opened, and S2 and S3 are closed, which applies the
voltage in the opposite direction.
Apart from changing the direction, H-bridge circuits also allow you to stop the motor in different ways:
 You can brake the motor by shorting its terminals, which brings it to a sudden stop.
 Alternatively, you can let it coast to a stop by disconnecting it from the circuit.
A control table (not shown here) is usually used to indicate which switch combinations produce which
motor behaviours (forward, reverse, brake, or stop).

Fig 3.4.3 Working of H-Bridge

32
 Table 1: Truth Table for H-Bridge of L293D IC
L293D IC

The L293D is a popular motor driver IC that usually comes in a standard 16-pin dual in-line package
(DIP). It’s designed to control two small DC motors at the same time, allowing them to run forward
or in reverse. What's great is that you can do this using just four pins from a microcontroller
assuming you’re not using the enable pins.

Table 2: Pin Description of L293D IC

Connection Diagram

The circuit shown to the right is the most basic implementation of L293D IC. There are 16 pins

sticking out of this IC and we must understand the functionality of each pin before implementing this

in circuit. Pin1 and Pin9 are “Enable” pins. They should be connected to +5V for the drivers to

function. If they pulled low (GND), then the outputs will be turned off regardless of the input states,

stopping the motors. If you have two spare pins in your microcontroller, connect these pins to the

microcontroller, or just connect them to regulated positive 5 Volts.

Pin4, Pin5, Pin12, and Pin13 are ground pins that should ideally be connected to the microcontroller’s

ground. Pin2, Pin7, Pin10 and Pin15 are logic input pins. These are control pins which should be

33
connected to microcontroller pins. Pin2 and Pin7 control the first motor (left); Pin10 and Pin15 control the

second motor(right). Pin3, Pin6, Pin11, and Pin14 are output pins. Tie Pin3 and Pin6 to the first motor,

Pin11 and Pin14 to second motor Pin16 powers the IC and it should be connected to regulated

+5Volts Pin8 powers the two motors and should be connected to positive lead of a secondary battery. As

per the datasheet, supply voltage can be as high as 36 Volts. Suppose you need to control the left motor

which is connected to Pin3 (O1) and Pin6 (O2). As mentioned above, we require three pins to control this

motor – Pin1 (E1), Pin2 (I1) and Pin7 (I2).

ENABLE 1 INPUT 1 INPUT2 FUNCTION

1 1 0 Rotates Anti-clockwise (Reverse)

1 0 1 Rotates Clockwise (Forward)

1 1 1 OFF

1 0 0 OFF

0 X X OFF
Table 3: truth table representing the functionality of this motor driver.
Note: X means the input can be either high or low—it doesn’t matter in that case.

Looking at the truth table above, you’ll notice that if ENABLE 1 is set to low (0), the motor won’t run—

no matter what the states of INPUT 1 and INPUT 2 are. That’s why it’s important to keep ENABLE 1

high (1) for the motor driver to work properly. You can do this by either connecting it to a microcontroller

pin or directly tying it to a +5V power supply.

Now, when ENABLE 1 is high:

 If INPUT 1 is high and INPUT 2 is low, current flows from INPUT 1 to INPUT 2,
making the motor rotate anticlockwise.
 If you flip the states—INPUT 1 low and INPUT 2 high—then current flows in the
opposite direction, causing the motor to spin clockwise.

This same logic applies to the other half of the L293D IC. If you connect your second motor to
OUTPUT 3 and OUTPUT 4, then INPUT 3 and INPUT 4 will control its direction, and ENABLE 2 must
be set high to activate that side of the driver.

34
3.5 MOTOR

Fig 3.5.1 Servomotor

Technical Details

Brand AZDelivery

Speed 59 RPM

Voltage 5 Volts

Horsepower 30 Watts

Material Metal

Item Weight 55Grams

Manufacturer AZ-Delivery

Country of Origin India

Number of Memory Sticks 1

Product Dimensions 9x8x6

cm. Item part number MG 996R

Item Height 9 Centimeters

Item Width 8 Centimeter

About this item

Voltage: 5V to 12V; RPM: 30; Torque Range: 8 - 10 Kg-cm; Weight- 55 Grams; Shaft Size: 6mm.

35
Output Shaft arranged vertically with the motor shaft and is relatively short, fit for different
occasions that require special installation size.

Using precious metals carbon brush. Long service life, low noise, large torque. Stable and
reliable performance. Can rotate and reversal, work more accurate.

Feature - Servo motors are ideal for solar trackers because they allow accurate control of the
panel's angle in both the horizontal (azimuth) and vertical (elevation) directions. This
ensures the panel always faces the sun for maximum energy capture.

3.6 Other Accessories

Jumper Wire / Male to Female Wire Soldering iron

Glue gun

36
CHAPTER 4

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

The brightness (or illumination) that falls on a surface decreases as the distance from the light

source increases. Specifically, it follows the inverse square law, meaning the illumination is

inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. For example, if the

illumination is I units at 1 meter, then:

 At 2 meters, it becomes I/4
 At 3 meters, it becomes I/9, and so on.

This rule applies accurately only when the light source is a point source and the light falls

directly (perpendicularly) on the surface. Mathematically, the illumination (in lamberts/m²) on a

surface placed normally (at 90°) to the light is given by:

Illumination = Candle Power / (Distance in meters) ²

Fig 4.1.1 Inverse square law

LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

The amount of light that falls on a surface depends on the angle at which the light hits it.
Specifically, it’s proportional to the cosine of the angle between the incoming light and
the surface’s normal (the line perpendicular to the surface). This happens because, as the
angle increases, the effective area exposed to the light gets smaller, so less light reaches
it.

37
 Fig 4.1.2 Lamberts Cosine law

So, the equation becomes:

Eθ = E × cosθ = (I × cosθ) / D²
Where:
 Eθ is the illumination on a tilted or horizontal surface
 E is the illumination when light hits the surface directly (at a 90° angle)
 θ is the angle of incidence, or the angle between the incoming light and the
perpendicular (normal) to the surface
 D is the distance from the light source to the surface
 I is the candle power or intensity of the light source
This equation shows that as the light hits the surface at a steeper angle (larger θ), the effective
illumination decreases due to both the cosine factor and the distance squared effect.

38
CHAPTER 5

STRUCTURE FOR PROJECT

We used Wooden base as to keep our total structure light and distribute weights by adding
small wooden sticks on wooden base. Worm Motor to be used is placed in between wooden
sticks. Wooden base consists of 4 holes to get screwed at some Vehicle for readings
purposes. All wooden material is sticked to each other by use of fevicol as adhesive.
Then creating hole at the centre opening for motor is given on which nut is welded
accordingly to rotate structure. Side structure first made by use of metal which is more
flexible than the wood structure we are using. We are using wood structure as it is more
stable and lighter than previous metal structure. Roller are also used to distribute the weight
of upper structure on the metal plate of 28 cm * 28 cm

Fig 5.1.1 Metal Base for Project

Fig 5.1.2 Wooden Base for Project

39
 CHAPTER 6

WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKER

6.1 Single Axis Solar Tracker

In this project, an Arduino UNO is used as the main control unit. Two LDRs (Light Dependent

Resistors) are connected to the Arduino’s digital pins to detect light intensity. A solar panel is

mounted parallel to the motor’s axis, and both light sensors are placed on the panel itself, as shown

in the figure below. This setup helps the system detect the direction of sunlight and adjust the panel

accordingly.

Image of Single axis Solar Tracker

Fig 6.1.1 Single Axis Solar Tracker

The setup is designed so that the sun moves from Sensor 1 to Sensor 2, as shown in the image below.
Working Concept
The system operates based on three simple conditions:
 Condition 1: Sun is on the left
Sensor 1 receives more light, while Sensor 2 is in shadow due to a central barrier. As a
result, the solar panel rotates clockwise to align with the sunlight.
 Condition 2: Sun is on the right
Sensor 2 now receives more light, and the barrier casts a shadow on Sensor 1. This causes
the
solar panel to rotate anticlockwise toward the light.
40
  Condition 3: Sun is directly in front
Both sensors receive equal light, meaning the sun is perfectly aligned. In this case, the panel
stays still and doesn’t rotate.

The output is shown below. As you can see, the panel moves in the direction of the strongest
light. Some fluctuation might appear in the video due to multiple light sources during testing.
However, these fluctuations disappear when the system is placed under direct sunlight,
ensuring smooth and accurate tracking.

Fig 6.1.2 Working Condition for Single Axis Tracker

Types of Single-Axis Solar Trackers

There are two main types of single-axis solar trackers:

 Horizontal single-axis trackers (HSAT): These trackers rotate the solar panels on a
horizontal axis, typically from east to west throughout the day. HSATs are the most
common type of single-axis tracker because they are simple, reliable, and cost-
effective.
 Vertical single-axis trackers (VSAT): These trackers rotate the solar panels on
a vertical axis, typically north to south throughout the day. VSATs are less
common

41
 than HSATs, but they can be more effective in high-latitude locations where the
sun's path is steeper.

Fig 6.1.3 Types of Single Axis Tracker

Fig 6.1.4 Circuit Diagram for Single Axis Tracker

Now come to Circuit part, as you can see in this picture.

1. The red wire which is connected to the Arduino and LDR sensor module (power pin
+5V to Vcc of LDR) gives 5 V input to the LDR sensor.
2. The orange wire is GND (or ground) is connected between (GND of Arduino to GND of

42
 LDR).
3. Two yellow wire is connected at digital pin no-2 & 3 gives (Digital output from
LDR sensor).
4. Green and Dark blue is connected between Digital pin 3 & 4 to +5 and LED to drive
the motor.
5. Black and light blue is connected between +5V and GND of Arduino to motor Driver’s
+5V & GND to give power to the Motor driver.

Fig 6.1.5 Arduino Code

43
6.2 DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER
Dual-axis solar trackers — follow the sun more directly than single-axis tracker east-west-
north-south in all path. Dual-axis solar trackers produce 45% more energy compare to a
fixed- roof system and more up to 30% more than a regular fixed-ground-mount system.

Fig 6.2.1 Dual Axis Solar Tracker

Fig 6.2.2 Circuit Diagram for Dual Axis Tracker

44
Working:

When sunlight incident on the solar tracker. it starts calculating and comparing that from

which direction the maximum intensity sunlight is coming. After comparing the panel above

the system start to move toward the maximum intensity so that the solar panel has the

maximum intensity and makes the maximum power.

Desired Bit Pattern

LDR 1 LDR 2 LDR 3 LDR 4

1 1 0 0 (Go towards East)
0 1 1 0 (Go towards North)
0 0 1 1 (Go towards West)
1 0 0 1 (Go towards South)
Code :
#include <Servo.h>

const int ldr1 = A0;

const int ldr2 = A1;
const int ldr3 = A2;
const int ldr4 = A3;

const int lightThreshold = 200;

Servo servo1;
Servo servo2;

const int servo1Pin = 9;

const int servo2Pin = 10;

// For Motor 2:
const int servo2Center = 90;
const int servo2Min = 70;
const int servo2Max = 110;

void setup() {
servo1.attach(servo1Pin);
servo2.attach(servo2Pin);

servo1.write(90); // center
servo2.write(servo2Center); // center
}
45
 void loop() {
int ldrVal1 = analogRead(ldr1);
int ldrVal2 = analogRead(ldr2);
int ldrVal3 = analogRead(ldr3);
int ldrVal4 = analogRead(ldr4);

// ---- MOTOR 1 (Full range) ----

if (ldrVal1 < lightThreshold) {
// Clockwise
servo1.write(180);
} else if (ldrVal2 < lightThreshold) {
// Anti-clockwise
servo1.write(0);
} else {
// Stay still
servo1.write(90);
}

// ---- MOTOR 2 (Only between 80 to 100) ----

if (ldrVal3 < lightThreshold) {
// Clockwise (small)
servo2.write(130);
} else if (ldrVal4 < lightThreshold) {
// Anti-clockwise (small)
servo2.write(60);
} else {
// Stay still
servo2.write(90);
}

delay(100);
}

46
CHAPTER 7
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

7.1 Single Axis Solar

Tracker Code Explanation:

1. When the digital read at pin 2 at Arduino is detect high (from LDR 2 ) Arduino will
write pin 4 as high to rotate the motor in clockwise direction.
2. Similar when the digital read at pin 3 at Arduino is detect high (at LDR 1) Arduino
will write pin 5 as high to rotate the motor in anti- clockwise direction.

Data Analysis

The data from the two LDRs are converted to analogue voltages and compared to hour
by hour. But there are not much changed in the day. If here is no light, the system is
switched off to reduce power consumption.
LDR 1 LDR 2
Time Volt Volt
13.536
8:00 AM 14.13
14.42
9:00 AM 15.36
15.44
10:00 AM 16.46
16.31
11:00 AM 17.19
17.29
12:00 PM 17.29
17.08
1:00 PM 16.89
16.75
2:00 PM 16.93
15.733
3:00 PM 15.87

Table 4. The comparison of the voltages on Sunny day (Single Axis)

20

15

10

0
8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM

LDR 1 Volt LDR 2 Volt

Figure 7.1.1. Line chart for the data from two LDRs in sunny day
47
To illustrate the voltages from the two LDRs, line chart is used as shown in Figure

LDR 1 LDR 2
Time Volt Volt
5.64
8:00 AM 5.86
6.62
9:00 AM 6.73
8.74
10:00 AM 9.17
9.65
11:00 AM 9.86
10.52
12:00 PM 11.21
10.99
1:00 PM 11.43
10.01
2:00 PM 10.41
8.81
3:00 PM 9.25

Table 5. shows the comparison of the voltages on cloudy day(Single Axis)

To illustrate the voltages from the two LDRs, line chart is used as shown in Figure .
14

12

10

0
8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM

LDR 1 Volt LDR 2 Volt

Figure 7.1.2. Line chart for the data from two LDRs in cloudy day

48
Single axis solar tracker vs conventional roof mounted panel

Maximal energy production

By following the sun in two-axis, and using high efficiency solar panels, a Helio motion
delivers 30–60% more energy per year than conventional roof mounted solar panels,
yielding a quicker return on your investment. The solar energy produced matches well with
the energy consumption pattern of a typical households.

7.2 Dual Axis Solar Tracker

Data Analysis

Time Static Panel Tracking Panel

16.65
8:00 AM 17.55
16.35
9:00 AM 16.9
16.5
10:00 AM 17.8
16.68
11:00 AM 17.5
17.1
12:00 PM 17.95
17.4
1:00 PM 17.65
17.1
2:00 PM 17.8
15.9
3:00 PM 15.9
12.75
4:00 PM 13.2
9.6
5:00 PM 9.9

49
 Table 6. shows the comparison of the Static panel and Tracking panel.

Approximation of power output (red line) compared to maximum output (blue

line) for a fix mounted solar module:

If everything is accurate then we can get this kind of graph of maximum power at
around noon time.

In testing we found that Dual Axis is almost 30–40% more efficient then the regular
Roof mounted solar panels as it not only provides better voltage but the higher
value of current due to which the power generated is higher than the static panel.

Also, it is 10–15% more efficient than single axis solar tracker.

Advantages
 30-60% more energy per year than conventional roof mounted solar panels
 More reliable.
 Single axis has a longer lifespan

Disadvantages

 HIGH MAINTANANCE COST

 Not as much power efficient then dual axis solar tracker
50
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

8.1 CONCLUSION

In the 21st century, as technology, population, and industrial growth continue to rise, our per

capita energy consumption is increasing rapidly—while traditional energy resources like

fossil fuels are being depleted just as quickly. For the sake of sustainable development, it’s

essential to turn to renewable energy sources to meet our growing energy needs.

In this project, titled "Dual Axis Solar Tracker," we've developed a prototype model that

automatically tracks the position of the light source to ensure the solar panel is always aligned

with the maximum intensity point. This allows the panel to generate the highest possible voltage

output throughout the day.

After numerous trials and adjustments, we successfully completed the project and are proud to have

contributed—at least in a small way—toward a more energy-conscious future.

Like any experimental project, this one also has a few limitations:

 The panel can only detect light within a certain sensing range; beyond that, it
doesn't respond accurately.
 When exposed to multiple or diffused light sources, the system calculates the vector sum
of the light directions and moves the panel toward that averaged point.

This project was developed using minimal resources, with a focus on keeping the circuitry
simple, easy to understand, and user-friendly.

51
8.2 FUTURE SCOPE

Given the available time and resources, we were able to successfully achieve the main
objective of this project. The system we developed has the potential to be scaled up for larger
applications.
For future improvements, the use of more efficient, low-power, and cost-effective sensors could
be considered. This would help boost the system’s overall performance while keeping the
costs down—an important factor for wider adoption. In fact, the success and acceptance of such
projects largely depend on how affordable and practical they are.
One critical issue to address is shading, which significantly affects the performance of solar panels.
Since the cells in a panel are usually connected in series, shading just one cell can impact the
output of the entire panel. In such cases, even with an efficient tracking system, optimal
performance cannot be achieved. Minimizing shading or designing around it should therefore be
a priority in any future versions of this project.

52
CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES
1. Kumar, Sundara Siva, and S. Suryanarayana. "Automatic Dual Axis Sun Tracking System
using LDR Sensor." [Online],
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266203938_Automatic_Dual_Axis_Sun_Trackin
g_ System_using_LDR_Sensor,
2. Thung Suk, Nuttee, et al. "Performance Analysis of Solar Tracking Systems by Five-
Position Angles with a Single Axis and Dual Axis." Energies, vol. 16, no. 16, Aug.
2023, p. 2542. [Online],
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373000193_Performance_Analysis_of_Solar_Tr
acki ng_Systems_by_Five-Position_Angles_with_a_Single_Axis_and_Dual_Axis
3. Solar Tracking Hardware and Software by Gerro J Prinsloo
4. Design and Implementation of a Sun Tracker with a Dual-Axis Single Motor “Jing-Min
Wang and Chia-Liang Lu’’
5. "Solar Tracking Systems: A Review" by K. S. Suresh Kumar et al. in Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews (2011). [This review paper provides an overview of different
solar tracking systems, including dual-axis trackers.]
6. Development of a High-Precision Dual-Axis Solar Tracker with Low Power
Consumption" by Xiaohong Guan et al. in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics (2012).
[This paper discusses the development of a dual-axis solar tracker with low power
consumption.]
7. Design and Implementation of a Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System Using Fuzzy Logic
Control" by A. Mellit et al. in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics (2005). [This
paper presents the design and implementation of a dual-axis tracker using fuzzy logic
control.]
8. Comparison of Single-Axis and Dual-Axis Tracking for Photovoltaic Systems" by
W. G. Dunford. in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery (2000). [This paper compares the
performance of single-axis and dual-axis tracking for photovoltaic systems.]
9. "A Sun Tracking System with Parallel Kinematics for Concentrating Photovoltaics" by
L. Sun et al. in 2010 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA).
[This conference paper discusses a dual-axis solar tracker using parallel kinematics for
concentrating photovoltaics.]
10. "Optimal Control of Dual-Axis Solar Tracker Based on Model Predictive Control"
by B. S. Ajagh et al. in 2018 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and

53
 Cybernetics (SMC). [This conference paper presents an optimal control strategy for
dual-axis solar trackers using model predictive control.]
11. "Performance Evaluation of Dual-Axis Solar Tracker with a Novel Calibration
Method" by M. R. Islam et al. in 2013 IEEE International Conference on Power and
Energy (PECon). [This conference paper discusses a dual-axis solar tracker with a
novel calibration method and its performance evaluation.]
12. "Dual-Axis Solar Tracking Controller Design Using a Sliding Mode Approach" by
S. Bouchaouir et al. in Journal of Control Science and Engineering (2016). [This
journal paper presents a controller design for dual-axis solar trackers using a sliding
mode approach.]
13. "Power and Energy Efficiency of Dual-Axis Solar Tracking for Building-
Integrated Photovoltaics" by Y. Li et al. in Applied Energy (2013). [This paper
investigates the power and energy efficiency of dual-axis solar trackers for building-
integrated photovoltaics.]
14. Sensors and Transducers...Second Edition...’’D.Patranabis”
15. Atmel ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P-datasheet
16. Utilisation of Electrical Power. Author, Er. R. K. Rajput.
17. Arduino Programming Book. Author, Brian W. Evans
18. Heliomotion, "Heliomotion: We have reinvented residential solar"
[Online], https://heliomotion.com,
19. ON Semiconductor, "Single-Axis Solar Trackers [On Semiconductor
website]," https://www.onsemi.com

54