2.

Construction Material
a) Stone
1. Volcano:- A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust through which lava, volcanic
ash, and gases escape. Beneath a volcano, liquid magma containing dissolved gases
rises through cracks in the Earth's crust.
2. *Explosive used in blasting are gun powder, dynamite, gun cotton and cordite. Dynamite and gun cotton are
exploded by detonation whereas gun powder and cordite are ignited by means of a fuse.
3. Plutonic rock:- A pluton is a body of intrusive igneous rock that is crystallized from magma slowly cooling
below the surface of earth.

4. Modified Moho scale:- 1-15 (Moho scale -Refer Book)

Hardness Original Scale Mineral test Modified Scale
Number
1 Talc Powdered by finger nail Talc
2 Gypsum Scratched by finger nail Gypsum
3 Calcite (Most Scratched by copper coin copper penny Calcite (Most Marbles)
Marbles)
4 Fluorite Easily scratched by pen knife knife blade Fluorite
5 Apatite Just scratched by pen knife glass Apatite
6 Orthoclase Scratched by steel file Orthoclase
7 Quartz Scratched window glass or steel easily Vitreous Silica
8 Topaz Easily scratches quartz Quartz or Stellite
9 Corundum Easily scratches topaz Topaz
10 Diamond Can't be scratched, hardest of all minerals Fused Zirconia
11 Fused Zirconia
12 Fused Alumina
13 Silicon Carbide
14 Boron Carbide
15 Diamond

5. *Hygroscopicity:-It is the property of material to absorb water vapour from air.

6. Coefficient of softening:- It is defined as the ratio of compressive strength of material saturated with water
to that in dry state.
7. *Sandstone:-Sandstone is a consolidated sand. Sandstone is a very widespread and well-known
sedimentary rock. It should be no surprise because sand stones make up 10…20% of all sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are by far the most common rocks at the surface.
8. Composition of Rock/stone (Mica, Quartz, Felspar, Calcite, Silica, Alumina, Augite)
a) *Mica - Silicate of alumina with hydrogen and potash (KAl 2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
b) *Quartz - Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
c) Felspar - Alumino silicates with potash (K2OAl2O36SiO3)
d) Garnet - Silicates of Iron & Potash (Fe3Al2(SiO4)3)
e) Bauxite - Aluminium sulphate (Al2(So4)324H2O)
9. *Seasoning of stone:-Stones have natural moisture and the moisture is known as quarry sap. This quarry
sap renders the stone blocks comparatively soft and makes them easily workable. Therefore the stones
should be dressed soon after quarrying. The quarry sap is a mineral solution which chemically reacts with
mineral constituents of stone during drying and makes the stone hard and compact. It is important to achieve
full hardening of freshly quarried stones before they are allowed to be used in Masonry work. The full
hardening of the stone is achieved by exposing the stone to open air up to 6-12 months, during this period,
quarry sap dries up from stones completely, and this process is known as seasoning of stones.

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 b) *Cement (LSAIMSS)
1. Types of cement:-
OPC All purpose.
PPC All purpose but curing should be done with care long time as compared to OPC.
*LHC C3S and C3A minimum while C2S more
Uses-mass concrete (dam, retaining wall, bridge, abutment etc.)
*RHPC 3-7 and 7-28 day strength of OPC (Lime is more)-Generally used in Road construction.
BFSC OPC + upto 65% blast furnace slag/ cheaper,- Produce low heat
Uses- dam, foundation, abutment etc.
SRPC Where chances of sulphate attack. C3S and C3AF is in less amount.
WPC Raw material-China clay and pure lime.
Uses-Stucco, Terrazzo flooring, decoration stone
HAC + Bauxite (aluminium ore)-High rapid hardening- Generally used in Road construction
*QSC Al2(SO4)3, CaCl2 added and gypsum reduced.
CCC CaCl2(2%)
Expansive C Roof slab, grouting (chemical-sulphominate), canal lining, tunnel lining, pavement
patching*.
2. *Grade of cement:-Grade of cement indicate the strength of cement. The strength of cement is generally
measured as comparative strength 43, 53 etc. (33 grade of cement indicates strength at 28 days is 33 N/mm 2
having mortar 1:3, 7.06 cm cube at 270C.)
3. Shrinkage of concrete:- The total shrinkage of concrete depends upon constituents of concrete, size of
member and environmental condition. For a given environment, the total shrinkage of concrete is most
influenced by the total amount of water present in the concrete.
4. Dormant period:- The cement reacts with water in a hydration and hydrolysis action. This reaction is
abstracted in different stages of chemical activity. In the aim of interest is the early stage of reaction, after
the initial mixing and the first reaction starts and before the concrete starts to harden. This period is so
called the dormant period. For OPC, it should be 2-5 hours.
5. Super plasticizer:- Remove air bubble and retard setting.
6. *Gypsum:- It is a quick setting material. It acts as a retarder.
7. The amount of water used for initial setting time test at standard consistency of cement P is 0.85P. Where p
is the percentage of water required for normal consistency.
8. Surfactant used in concrete increases density and strength of concrete while decreases w/c ratio.
9. *Water:-Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids,
alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel.
Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. The pH value of water shall be not
less than 6.
10. *Water absorption of cement should not be more than 5%.
11. To hydrate any cement completely, the amount of water you require is 30% the weight of the cement, but to
account for workability and the loss of water you can probably take the weight of water to be around 40-
45% to the weight of the cement. So for 500kg of cement you need 200 to 225 litres of water.
c) Brick (SALAFM)
1. Clay is made of silica and alumina.
2. Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 µm), silt (particle size > 2 µm), and a smaller
amount of clay (particle size < 2 µm). Its composition is about 40%-40%-20% concentration of sand-silt-
clay, respectively.
3. Nominal size of modular brick is 20cmX10cmX10cm and actual size is 19cmX9cmX9CM i.e. *Nominal
size of the brick is greater than actual size.

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4. *Normally 1st class brick obtained from pazawah is 60% of total brick while 80-90% in case of kiln. The
quality of brick obtained from kiln is better than pazawah.
5. Generally 4 to 6% of clay and silt are permitted in sand.
6. River and pit sand should be used and not sea sand except under special circumstances as it contains salt
and other impurities which will affect the structures.
7. *Proverb related with Brick
a) Silica le shape lbG5 Alumina le Knf:6Ll;6L, Lime and alkalies le flux ko kam u5[ eg]
Magnesia le warping bat jogauchh.
b) Excess (Silica -----Brittleness, Alumina----Crack, Lime---- Brick to melt, Alkalies-----Efflorescense, Iron
oxide-----dark blue and Magnesia-------Yellow.
8. Hollow brick:- It is a types of bricks having volume < ½ of the gross over volume. It is used for non-
load bearing wall.
Advantages:- Less weight about 1/3rd of the weight of the same no. of bricks, insulation against
heat and sound.
Disadvantages:- Con’t be used under concentrated load.
9. *Compressive /Crushing Strength of Bricks:- Compressive /Crushing strength of bricks (Indian Made)
are very variable, and may vary from 30 kg/sq. cm to 150 kg/sq. cm for hand-made burnt bricks, while
Crushing strength of heavy duty bricks machine pressed (also called engineering bricks) may have
compressive strength as high as 450kg/sq. cm, and even 500 kg/sq. cm. The minimum crushing /
compressive strengths of burnt bricks tested flat-wise prescribed are:
(i) Common building bricks—35 kg/sq. cm,
(ii) Second class bricks—70 kg/sq. cm,
(iii) First class bricks— 105 kg/sq. cm.
(iv) Crushing strength of bricks not less than 140 kg/sq. cm are graded as AA class.
The strength of bricks decreases by about 25 per cent when soaked in water.
Strength of sun-dried (unburnt) bricks is from 15 to 25 kg/sq. cm.
10. *Water absorption of bricks
after 24 hours immersion Upto 24 hours (More preferable)
First class bricks—20%, 15%
Second class bricks—22 %, 20%
Third class bricks—25%. 25%
Heavy duty machine made bricks should not absorb more than 5% of their weight.
11. *As far a possible the brick walls should be raised uniformly with proper bond. The height of brick masonry
construction in a day should be limited to 1.5m (Generally 1m). The maximum difference in rise of the wall
between the different portions should not be more than one meter.
12. Finished brickwork in lime mortar should be cured for a period of 2 to 3 weeks. This period can be reduced
to 1 to 2 weeks in case of brickwork with cement mortar.
13. *Soak bricks in plastic drum for 12 hours and take out the bricks from drum one hour before starting brick
masonry work.
14. *Bricks should be soaked in water for at least one hour before use for brickwork in cement and lime mortars
while 1/2 hours in mud mortars.

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15. Heigtht of Chimney

d) Paint -a];, jfxs, /+uj0f{s, zf]ifs, lj/ns, cls|ok"/s_

1. Pigment Volume Concentration:-The properties of a coating are governed by, amongst others,
the loading of the system with solid particles. Some coatings contain a high amount of solid particles and
other coatings, like clear coats, are free of particles. Particle loading is quantified by the Pigment Volume
Concentration (PVC) of the system. The PVC of a system is defined as the volume percentage of solid
particles in the system after film formation.

Where PVC : total volume of all pigments in the paint

Vp : total volume of all pigments in the system.
Vf : total volume of all fillers in the system.
Vb : volume of the non-volatile part of the binders in the system.
It increases washability, gloss, durability, covreing etc.
2. Lacquer:-The sap of laquer tree is used as varnish. It is a liquid made of shellac dissolved in alcohol, or
of synthetic substances, that dries to form a hard protective coating for wood, metal, etc.
3. French polishing is a wood finishing technique that results in a very high gloss surface, with a deep colour
and chatoyancy. French polishing consists of applying many thin coats of shellac dissolved in denatured
alcohol using a rubbing pad lubricated with one of a variety of oils (see below). The rubbing pad is made of
absorbent cotton or wool cloth wadding inside of a piece of fabric (usually soft cotton cloth) and is
commonly referred to as a fad, also called a rubber, tampon, or muñeca(Spanish for "rag doll").
French polish is a process, not a material. The main material is shellac, although there are several other
shellac-based finishes, not all of which class as French polishing.
4. Shellac:-Shellac is a resin secreted by the female lac bug on trees in the forests in India. It is dissolved in
ethanol to make liquid shellac. Uses:-Nail polish.
5. Resin:-Resin is a sticky flammable organic substance, insoluble in water, exuded by some trees and other
plants {Fir, pine etc.). It is used as the basis of plastics, adhesives, varnishes or other products.
e) Bitumen
1. Bitumen products
a) Bitumen:- Bitumen is product obtained by distillation of crude petroleum. It is mainly
composed of a mixture of high-molecular hydrocarbons, methane, napthane and other
aromatic series and their oxygen or sulphur derivatives. Tar & asphalt are the two varieties of
bituminous materials. Tar is a viscous liquid obtained by destructive distillation of wood or
coal in the absence of air. Asphalt is obtained by mixing bitumen with inert material. There
are following types of bitumen:-
b) Blown bitumen:- Bitumen modified by air blowing at a high temperature.
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 c) Cutback bitumen:- It is a low viscosity bitumen which is obtained by mixing bitumen and
volatile diluents like kerosene oil, naptha, gasoline, petroleum etc.
d) Bitumen emulsion:- When bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous
medium then, bitumen is called emulsion.
e) Rut bitumen:- Definite viscosity of penetration.
f) Asphalt = Bitumen+ Inert filler
2. *Bitumen should not be heated beyond 2000c.
3. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining is water.
4. Testing of Bitumen (Refer Book)
a) Lower the penetration values, higher is the grade of bitumen.
b) In ductility test, sample is elongated at a rate of 5 cm/min at 270C.
c) Bitumen become fluid at about 900C.
d) Flash point of a bitumen is that temperature at which it gives off vapours, which ignite at the presence
of flame, but do not continue. If the heating is continued beyond the flash point and continue to burn,
then it is called fire point.
e) Oat value is related with float test.
5. Tar (RT) :- Tars are bituminous substances obtained by destructive distillation of petroleum, wood etc. at
high temperature.
S.No. Types Mixing(increasing) Spraying
1 RT2 93-104 93-104
2 RT3 104-116 116
3 RT4 132 132
4 RT5 138 138
6. Tar is a black mixture of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety of organic
materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat.
f) Lime
1. *Lime stone Calcination(8000C) Quick lime Sprinkle water (slaking) Hydrated lime(Ca(OH) 2
Hydrated lime (Dust) + More water = Milk lime (Thin pourable suspension solution)
Hydrated lime + Less water = Paste Lime putty (Thick creamy)
Hydrated lime + Less water+sand = Coarse stuff
2. Hydraulicity of lime:-The property of a lime, cement or mortar which enables it to set under water or in
situations where access of air is not possible. Hydraulicity of this lime depends upon the amount of clay.
3. *The initial setting time of hydraulic lime 120 minute .
g) Wood
1. Fibre saturation point:- It is that limit of water in cell walls saturated with water and cell cavity is free
from water.
2. Hardness of timber:- It is found by janka hardness test. The Janka hardness test measures the
resistance of a sample of wood to denting and wear. It measures the force required to embed an
11.28 mm (.444 in) dia steel ball into wood to half the ball's diameter. The hardness of wood
varies with the direction of the wood grain. Testing on the surface of a plank, perpendicular to the
grain, is said to be of "side hardness". Testing the cut surface of a stump is called a test of "end
hardness".

Wood Shisham Oak Teak Sal(1/2 Wallnut Chir Deodar

of teak)
Hardness(N) 7380 5700 5140 2570

3. Methods of Timber Preservation

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a) Brushing:-Brusingngs the simplest method of applying preservatives. For well-seasoned timber,
oil type preservatives are applied with good quality brushes. For better results, the applied preservative
should In hot condition. Multiple coats should be applied and certain time Interval should be maintained
between successive coats.
b) Spraying:- It is the method of application of preservative on the surface of wood by means of sprayer.
c) Injecing under pressure:-The preservative is injected into the timber under high pressure conditions.
Generally,creosote oil Is applied In this manner which Is already dlswssed above.It Is costly treatment
process and required special treatment plant.
d) Dipping and stepping:- Immersing the wood in preservative solution for several seconds to
minutes. It allows penetration into cracks of wood.
e) Charring:-Charring is nothing but burning of timber surface, which is quite an old method of
preservation of timber. In this method, the timber surface is wetted for 30 minutes and burnt up to a
depth of 15mm from top surface.The burnt surface protects the Inner timber from white ants,fungi,
etc.
f) Hot and cold open tank treatment
4. *Melberry wood is used for sports good due to elasticity. The wood obtained from willow tree is used to
make cricket bat.
f) Paraffin
1. Paraffin wax:- It is a white or colorless soft solid derivable from petroleum, coal or oil shale, that consists
of a mixture of hydro carbon molecules containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms. It is solid at
room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C (99 °F); . Its boiling point is >370 °C
(698 °F). Common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles.
Paraffin waxes are used as additives in the production of printing inks and varnishes to improve the
resistance of the products to friction or scratching or to achieve a certain appearance and to act as a barrier
to moisture. It is also used as a ligand material for enamels, lubricating agents, corrosion protection, etc.
g) Steel
1. *Mild steel:-According to IS 2062, there are nine mild steel grade specified:-
Fe 250 Fe275 Fe300
Fe350 Fe410 Fe450
Fe550 Fe600 Fe650
(Where no. denotes the value of tensile strength in MPa or N/mm 2)
2. *Thermo Mechanically Treatment (TMT) steel:-According to IS1786 , following grades of TMT bar
is available:-
S.No. Types Yield Strength Tensile strength Elongation Remarks
(MPa) (MPa)
1 Fe415 415 1.25x415 20%
2 Fe500 500 545 12%
3 Fe550 550 585 10%
4 Fe600 600 600 10%
 HYSD- High Yield Strength Deformed Bar
 Ductile steel (Fe 415D, Fe 500D 550D etc.)
 Purest form of iron is wrought iron

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