Pharmacology reviewer

intro
Pharmacology is the study of the biological changes in cellular activity, membrane
effects of chemicals. Drugs are chemicals that permeability, or metabolism.
are introduced into the body to cause some sort ● Enzymes nearby often break down
of change. When drugs are administered, the these chemicals, allowing the receptor
body begins a sequence of processes designed sites to be re-stimulated.
to handle the new chemicals. These processes,
which involve breaking down and eliminating the Types of Drug-Receptor Interactions:
drugs, in turn affect the body’s complex series of
chemical reactions. In clinical practice, health
care providers focus on how chemicals act on
1. Agonists:
people.
● Mimic natural chemicals and
stimulate receptor sites to
Nurses deal with pharmacotherapeutics, or produce effects.
clinical pharmacology, the branch of ● Example: Insulin increases
pharmacology that uses drugs to treat, prevent, glucose uptake by cells.
and diagnose disease. 2. Enzyme Inhibitors:
● Prevent the breakdown of
pharmacodynamics: the study of the natural chemicals at receptor
interactions between the chemical components sites, prolonging their effects.
of living systems and the foreign chemicals, ● Examples:
including drugs, that enter living organisms; the ● MAO Inhibitors: Prevent
way a drug affects a body norepinephrine
breakdown, prolonging
Drugs usually work in one of four ways: its effects which can
1. To replace or act as substitutes for missing relieve depression but
may increase heart rate
chemicals
and blood pressure.
2. To increase or stimulate certain cellular
● SSRIs: Block the
activities removal of serotonin,
3. To depress or slow cellular activities prolonging its action
4. To interfere with the functioning of foreign and potentially relieving
cells, such as invading microorganisms or depression.
neoplasms (drugs that act in this way are called 3. Competitive Antagonists:
chemotherapeutic agents). ● Block normal stimulation of
receptor sites without producing
effects.
● Example: Curare blocks
acetylcholine receptors, causing
Receptor Sites: paralysis.
4. Noncompetitive Antagonists:
● Prevent other chemicals from
reacting with different receptor
● Drugs act on specific areas on cell sites on the cell.
membranes called receptor sites.
● These sites interact with chemicals to
cause effects within the cell, such as

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Drug-Enzyme Interactions: drug monographs is typically for healthy
individuals, and adjustments may be
necessary for patients with kidney or liver
● Drugs can interfere with enzyme dysfunction.
systems that catalyze cellular reactions.
● Blocking a single step in an enzyme Factors Influencing Drug
cascade can disrupt normal cell
function. Effects
● Example: Acetazolamide (Diamox)
blocks carbonic anhydrase, affecting ion
Weight: Drug dosages are generally based on a
and water exchange in the kidney and
150-pound individual. Heavier patients may
eye.
need larger doses, while lighter patients may
need smaller doses to avoid toxicity.
Selective Toxicity:
Age: Children and older adults metabolize drugs
differently. Pediatric and geriatric dosing must
account for immature or less efficient
● Ideal drugs target only pathogen or physiological systems.
neoplastic cell systems without affecting
healthy cells.
Gender: Men may absorb drugs faster due to
● Example: Penicillin targets bacterial more vascular muscle tissue, while women,
enzymes without harming human cells. having more fat cells, may retain drugs longer.
● Many chemotherapeutic agents also Pregnancy considerations are also vital.
harm normal rapidly dividing cells,
causing adverse effects. Physiological Factors: Diurnal rhythms, acid-
● The goal of chemotherapy is to balance base balance, hydration, and electrolyte levels
toxicity to invading cells with minimal can impact drug effectiveness.
harm to the host.
Pathological Factors: Diseases can alter drug
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
pharmacokinetics: the way the body deals with excretion, requiring dosage adjustments.
a drug, including absorption, distribution,
biotransformation, and excretion Genetic Factors: Genetic makeup can influence
drug metabolism and effectiveness, leading to
personalized medicine approaches.
Drug Half-Life and Its
Immunological Factors: Drug allergies can range
Implications from mild to severe. Sensitivities should be
monitored and managed.

The half-life of a drug is the time required

Psychological Factors: A patient's belief in a
for its concentration in the body to decrease drug’s effectiveness (placebo effect) and their
by half. This is crucial for determining compliance with the drug regimen can impact
dosing schedules and understanding the outcomes.
drug's duration of effect. For example, a 20
mg dose of a drug with a 2-hour half-life will Environmental Factors: The environment, such
reduce to 10 mg after 2 hours, then to 5 mg as temperature and stress levels, can influence
after another 2 hours, and so on. Factors drug effectiveness. For example, sedatives work
affecting half-life include absorption rate, better in calm environments.
tissue distribution, biotransformation speed,
and excretion rate. The half-life indicated in

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Tolerance: Over time, the body may become ● Undesirable bodily responses caused by
tolerant to a drug, necessitating higher doses to the drug's action.
achieve the same effect. ● Improper dosing, either too much or too
little.
Cumulation: Drugs taken at shorter intervals
than recommended can accumulate and cause
toxicity. Primary Types of Adverse Effects:

Drug Interactions 1. Primary Actions: These occur from the

drug’s intended effects but are more
Drug-Drug Interactions: intense than desired.
2. Secondary Actions: These are
unintended effects of the drug, such as
● Absorption: One drug may hinder or drowsiness from antihistamines.
enhance the absorption of another. 3. Hypersensitivity Reactions: Excessive
● Distribution: Drugs competing for responses to the drug’s primary or
protein-binding sites can alter secondary effects, often due to
effectiveness and toxicity. underlying conditions or genetic
● Biotransformation: One drug may alter differences.
the metabolism of another, affecting its
activity.
● Excretion: Competition for excretion Specific Types of Adverse Effects:
sites can lead to drug accumulation and
toxicity. Hypersensitivity:
● Action Sites: Drugs can antagonize
each other, reducing effectiveness.
● Symptoms: Can range from mild (e.g.,
rash) to severe (e.g., anaphylactic
Drug-Food Interactions: Certain foods can shock).
interfere with drug absorption and metabolism. ● Examples: Increased sensitivity in older
For example, tetracycline should not be taken adults to narcotics.
with calcium or iron products. Grapefruit juice
can significantly alter drug metabolism, requiring
it to be avoided entirely during the treatment Drug Allergy:
period.

Drug-Alternative Therapy Interactions: Herbal ● Symptoms: Includes reactions like

products and other alternative therapies can rashes, hives, or more severe
interact with drugs, impacting their effectiveness responses like anaphylaxis.
and safety. For example, St. John's wort affects ● Types:
the metabolism of various drugs. ● Anaphylactic Reactions: Severe,
rapid reactions needing
immediate intervention.
● Cytotoxic Reactions: Cell
destruction due to the drug.
Toxic effects of drugs ● Serum Sickness: Immune
complex-mediated reactions.
● Delayed Reactions: T-cell
● The drug having additional effects mediated responses occurring
beyond the intended therapeutic effect. over time.
● Patient sensitivity to the drug.

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Drug-Induced Tissue and Organ Damage: ● Hypoglycemia:
● Symptoms: Fatigue, shaking,
confusion.
● Dermatological Reactions:
● Interventions: Restoring
● Symptoms: Rashes, hives,
glucose, supportive care.
Stevens-Johnson syndrome.
● Hyperglycemia:
● Interventions: Skin care,
antihistamines, discontinuing
● Symptoms: Increased urination,
the drug if severe. thirst, restlessness.
● Stomatitis: ● Interventions: Insulin therapy,
supportive measures.
● Symptoms: Swollen gums, bad
breath, pain in the mouth.
● Hypokalemia:
● Interventions: Frequent mouth ● Symptoms: Weakness, muscle
care, dietary adjustments, cramps, irregular pulse.
antifungals or local anesthetics ● Interventions: Replacing
if necessary. potassium, monitoring levels.
● Superinfections: ● Hyperkalemia:
● Symptoms: Fever, diarrhea, ● Symptoms: Muscle cramps,
black or hairy tongue. slow heart rate, difficulty
● Interventions: Antifungal breathing.
therapy, supportive care. ● Interventions: Decreasing serum
● Blood Dyscrasia: potassium, monitoring, possible
dialysis.
● Symptoms: Fever, chills,
anemia, thrombocytopenia.
● Interventions: Monitoring blood
counts, providing supportive Sensory Effects:
measures, discontinuing the
drug if necessary.
● Liver Injury: ● Ocular Damage:
● Symptoms: Jaundice, elevated ● Symptoms: Blurred vision,
liver enzymes, abdominal pain. blindness.
● Interventions: Discontinuing the ● Interventions: Monitoring vision,
drug, offering supportive discontinuing drug if necessary.
measures. ● Auditory Damage:
● Renal Injury: ● Symptoms: Tinnitus, loss of
● Symptoms: Elevated BUN and hearing.
creatinine, fatigue, edema. ● Interventions: Monitoring,
● Interventions: Discontinuing the protective measures, consulting
drug, supportive care, possible prescriber.
dialysis.
● Poisoning:
● Symptoms: Vary depending on
the drug, often requiring Neurological Effects:
emergency measures.
● Interventions: Specific antidotes,
life support measures. ● CNS Effects:
● Symptoms: Confusion,
insomnia, hallucinations.
● Interventions: Safety measures,
Metabolic and Electrolyte Imbalances: orientation, dose adjustment.
● Atropine-Like Effects:

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 ● Symptoms: Dry mouth, blurred Cells are the fundamental structural units of the
vision, constipation. body, composed of a nucleus, cell membrane,
● Interventions: Mouth care, and cytoplasm with various organelles.
bowel program, safety
measures. Cell Nucleus
● Parkinson-Like Syndrome: The nucleus contains genetic material (DNA)
● Symptoms: Tremors, rigidity. that controls cell division, protein production,
● Interventions: Discontinuing and homeostasis. Inside the nucleus, the
drug, anticholinergics, nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are crucial
supportive care. for protein synthesis. DNA is organized into
● Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome: chromatin, which becomes more structured
during cell division.
● Symptoms: Fever, hypertension,
rigidity.
● Interventions: Discontinuing Cell Membrane
drug, supportive care, The cell membrane, a lipoprotein barrier,
anticholinergics. separates the intracellular fluid from the
extracellular fluid, maintaining cellular integrity
and homeostasis. The membrane is composed
of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins,
Teratogenicity: cholesterol, and glycolipids.

● Drugs causing congenital defects or ● Lipoproteins: These allow for the

fetal death. Pregnant women should be monitoring and regulation of substances
informed of risks. entering and exiting the cell. The
membrane's fluid nature allows for
repair and flexibility.
Overall, healthcare providers, particularly ● Receptor Sites: These proteins react
nurses, need to monitor for these adverse
with specific chemicals to trigger internal
effects, educate patients and their families, and
cellular responses, crucial for various
provide appropriate interventions to manage and
cell types, including neurons and muscle
mitigate these effects.
cells.
● Identifying Markers: Proteins that help
the immune system recognize self-cells,
Chemotherapeutic drugs important in transplant compatibility and
immune response regulation.
● Channels: Proteins that form pores in
Chemotherapeutic drugs are utilized to target the cell membrane to allow specific ions
and destroy both harmful organisms (such as and molecules to pass through.
bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, and fungi)
and abnormal cells within the body (like cancer
Cytoplasm
cells). These drugs work by either altering
cellular function or disrupting cellular integrity, The cytoplasm is the site of cellular metabolism
leading to cell death or preventing cell and contains organelles such as mitochondria,
reproduction. However, because these agents endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi
often lack complete selective toxicity, they can apparatus, and lysosomes.
also damage normal cells, causing various side
effects.
● Mitochondria: The cell’s power plants,
The Cell producing ATP through the Krebs cycle,
essential for energy-consuming cells like
muscle cells.

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 ● Endoplasmic Reticulum: A network for and abnormal cells within the body (like cancer
chemical reactions, with rough ER cells). These drugs work by either altering
producing proteins and smooth ER cellular function or disrupting cellular integrity,
synthesizing lipids and cholesterol. leading to cell death or preventing cell
● Free Ribosomes: Produce structural reproduction. However, because these agents
often lack complete selective toxicity, they can
proteins and enzymes necessary for
also damage normal cells, causing various side
cellular activity.
effects.
● Golgi Apparatus: Processes and
packages substances for secretion and
may produce lysosomes. The Cell
● Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes
to break down cellular debris and Cells are the fundamental structural units of the
foreign materials. body, composed of a nucleus, cell membrane,
and cytoplasm with various organelles.

Cell Properties Cell Nucleus

Cells have mechanisms to survive and maintain The nucleus contains genetic material (DNA)
homeostasis, including endocytosis that controls cell division, protein production,
(incorporating substances), phagocytosis and homeostasis. Inside the nucleus, the
(engulfing and destroying bacteria), and nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are crucial
exocytosis (removing substances). for protein synthesis. DNA is organized into
chromatin, which becomes more structured
during cell division.
● Passive Transport: Movement of
substances across the membrane Cell Membrane
without energy, including diffusion,
The cell membrane, a lipoprotein barrier,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
separates the intracellular fluid from the
● Diffusion: Movement from extracellular fluid, maintaining cellular integrity
higher to lower concentration and homeostasis. The membrane is composed
areas. of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins,
● Osmosis: Movement of water to cholesterol, and glycolipids.
equalize solute concentration.
● Facilitated Diffusion: Movement
with the help of carrier ● Lipoproteins: These allow for the
molecules. monitoring and regulation of substances
● Active Transport: Movement of entering and exiting the cell. The
substances against the concentration membrane's fluid nature allows for
gradient, requiring energy. The sodium- repair and flexibility.
potassium pump is a well-known ● Receptor Sites: These proteins react
example, maintaining cellular ion with specific chemicals to trigger internal
balance and electrical properties. cellular responses, crucial for various
cell types, including neurons and muscle
cells.
● Identifying Markers: Proteins that help
the immune system recognize self-cells,
important in transplant compatibility and
ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS immune response regulation.
● Channels: Proteins that form pores in
the cell membrane to allow specific ions
Chemotherapeutic drugs are utilized to target and molecules to pass through.
and destroy both harmful organisms (s uch as
bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, and fungi)

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Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the site of cellular metabolism
and contains organelles such as mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi
apparatus, and lysosomes.

● Mitochondria: The cell’s power plants,

producing ATP through the Krebs cycle,
essential for energy-consuming cells like
muscle cells.
● Endoplasmic Reticulum: A network for
chemical reactions, with rough ER
producing proteins and smooth ER
synthesizing lipids and cholesterol.
● Free Ribosomes: Produce structural
proteins and enzymes necessary for
cellular activity.
● Golgi Apparatus: Processes and
packages substances for secretion and
may produce lysosomes.
● Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes
to break down cellular debris and
foreign materials.

Cell Properties
Cells have mechanisms to survive and maintain
homeostasis, including endocytosis
(incorporating substances), phagocytosis
(engulfing and destroying bacteria), and
exocytosis (removing substances).

● Passive Transport: Movement of

substances across the membrane
without energy, including diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
● Diffusion: Movement from
higher to lower concentration
areas.
● Osmosis: Movement of water to
equalize solute concentration.
● Facilitated Diffusion: Movement
with the help of carrier
molecules.
● Active Transport: Movement of
substances against the concentration
gradient, requiring energy. The sodium-
potassium pump is a well-known
example, maintaining cellular ion
balance and electrical properties.

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Nursing Process of Medication ▪Never place a decimal point and zero after
Administration and Computation a whole number
▪Avoid using decimals if possible

Safe Drug Administration Prevention of Med Errors

▪Do no harm ▪Always question the order if you have
▪One mistake can lead to catastrophe ▪Be difficulty interpreting it
exact in prescribing medication ▪You are legally responsible to recognize
– Administration inappropriate dosages
– Appropriate dose for patient
Professional Roles in Medication
Administration
Calculation Guidelines ▪Types of Medication Orders
▪Calculations must always be 100% correct – Stat Orders
▪Check whether all measures are in the – Single-Dose Orders
same system – Standing Orders
▪Writethe problem in equation form – PRN Orders
▪Check accuracy of answer and have
someone else verify it
▪Parts of a Medication Order
Calculations – Name of the client
▪Basic calculation formula – Date and time when the order is written
▪Cautions for basic calculation method – Name of the drug to be administered
▪Ratio and proportion method – Dosage
▪Cautions for ratio and proportion method – Route by which it special directives
is to be administered and about its
Pediatric Dosage administration
▪Special considerations for children ▪Age, – Time of administration and frequency
weight, sex – Signature of person writing the order
▪Metabolic, pathologic, or psychological
▪Dosage is quantity per unit of body weight Medication Administration Record (MAR)
per unit of time ▪The MAR is a medical record form that
contains the drug’s name, dose, route, and
Geriatric Dosage frequency of administration.
▪Special considerations for older adults Systems of Medication Measure
▪Reduced adult dosages ▪Drug Dose Calculations
▪Cumulative drug effects due to alterations – Several formulas are available to calculate
in body function drug doses for adults and children.
▪Carefullyassessand monitor closely – Pediatric Dosages
Prevention of Med Errors ▪The nurse should realize that dosages are
▪Never Leave a decimal point naked approximate and often need adjustment
based on the child’s response.

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Safe Medication Administration

▪Interpretation Of Medication Order

– The nurse is responsible and held
accountable for questioning any medication The Nursing Process in Medication
order if, in the nurse’s judgment, the order is Administration
unclear or in error.
▪Assessment
▪Documentation of Medication – Health History
administration – Medication History
– The nurse responsible for administering – Physical Examination
the medication must document on the MAR – Diagnostic and Laboratory Data
the time the medication was given and initial
it. ▪MedicationHistory
– Allergies
Documentation of Medication Administration – Prescription, Over-the-Counter Drugs
– Herbals and Alternative Therapies
▪If the client refuses to take a medication or – Biographical Data
was unable to take it, the nurse must – Pregnancy and Lactation Status – Culture
indicate that a dose was missed and why. and Lifestyle
– Sensory and Cognitive Status
▪Medication Errors
Nursing Diagnoses
– Documented in a variance or incident ▪DeficientKnowledge
report. – Health practitioner must be notified ▪Ineffective Therapeutic Regimen
promptly. Management
– Implementation of an organization-wide ▪Ineffective Health Maintenance
system for promoting safety and in ▪ImpairedPhysical Mobility
identifying potential errors. Nursing Diagnoses
– Clients and families are informed about ▪Disturbed Sensory Perception
outcomes of care including adverse events. ▪ImpairedSwallowing
▪ImpairedMemory
▪Noncompliance
▪Prevention of Medication Errors Outcome Identification
– Following the Rights in medication and ▪Client Education
three checks
– Correct dosage calculation – Safe self-administration in the
– Documenting and knowing the client’s community setting
health and medication history
– Not giving medications that have been ▪Purpose of the medications
removed from their unit dose package or ▪Adherence to schedule
drawn up in a syringe by anyone else ▪Self-monitoring for side effects
▪Potential for interactions from over-the-
counter medications

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 Computations
Planning
1. Basic Formula:
▪Ensures that clients receive medications at
the appropriate time.
▪Ensures that medications that should not
be given are withheld until their
administration can be clarified with the Or
health care practitioner.
▪Adequate planning provides for questions
and discussion by the client and
demonstration of skills learned.

Implementation Basic Formula:

▪Client Teaching
– Written Medication Information
▪Scientifically accurate
▪Unbiased in content and tone
▪Sufficiently specific and comprehensive
▪Presented in an understandable and
legible format
▪Timely
▪Up-to-date and useful

▪Administration of Medications
– Diligence and concentration
– In accordance with set procedures for
each route :
– Additional specific guidelines for certain
medications
– Use of drug reference

Evaluation
▪The nurse is responsible for ongoing
evaluation of client's response to
medication.
▪Nurses in the community setting need to
evaluate the client's ongoing ability to
manage his or her medication regime.

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Cj Razon( •̀ ω •́ )✧
Exercises
1.D5LR 1L x 12 hours was ordered. How
many gtts/min will you regulate the IV set?

2.D5IMB 1/2L 80cc via soluset to run for 4

hours. How many gtts/min will the set
deliver?

3.D5W 1 L 200cc fast drip then regulate IVF

to 25 gtts/min. How many cc will be
delivered in an hour?

4. You are to give 1,250.000U Of PenGNa

with dilution of 8 ml and stock dose of 5M U
per vial.How many ml are you going to
administer?

5.You’re desired dose is Gentamycin

0.5ml.How many mg is 0.5ml if the stock
dose if 80mg/2ml?

6.The patient is to receive digoxin 0.25mg

IV. Digoxin is in prefilled syringes of 0.5mg
per 2ml's. How many ml's will be
administered?

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 Gentamicin: Used for severe systemic

infections, including septicemia, neonatal sepsis,

ANTIBIOTICS endocarditis, and complicated UTIs.
aerobic: bacteria that depend on oxygen for
survival
anaerobic: bacteria that survive without oxygen, Kanamycin: Effective against tuberculosis (in
which are often combination therapy) and severe Gram-negative
seen when blood flow is cut off to an area of the
body infections.
antibiotic: chemical that is able to inhibit the
growth of specific
Neomycin: Used topically for skin infections, and
bacteria or cause the death of susceptible
bacteria orally for bowel decontamination before surgery.
gram-negative: bacteria that accept a negative
stain and are
frequently associated with infections of the Streptomycin: Primarily used to treat
genitourinary or tuberculosis and plague.
GI tract
gram-positive: bacteria that take a positive
stain and are Tobramycin: Treats Pseudomonas aeruginosa
frequently associated with infections of the infections, particularly in cystic fibrosis patients,
respiratory tract and
soft tissues and other severe Gram-negative infections.
synergistic: drugs that work together to
increase drug
effectiveness Carbapenems
Aminoglycosides Carbapenems are broad-spectrum, bactericidal

Aminoglycosides are bactericidal antibiotics

antibiotics reserved for multi-resistant bacterial
effective against many Gram-negative bacteria
infections. They inhibit cell wall synthesis.
and some Gram-positive organisms. They inhibit

protein synthesis by binding to the bacterial 30S Doripenem: Treats complicated intra-abdominal
ribosomal subunit. infections, UTIs, and hospital-acquired

pneumonia.
Amikacin: Treats severe infections caused by

multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Ertapenem: Used for community-acquired

urinary tract infections (UTIs), respiratory pneumonia, complicated intra-abdominal
infections, and sepsis. infections, complicated UTIs, skin and soft tissue

infections, and acute pelvic infections.

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Imipenem–cilastatin: Effective for severe or Third-Generation:

resistant infections including pneumonia, intra-

abdominal infections, sepsis, and endocarditis. ● Cefdinir: Used for respiratory tract
infections, otitis media, and skin
infections.
Meropenem: Treats meningitis, severe sepsis, ● Cefotaxime: Treats severe bacterial
hospital-acquired pneumonia, intra-abdominal infections including septicemia,
meningitis, and bone and joint
infections, and febrile neutropenia. infections.
● Cefpodoxime: Effective against
respiratory tract infections, otitis media,
Cephalosporins and skin infections.
● Ceftazidime: Treats Pseudomonas
aeruginosa infections, severe UTIs,
Cephalosporins are β-lactam antibiotics that
septicemia, and meningitis.
disrupt bacterial cell wall synthesis. They are ● Ceftibuten: Used for respiratory tract
infections and UTIs.
classified into generations based on their ● Ceftizoxime: Effective against severe
antimicrobial spectrum. infections such as pneumonia, UTIs,
and gynecological infections.
● Ceftriaxone: Treats severe infections
First-Generation: including meningitis, septicemia, and
bone and joint infections.

● Cefadroxil: Used for skin infections, Fourth-Generation:

UTIs, and pharyngitis.
● Cefazolin: Treats bacterial infections
including those of the skin, bone, joint,
● Cefditoren: Used for respiratory tract
and urinary tract.
infections and skin infections.
● Cephalexin: Effective against skin
● Cefepime: Treats severe pneumonia,
infections, respiratory tract infections,
UTIs, skin infections, and intra-
and UTIs.
abdominal infections.
● Ceftaroline: Effective against MRSA,
Second-Generation: skin infections, and community-acquired
pneumonia.

● Cefaclor: Used for respiratory tract Fluoroquinolones

infections, otitis media, and skin
infections.
● Cefoxitin: Treats intra-abdominal Fluoroquinolones are broad-spectrum antibiotics
infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, that inhibit bacterial DNA gyrase and
and prophylaxis in surgical procedures.
● Cefprozil: Effective against respiratory topoisomerase IV, enzymes critical for DNA
tract infections, otitis media, and skin
replication.
infections.
● Cefuroxime: Treats respiratory tract
infections, Lyme disease, and UTIs.

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Ciprofloxacin: Treats respiratory tract infections, ● Penicillin G potassium: Treats severe
infections such as endocarditis and
UTIs, gastrointestinal infections, and anthrax
neurosyphilis.
exposure. ● Penicillin G procaine: Used for
diphtheria, syphilis, and anthrax.
● Penicillin V: Effective against
Gemifloxacin: Used for respiratory tract pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and skin
infections.
infections, including acute bacterial exacerbation

of chronic bronchitis and community-acquired

Extended-Spectrum Penicillins:
pneumonia.

● Amoxicillin: Used for respiratory tract

Levofloxacin: Treats respiratory tract infections,
infections, otitis media, sinusitis, and
UTIs, skin infections, and prostatitis. UTIs.
● Ampicillin: Treats respiratory tract
infections, gastrointestinal infections,
Moxifloxacin: Effective against respiratory tract and meningitis.

infections, skin infections, and intra-abdominal

Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins:
infections.

Norfloxacin: Used for UTIs, prostatitis, and ● Nafcillin: Effective against penicillinase-
producing Staphylococcus aureus
gastrointestinal infections. infections.
● Oxacillin: Used for penicillinase-
producing Staphylococcus aureus
Ofloxacin: Treats respiratory tract infections, infections.
UTIs, skin infections, and sexually transmitted

infections. Sulfonamides
Sulfonamides are bacteriostatic agents that
Penicillins
inhibit dihydropteroate synthase, an enzyme
Penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics that inhibit involved in folate synthesis.
cell wall synthesis. They are divided into several

groups: Cotrimoxazole

(Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole): Treats UTIs,

Natural Penicillins: respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal

infections, and Pneumocystis jirovecii

● Penicillin G benzathine: Used for pneumonia.

syphilis, rheumatic fever prophylaxis,
and certain streptococcal infections.
Sulfadiazine: Used for toxoplasmosis, UTIs, and

certain burn infections.

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Sulfasalazine: Treats ulcerative colitis and ● Ethambutol: Used in combination
therapy for tuberculosis.
rheumatoid arthritis.
● Ethionamide: Treats multidrug-resistant
tuberculosis.
● Isoniazid: Primary treatment for
Tetracyclines tuberculosis.
● Pyrazinamide: Used in combination
Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum, bacteriostatic therapy for tuberculosis.
antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis by ● Rifampin: Treats tuberculosis and
leprosy, and prophylaxis for
binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit. meningococcal disease.
● Rifapentine: Used in combination
therapy for tuberculosis.
Demeclocycline: Used for acne, respiratory tract ● Streptomycin: Effective for tuberculosis
infections, and bacterial infections of the skin and plague.

and urinary tract.

Leprostatic Drugs:

Doxycycline: Treats respiratory tract infections,

Lyme disease, acne, and malaria prophylaxis. ● Dapsone: Used for leprosy and
dermatitis herpetiformis.

Minocycline: Effective against acne, respiratory

Other Antibiotics
tract infections, and certain sexually transmitted

infections. This category includes various antibiotics with

different mechanisms of action.

Tetracycline: Used for respiratory tract

infections, acne, and certain sexually transmitted Ketolides:

infections.

● Telithromycin: Treats community-

acquired pneumonia.
Antimycobacterials
These antibiotics are specifically used to treat Lincosamides:

mycobacterial infections such as tuberculosis

and leprosy. ● Clindamycin: Used for skin infections,

respiratory tract infections, and intra-
abdominal infections.
Antituberculosis Drugs: ● Lincomycin: Effective against severe
bacterial infections, particularly those
caused by susceptible strains of
streptococci and staphylococci.
● Capreomycin: Used for multidrug-
resistant tuberculosis.
● Cycloserine: Treats tuberculosis, Lipoglycopeptide:
particularly drug-resistant strains.

Cj Razon( •̀ ω •́ )✧
 ● Televancin: Treats skin infections and ● Clavulanic acid: Used in combination
hospital-acquired pneumonia caused by with β-lactam antibiotics to inhibit β-
Gram-positive bacteria. lactamase enzymes.
● Thalidomide: Treats erythema nodosum
leprosum and multiple myeloma.
Macrolides:
● Sulbactam: Combined

● Azithromycin: Used for respiratory tract

infections, sexually transmitted
infections, and skin infections.
● Clarithromycin: Treats respiratory tract
Bacteria and Antibiotics
infections, skin infections, and
Helicobacter pylori infection. ● Bacterial Invasion: Bacteria can enter
● Erythromycin: Effective against the body through respiratory,
respiratory tract infections, skin gastrointestinal, and skin routes. The
infections, and certain sexually immune response includes fever,
transmitted infections. lethargy, and inflammation.
● Antibiotic Therapy Goal: Reduce
bacterial population to allow the immune
Monobactams: system to manage the infection.
Identification through culture and
sensitivity testing helps choose the most
effective antibiotic.
● Aztreonam: Used for Gram-negative
bacterial infections, including UTIs, ● Bacterial Classification:
lower respiratory tract infections, and ● Gram-Positive Bacteria: Retain
intra-abdominal infections. Gram's stain, often cause
respiratory and soft tissue
infections (e.g., Streptococcus
New Antibiotics and Adjuncts: pneumoniae).
● Gram-Negative Bacteria: Lose
Gram's stain, often cause
● Daptomycin: Treats skin infections and genitourinary and
gastrointestinal infections (e.g.,
bacteremia caused by Gram-positive
Escherichia coli).
bacteria.
● Fidaxomicin: Used for Clostridioides
● Aerobic Bacteria: Require
oxygen.
difficile-associated diarrhea.
● Linezolid: Effective against Gram-
● Anaerobic Bacteria: Do not
require oxygen.
positive bacterial infections, including
MRSA and VRE. ● Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics: Used
● Quinupristin/Dalfopristin: Treats initially for unidentified infections, have
wide-ranging effects but may cause
infections caused by resistant Gram-
more adverse effects due to their broad
positive bacteria.
activity.
● Rifaximin: Used for traveler's diarrhea
● Selective Toxicity: Ideal antibiotics target
and hepatic encephalopathy.
bacteria with minimal harm to human
● Tigecycline: Effective against cells. Some antibiotics are
complicated skin and intra-abdominal contraindicated in certain patients due to
infections, and community-acquired known adverse effects.
pneumonia.

Adjuncts to Antibiotic Therapy:

Cj Razon( •̀ ω •́ )✧
Combination and Prophylactic
Use

● Combination Therapy: Synergistic

antibiotics can enhance efficacy and
reduce doses, minimizing adverse
effects.
● Prophylactic Use: Antibiotics may be
used to prevent potential infections in
specific situations.

Cj Razon( •̀ ω •́ )✧