Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-024-10281-6

REVIEW

Structure Design and Performance Evaluation of Fibre

Reinforced Composite Honeycombs: A Review

Ao Liu1,2 · Aoxin Wang1 · Qian Jiang1,2 · Yanan Jiao1,2 · Liwei Wu1,2 · Youhong Tang3

Received: 24 March 2024 / Accepted: 26 October 2024 / Published online: 7 November 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2024

Abstract
With the widespread application of sandwich composites, the performance of the core
structure in the sandwich composites has received particular attention. As the typical rep-
resentative of lightweight core structure, honeycombs have excellent designability and
are widely used. The emerging fibre reinforced composite honeycombs have incompa-
rable performance advantages over traditional metal or chopped fibre honeycombs. This
means that design, manufacturing technologies and performance evaluation of compos-
ite honeycombs are important. In this review, grid, hexagonal, Kagome, corrugated and
origami structure honeycombs and their associated manufacturing strategies have been
summarised. In addition, more attention has been paid to textile structure composite hon-
eycombs fabricated by weaving, braiding, or knitting techniques. Their mechanical perfor-
mances have been extensively reviewed to clarify the relationship between structure and
properties. Based on existing studies, the damage mechanisms of composite honeycomb
structures are found to be insufficient; especially for the load-bearing mechanisms and
predicting methods for honeycombs, which is a challenge for further development. This
review hopes to inspire the innovation in fibre reinforced composite honeycombs from the
view of structure design and performance evaluation.

Keywords Composite honeycombs · Structure design · Textile · Performance ·

Manufacture

Liwei Wu
wuliwei@tiangong.edu.cn
Youhong Tang
youhong.tang@flinders.edu.au
1
Tianjin and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite Materials,
Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
2
School of Textiles Science and Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
3
Institute for NanoScale Science and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders
University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia

13
2020 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

1 Introduction

Fiber-reinforced composites are formed by embedding fibres into a matrix by using physi-
cal or chemical methods. The synergistic effect of fibres and matrix allows composites to
perform far beyond their single component. Sandwich composite, a type of fibre-reinforced
composite, has the surface layer made of composite and the core layer made of lightweight
structure. Sandwich composites maximise the overall bending capacity by utilising a light-
weight core layer and separating the surface layers with high tensile strength from the neutral
stress plane. This also results in a reduction in density. Therefore, sandwich composites play
a crucial role in aerospace, marine, vehicle, architectural and other industries [1]. Between
the surface layer and core layer, the latter is the key to the weight reduction. Honeycomb,
as a typical low-density structure, stands out due to its high performance and hollow thin-
walled structure. It also provides unique properties such as low thermal conductivity, high
specific surface area, high acoustic impedance and high electromagnetic absorption.
Honeycomb cores are usually made of thin-layer metal [2, 3], such as aluminium or
chopped fibre [4] such as Nomex honeycombs, manufactured by using pressure equipment,
i.e., using straight plates to form straight boards into trapezoidal shapes that are glued with
each other. Thus, a standard honeycomb structure can be represented in a basic unit with the
parameters shown in Fig. 1. Although they have low costs and low manufacturing difficulty,
the shear performance of the two type honeycombs is an insurmountable bottleneck due
to the limitations of the raw material properties. Meanwhile, their performances no longer
seem to meet the requirements with increasing performance from the sandwich composites.
The fibre reinforced composite honeycombs (FRCHs) have higher specific strength and
specific modulus than those of traditional polymers, metal or chopped fibre mat honey-
combs, and have excellent thermal morphological stability and corrosion resistance capa-
bilities [5], which makes FRCHs have outstanding application in ultra-high-speed aircraft,
space equipment, long-term marine equipment, etc. FRCH can be divided into two types
based on the manufacturing technology, i.e., using prepreg or preform moulding. The pro-

Fig. 1 Honeycomb structural unit. Lb is the length of the bonding edge, Lf is the length of the free edge, H
is the diameter of the hexagonal inner circle, Tb is the thickness of the bonding edge, Tf is the thickness of
the free edge, and θ is the internal angle subtended by the bonding edge and the free edge

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2021

cess of prepreg moulding refers to the preparation of prepregs with uncured resin by impreg-
nation of two-dimensional single-layer fabrics or fibre tapes. The multilayer prepreg is then
shaped and the resin cured in specific moulds to prepare the final composites. The process of
preform forming means that pure fibres without resin are first prepared into a fibre preform
of the target structural shape and fibre distribution by using one-piece moulding technology.
The resin is then introduced into specific mould using methods such as liquid moulding to
achieve full infiltration of the fibre structure. Final curing will complete the whole compos-
ites. The preparation via the prepreg process is highly efficient, allows for highly automated
production, and has remarkable cost advantages, but is limited by the resin impregnation
equipment, which makes it difficult to impregnate fabric structures with interlaminar con-
nections, so the integral fibre structure is relatively monolithic, and the interlayer properties
of the material are the weak point. Whereas composites prepared by the preform process
can effectively infiltrate the reinforcement structure with complex interlaminar fibre con-
nections and achieve excellent interlayer properties. However, to achieve this objective, the
structure of the preform and preparation process often require specialised design.
Interestingly, continuous fibre reinforced composites can be divided into fibre reinforced
composites made using fibre precursors by processes such as hot pressing or liquid mould-
ing, and fibre composites made directly using a continuous fibre 3D printing method. The
continuous fibre 3D printing technology [6, 7] enables a variety of shaped composites by
extruding thermoplastic polymers in the direction of the gripping fibre for simultaneous
heat fusion and curing. Although 3D printing technology can achieve flexible manufactur-
ing of complex structural honeycombs, which provides a rich means of 3D honeycomb
manufacturing, this method is limited by the complexity of the honeycomb structure, which
puts extreme demands on the printing path-design. At the same time the current continu-
ous fibre 3D printing is slow to manufacture, low in fibre volume content and high in pore
defects, which is unacceptable for an engineering structure which load bearing is the main
requirement. Therefore, the use of fibre precursors is still the most widely used method of
composite honeycomb forming.
This study reviews the preparation technology and performance evaluation of FRCH by
introducing the structural design and manufacturing technology of FRCH, summarising the
current research especially in the last 15 years, and providing current challenges and future
development prospectives.

2 Fabrication Method of One-Piece Moulding Honeycomb Preform

Since the honeycomb structure is a special-shaped structure, its structural design is closely
related to the manufacturing methods. The classic honeycomb structure has the character-
istics of regular polygon or circular cross-section. Novel honeycomb structure with high
structural complexity such as negative Poisson’s ratio honeycomb has gradually emerged
due to technological progress. This section introduces different structural designs of honey-
comb and its one-piece forming process.

13
2022 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

2.1 Structure Design of Honeycombs

The grid structure [8, 9] as shown in Fig. 2(a) is one of the earliest honeycomb structures
adopted. This structure consists of crisscrossed supports and pores. Because of its low
density, strong earthquake resistance, and highly flexibility, it is widely used in building
construction. However, due to its quadrilateral structural characteristics, the interlocking
positions of the grid structure are prone to cracking and cause instability in actual use, which
restricts its application. In order to improve the grid structure, inspired by nature, humans
imitated the shape of bee nests and created the classic hexagonal honeycomb structure
[10], as shown in Fig. 2(b). Compared with other shapes, hexagon can achieve maximum
space utilisation, and provide better strength and stability. Although hexagonal honeycomb
already has excellent out-of-plane structural stability, the hexagonal structure is prone to
deformation when subjected to in-plane loads, which leads to the destruction of the stability
of the honeycomb structure [11]. For this reason, researcher combined the triangular struc-
ture with the hexagonal structure and designed the Kagome honeycomb structure [12], as
shown in Fig. 2(c). The structure is formed by three continuous ribs interlocking with each
other in a 60-degree direction in the space. The structure itself restrains each other when
subjected to load, which can provide overall stability. At the same time, the straight plates
of the honeycomb structure are prone to buckling during the out-of-plane loading, which
destroy the structure stability and causes failure [13, 14]. To fix up this defect and improve
performance, curved wall design was used in the structure. A corrugated honeycomb struc-
ture is designed as shown in Fig. 2(d), it will not buckle under load which means the per-
formance of honeycomb structure can be enhanced. With the advancement of technology,
new functional honeycomb structures have been proposed, such as negative Poisson’s ratio

Fig. 2 Different honeycomb structures. (a) grid [8], (b) hexagonal [10], (c) Kagome [12], (d) corrugated
[17], (e) negative Poisson’s ratio [15] and (f) origami [16]

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2023

honeycomb [15] (Fig. 2(e)) and origami honeycomb [16] (Fig. 2(f)). The functional designs
of these honeycombs provide new ideas for the overall honeycomb structure design.

2.2 Fabrication Method of Preform

The one-piece forming preforms are manufactured by three-dimensional (3D) textile tech-
nology. There are four typical techniques, i.e., 3D weaving, 3D braiding, 3D knitting and
conformal stitching. Conformal stitching is the easiest technology for joining multiple lay-
ers of two-dimensional preforms into a one-piece forming preforms [18]. However, due to
the limited space between honeycombs, stitching was mainly used to bond the honeycomb
core and face layers [19]. Among the four typical techniques, the 3D weaving has the lon-
gest development history and is the current mainstream manufacturing route.

2.2.1 3D Weaving

The weaving process is a forming method by interweaving warp and weft yarns with each
other, and Fig. 3(a) illustrates the weaving pattern. 3D weaving honeycomb structure uses
warp yarns or binding yarns to connect adjacent fabric layers at a specific length, so that
the fabric forms a discontinuous porous structure in the cross-section. When the fabric is
expanded in the thickness direction, it can form a honeycomb shape according to the mould.
In early studies, by analysing the technical characteristics of the 3D weaving process and
rationally configuring the connection behaviour of the binding yarn, a 3D weaving structure
with a hole structure can be obtained [20, 21]. By repeating this process, a honeycomb struc-
ture can be woven, as shown in Fig. 3(b) with honeycomb fabric structure and the weaving
method. In the weave diagram, the solid squares indicate that the warp yarns are above the
interweaving point, whereas the empty-coloured squares indicate that the warp yarns are
below the interweaving point. The weaving of a honeycomb preform has 4 stages. In stage
one, the warp yarns move in a single layer in the fabric, forming the separation between lay-
ers, which is the free wall in the honeycomb. In stage two, warp yarns of two adjacent layers
exchange paths and cross 2 layers of weft yarn between adjacent layers of the fabric to form
a bonding wall with inter-layer connection in the honeycomb. In stage three, separating the
yarns of the bonding wall respectively and re-forming the two layers to form the free wall
again. In stage four, the operation process of stage two is repeated, but the direction of yarn
exchange is opposite to that of stage two, forming a second set of combined walls. Repeat-
ing these four stages can achieve the formation of a complete honeycomb structure.
Chen et al. [20] established a mathematical model of a 3D weaving honeycomb structure
through theoretical analysis and proposed that the weaving honeycomb structure can be rep-
resented by a universal paradigm of xL(y + z)P θ , where x is the number of fabric layers
used to form the honeycomb structure which has an effect on the honeycomb wall thickness
T; y is the length of the bonded wall measured in the number of picks; z is the length of the
free wall measured in the number of picks; θ is the opening angle of the hexagonal cells;
L is used to denote the “layer”; and P is used to denote the “pick”. This model was used
to develop a CAD/CAM software [22] for the production and structural simulation of 3D
weaving honeycomb structures. Researchers further designed and manufactured a variety
of different 3D weaving honeycomb structures through the above process, such as rhombus
[23, 24], triangle [25], circle [26], and size gradient [27]. Figure 3(c) shows 3D weaving

13
2024 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Fig. 3 Process of 3D weaving honeycomb preform (a) schematic diagram of ordinary weaving loom
[28], (b) honeycomb fabric forming process, and (c) 3D weaving honeycombs with different layers [26]

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2025

honeycombs with different sizes from left to right are single-layer honeycomb and multi-
layer honeycomb.

2.2.2 3D Braiding

Different from the 3D weaving structure, the 3D braiding structure does not have obvious
differences between warp and weft yarns [29, 30]. Figure 4(a) shows a schematic diagram
of the 3D braiding process, and Fig. 4(b) shows the basic yarn-carrier movement pattern in
the braiding process. The yarns of the 3D braiding structure carry out annularity movements
with the yarn carrier. During the braiding operation, all yarn paths run through both the inte-
rior and surface of the fabric. The braided structure is separated to form two parts of fabrics,
due to the restriction of the movement of the yarn carriers on a particular row or column. An
example is shown in Fig. 4(c), which is a yarn movement path when the Y-axis is limited in
the 2nd row so that it only has one degree of freedom along the other axis, then the fabric
will inevitably separate at this time, forming axial separation in the form of split position.
Using this principle, the formation of a 3D braiding honeycomb structure is completed.
As shown in Fig. 4(d), like the preparation process of 3D weaving honeycomb preform,
the preparation of 3D braiding honeycomb preform also includes four stages. In stage one,
the first set of free edges of the overall honeycomb structure is braiding, which means that all
the fixed columns of yarn carrier in the red circle are only allowed to move along the X-axis
but not along the Y-axis. After a braiding cycle, a fixed number of divisions will be formed
in the fabric. In stage two, the limitation of the middle of adjacent braiding free walls, i.e.,
columns a and c were removed, so that adjacent braiding bodies that were originally sepa-
rated merge with each other to form bonding walls. In stage three, the same as stage one,
these blocks are re-divided to form the free walls. Finally in stage four, the columns whose
freedom of movement was restricted in stage two were released, while retaining the restric-
tions of the columns that were unrestricted in stage two, so that the same bonding wall with
the opposite bonding direction in stage two was obtained. With this method, the braiding of
the overall structure can be achieved, as shows in Fig. 4(e).

2.2.3 3D Knitting

Figure 5(a) shows the knitting method, unlike 3D braiding and 3D weaving, which achieve
yarn position locking through twisting the yarn, the 3D knitting process forms a continuous
fabric through the threading of yarn loops [31]. Hassanzadeh et al. [32] used computerised
flat knitting machines to realize the knitting of 3D knitting spacer fabrics and honeycomb
fabrics. The process includes (1) two separate fabric layers of predetermined length are
formed using the odd-numbered needles of the rear needle bed and the front needle bed
respectively and then (2) the joint between the connecting layer and one of the two surface
layers is formed. As shown in Fig. 5(b) and 5(c), the connecting layer is knitted from the
even-numbered needles of the front bed to a predetermined thickness based on the final
product.

13
2026 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Fig. 4 Process of 3D braiding honeycomb preform (a) Descartes braiding machine, (b) four-step method,
(c) disjoint paths, (d) forming principle and (e) 3D braiding preform

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2027

Fig. 5 Process of 3D braiding honeycomb preform (a) weft knitting method, (b) 3D knitting preforms and
(c) six-step honeycomb forming method [32]

3 Structure Design and Fabrication Method of FRCH

The moulding process of composite honeycomb is an important factor affecting the perfor-
mance of FRCH. Based on the different type of the reinforcement, it can be divided into
two types: preform moulding scheme and prepreg moulding scheme, which will be intro-
duced separately below. Table 1 summaries the connection between honeycomb structure
and moulding process.

3.1 Forming Method with the Prepreg

At present, prepreg composite honeycombs are mainly made by four moulding methods,
i.e., interlocking method, hot press moulding method, tailor-folding method, and origami
method.

3.1.1 Interlocking Method

The interlocking method [8] was the first honeycomb forming process. Currently, this pro-
cess is widely used in the moulding of honeycomb materials with grid structure [35] and

13
2028 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Table 1 Honeycomb structure and moulding process

Reinforce- Fabrication method Applicable structure Applicable fields
ment mode
Prepreg Interlocking method Grid [35], Kagome [11] Large support structures such as
[8] buildings and base station radars
Hot press moulding Hexagon, concave hexagon, cor- Internal fillers of composites for
method [33] rugated [41] and other structures large-scale special-shaped struc-
with self-similar shapes [44] tures such as fixed-wing aircrafts
Tailor-folding Internal core layer of sandwich
method [34] composites such as ribs
Origami method Tip corrugated and other similar Sandwich core structures with
[16] lattice structures [45] special functional requirements
Preform Resin transfer Widely applicable to honey- One-piece forming structure and
moulding method combs of various structural composites with functional filling
[50–52] shapes, especially honeycomb requirements such as thermal
structures with fillings insulation and sound insulation

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of forming method with the prepreg (a) the interlocking method, (b) hot press
moulding method [33], (c) tailor-folding method [34] and (d) origami corrugated method [16]

Kagome structure [11]. This process uses the currently mature laminate technology to firstly
prepare a laminate structure and groove it at specific positions to form a prefabricated panel
with a chimeric structure, as shown in Fig. 6(a). The overall honeycomb is formed by splic-
ing. In this mothed, Park et al. [8] matched the design of the spacing distance with the axial
design of the separator, designed and manufactured spacing honeycombs with various angle
combinations and tested performance. At the same time, 3D textile structures spacer plates
can be used [36] or filling structures can be added [37, 38] in the holes to improve the car-
rying capacity of the spacer honeycomb. This is a simple forming process, and the thickness
of the prepared wall panels can be adjusted widely. It has been proven to be an effective
moulding method. However, the interlocking groove is prone to stress concentration, which
is not conducive to the out-of-plane load bearing of the structure. It is difficult to form a
thin-layer structure honeycomb.

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2029

3.1.2 Hot Press Moulding Method

The hot press moulding method as shown in Fig. 6(b) is a commonly used composites
moulding process [33]. This method uses a metal mould to pressurise the prepreg and cure it
under heating conditions, so that the excess resin obtained in the prepreg is squeezed out to
increase the structural fibre volume fraction [39]. Through specially designed core moulds,
different shape honeycomb structures core can be realised [40]. This method is currently
widely used in the moulding of hexagonal honeycombs and corrugated honeycombs [41].
Although this method can form composites with stable moulding quality and low defects,
the long mould assembly time and expensive production cost made it impossible for prepar-
ing large-scale honeycomb structure parts. In addition, based on the traditional hot press
moulding method, to enhance the joint bonding behaviour, Xiang et al. [10] proposed to
use ultrasonic welding to bond the nodes. This process uses ultrasonication to solidify the
nodes layer by layer, so that the tensile resistance of the nodes can be improved by as much
as 400%. Although ultrasonic welding is an effective method of node optimisation, high-
frequency vibration also has a negative impact on the fibre tows and increases fibre damage.

3.1.3 Tailor-Folding Method

To improve the automated production of honeycomb structures and reduce its cost, research-
ers have developed customised folding method to prepare honeycomb structure composites
[42]. This method is inspired by origami and paper-cutting method. By tailor-folding, cut-
ting, extruding, and placing the prepreg into a shape-control mould, it can achieve continu-
ous and automated production of various shapes such as hexagon, concave hexagon, and
pyramids composite honeycombs. The method uses a CNC machine to cut pre-designed
slits from the prepreg [43]. The subsequent two-stage folding step is key to the method, fold
custom prepreg into semi-hexagonal or other shaped corrugated sheets with the fold lines
perpendicular to the cracks. Half-hexagonal corrugated prepreg is folded back and forth
along the slits and glued together to create a honeycomb shape. To improve the cohesive-
ness between the honeycomb core and the sandwich panel, Wei et al. [34] further added a
lamellar structure directly connected to the core layer, as shown in Fig. 6(c) to expand the
connection between the honeycomb core and the surface layer. This method can expand the
bonding area between the honeycomb core and the surface layer, this improves the bond-
ing capacity between the two. Benefiting from the highly automated execution process,
this method can maximise product quality stability and uniformity. It is currently the most
efficient, and a lowest unit cost method in manufacturing FRCH [44]. However, it is dif-
ficult to process large thickness multi-layers prepregs and large height honeycombs in the H
direction during the folding step.

3.1.4 Origami Method

At the same time, inspired by the lattice structure and origami art, many studies create flex-
ible smart materials, employing top-down and parallel transformation methods to achieve
elegant designs [45]. The multi-stable structures and energy absorption capabilities of ori-
gami honeycomb have been widely adopted [46]. Further studies indicate that honeycombs
have gained excellent foldability and the ability to withstand cyclic loading by using ori-

13
2030 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

gami techniques. 3D self-locking structure is also possible by stacking two thick folded
panels in a predetermined mode. This makes it possible to carry static loads more than
110,000 times higher than its own weight and to sustain high-cycle cyclic loads [47]. Some
of the complex origami structures are manufactured using symmetrically broken structures.
This method divides the motion path of a hexagonal origami surface into three bifurcation
branches. Each branch provides two symmetric steady states. It provides a new strategy for
analysing multi-stable origami structures with high symmetry orders, which can be used in
the design and development of novel adaptive or deployable engineering structures [48].
Composite honeycomb fabrication by origami has been proven to be realised. An ori-
gami-type corrugated honeycomb designed with composites as shown in Fig. 6(d) [16, 49].
In this structure, prepregs are placed in two sets of rigid folding plates perpendicular to the
plane, and the prepregs are continuously squeezed by the folding plates to deform in the out-
of-plane direction and are cured under constrained conditions. In general, the origami struc-
ture can effectively improve the bending and shear performance of the honeycomb core.

3.2 Forming Method with the Liquid Moulding

The resin transfer moulding method (RTM) is a mainstream composite liquid moulding
method for honeycomb preforms [50]. This method can be used to prepare the complex spe-
cial-shaped structural composite product. By using a sealed mould or vacuum bag, vacuum
helps resin inject into a dry preform under normal or high pressure, remarkable infiltration
effects can be suspected. Then curing it to a composite by heating the mould. The compos-
ite honeycomb prepared in this method has stable structural dimensions, good repeatabil-
ity, and can realise composite honeycombs with a filling material structure. The one-piece
forming honeycomb structure is a near-net shape preform. Therefore, vacuum assist RTM
(VARTM) method [51, 52] is commonly used in the composite honeycomb structure mould-
ing process (Fig. 7). However, to ensure a good infiltration effect in the complete compos-
ites, there are high requirements for the mould design due to the complex liquid paths in the
honeycomb structure.

4 Performance Research of FRCH

4.1 Performance of the Prepreg Composite Honeycombs

As the earliest honeycomb structure that appeared and now widely used, the square grid
structure got much attention. Extensive tests have been conducted on the structural perfor-
mance of square grids [9]. Initial studies have shown that the relative density, unit shape
ratio and number of square grids are not sensitive to the structure’s performance but are
strongly correlated with the wall panel fibre direction. Further investigation [8] of its per-
formance under dynamic compression showed that the square grid honeycomb failure was
caused by the matrix’s micro-buckling and was sensitive to strain rate, which was attributed
to the strain rate sensitivity of the resin matrix. At the same time, compared with the wall
panel itself, the dynamic compression resistance of the grid honeycomb has a loss of 2/3,
which is caused by the stress concentration at the groove root.

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2031

Fig. 7 The VARTM method (a) process [51] and (b) schematic diagram [52]

To fully play the thermal and mechanical properties of grid honeycombs, Yu et al. [53]
studied and improved its heat dissipation efficiency by coating highly oriented graphite
films. Compared with traditional composites, its thermal conductivity can be increased by
26 times. The under compressive load mechanism of square grid honeycomb was revealed
that the grid structure’s failure was caused by the buckling of 1/2 part wall plate, as shown
in Fig. 8, bucking behaviour occurs in 1/2 wall panels with embedded cutouts. Based on this
failure mode, the ultimate load modification model was proposed.

KP i2E1t3
σ buck =  2  (1)
δ H2 L

cosα − sinα
τ b
pk = τ bρ  (2)
2

cosα − sinα
τ c
pk = τ cρ  (3)
2

cosα − sinα
τ s
pk = τ sρ  (4)
2
 
τ pk = min τ b c s
pk , τ pk , τ pk  (5)

13
2032 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Fig. 8 1/2 wall panel buckling failure mode (a) failure mode and (b) theoretical model [53]

Fig. 9 Comparison of in-plane compression failure behaviour (a) Kagome and (b) square grid [54]

In the formula, H is the height of the honeycomb structure, K is the buckling factor, E is
the in-plane elastic modulus, t is the wall plate thickness, and L is the honeycomb interval
width, and α is the fibre orientation angle.
Although the square grid has been proven to be an effective out-of-plane compression
load-bearing structure [11, 35], its in-plane compression load bearing is prone to instability,
Fig. 9(b) shows how a square honeycomb under load firstly bends the wall plate and breaks
under bending stress, then leads to failure which restricts practical scenarios [54]. For this
reason, Kagome that uses a combination of hexagons and triangles was proposed [11] as
shown in Fig. 9(a). Compared with the square grid, this structure shows a progressive dam-
age pattern during the load bearing and has good energy-absorbing behaviour, but the maxi-
mum load does not seem to be satisfactory. Spacer structures composed of pure triangles
have made good progress in this regard [54].
To suppress the buckling behaviour of honeycomb wall panels, lightweight materials
were used to fill the spaced voids [37]. Song et al. [38, 55] used aluminium foam and PMI

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2033

foam to fill the spaced voids to strengthen the overall structure. The results showed that
compared with unfilled honeycomb, the buckling behaviour of the wall plate has been effec-
tively controlled, and its low-velocity impact maximum load and damage residual perfor-
mance are greatly improved. In addition, researchers have also used 3D structures such as
barrel structures to form 3D spacer honeycombs [56]. These studies have provided research-
ers with new ideas and directions.
Although gridded honeycomb has provided as an excellent low-density material and
fruitful progress has been made in the area of damage control, due to the limitation of the
manufacturing process, the interlocking location is always the weak point in the structure.
Figure 10 shows the failure modes of the structure when subjected to shearing and bending
load. When the structure is under shearing, the damage is rapidly transmitted along 1/2 of
the ledge. This is the shear stress mainly working in the middle layer of the structure under
in-plane shear, there created stress concentrations at interlocking locations, causing rapid
damage. The upper surface of the honeycomb structure is subjected to compressive stresses
and the lower surface is subjected to tensile stresses under bending loads. This force induces
buckling of the facings and translates into pulling on the interlocking bonding positions,
causing damage. These caused by interlocking points severely limit the performance of the
gridded honeycomb structure.
The hot press moulding method is currently the most widely used composite honeycomb
preparation process [39]. Pehlivan et al. [41] used this method on the impact of honey-
comb shape with the performance. Under the premise that with the same surface density,
the wall thickness is the biggest affecting parameter, and the height has nothing to do with
the compressive strength. Compared with the corrugated honeycomb structure, the hex-
agonal honeycomb structure has a larger inter-wall bonding area and better damage perfor-
mance. Although this study conducted many experiments, but only one load case of perfect
load bearing out-of-plane compression was considered. Stocchi [39] used the hot-pressing
method to prepare natural fibre composite honeycombs. He proposed that fibre pulling, and
fracture are the main failure modes of hexagonal composite honeycombs, and thicker wall
will inhibit buckling behaviour and have limited utilisation. Finite element analysis (FEA)
and analytical formulas were used to calculate the equivalent modulus, proving that its
specific strength is close to that of conventional honeycomb structures. A new path has been

Fig. 10 Failure behaviour with interlocking under (a) shearing [35] and (b) bending [38]

13
2034 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

opened for composite honeycombs. Deng et al. [33] further studied the low-velocity impact
resistance of the hot-pressed honeycomb structure and conducted FEA on the difference
performances caused by the honeycomb shape. This study shows that carbon fibre compos-
ite honeycomb exhibits three load-bearing modes, i.e., unimodal, unimodal-platform, and
bimodal under the impact. The circular honeycomb structure has the best energy absorption
effect, followed by Kagome and triangular structures, and hexagonal and square structures
are the weakest under the same conditions. This research also shows that the arrangement
of the honeycomb lattice will have a clear influence on the honeycomb impact resistance.
The out-of-plane load-bearing capacity of hexagonal structure has been studied [57, 58].
However, when the load is off axis, it often causes the honeycomb structure to tilt, eventu-
ally leading to catastrophic failure. To reduce and prevent the occurrence of these situations,
Chen et al. [14] designed and manufactured a corrugated curved surface honeycomb, using
the curved surface characteristics to enhance the honeycomb structure stability as show in
Fig. 11. When the relative density of honeycomb is constant, the mechanical properties do
not change much, and the damage mode is crushing. This reflects that curved honeycomb
can effectively utilise the properties of itself. Increasing in curvature leads to decreasing
in strength. This is because the failure mode of the honeycomb structure is dominated by
buckling of the honeycomb wall when the curvature increases. This implies the same failure
mode as the hexagonal honeycomb. Buckling triggers premature failure of the honeycomb
wall and reduces the desired strength. Compared to the unidirectional tape honeycomb, the
honeycomb wall with plain fabric did not buckle, which means that the textile reinforced
honeycomb has better structural stability. The results showed that the curved corrugated
honeycomb was superior to all competitors. Li et al. [58] used foam filling to limit the buck-
ling and overturning behaviour of the honeycomb structure, which not only improved the
honeycomb compression resistance, but also improved the overall damping effect.
Recently, advances in hot pressing technology provide opportunities of more special-
shaped honeycomb structures. Hot pressing method has been used to prepare full-curved
surface structures [59], lattice honeycomb structure materials [60], chimeric honeycomb
structures [61, 62], bionic structures [13] and other structures [40, 63, 64]. Excellent per-
formance improvements have been achieved to make various applications such as heat con-
duction and microwave absorption. Tailor-folding method is the main preparation method
for sandwich composites honeycomb cores. Researchers focus more on overall testing of
sandwich composites. Wei et al. [42, 65] developed a 3D failure mechanism diagram to

Fig. 11 Curved honeycomb failure behaviour, r is curvature radius, (a) honeycomb wall with plain fabrics
and (b) honeycomb wall with unidirectional tapes [14]

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2035

study the failure behaviour of tailor-folding sandwich composites. The analysis model is
based on six possible failure modes of the honeycomb structure, i.e., structure shear buck-
ling, shear fracture, panel dent, panel wrinkling, panel fracture and debonding, as shown
in Fig. 12(a). The study found that the main failure mode changes with the change of the
geometric parameters. Under in-plane compression, the honeycomb structure’s failure mode
is less influenced by the core’s fibre angle compared to the face-layer’s layup angle. Shear
buckling and facet fracture emerge as competing failure mechanisms. A reduction in the
honeycomb cell’s thickness-to-length ratio tends to result in shear buckling becoming the
predominant failure mode. Therefore, the 3D mechanism diagram can be used to predict the
failure mode and carry out targeted optimization of the bending and in-plane compression
performance as shown in Fig. 12(b). This method has special engineering significance for
the design of lightweight and multifunctional sandwich composites.
The debonding behaviour of the surface layer is the key to affecting the performance.
Therefore, to enhance the bonding effect between the surface layer and the honeycomb
core structure, it is necessary to strengthen the interface performance between the two. To
enhance the interface performance, the researchers [34] designed a tailor-folding honey-
comb structure with connecting plates through customised folding and conducted a tear test.
The bonding properties of both types of reinforced honeycomb structures are effectively
enhanced. Beam theory was also modified to predict the interfacial energy release rate of
reinforced honeycomb cores. This result is of a high value for the efficient release of the
composites properties.

3P 2 c0(a + ∆ )3  (6)
GMBT =
c
2ab

where c0 and Δ are empirical constants, and P is the applied force value.
The performance of a regular-concave hexagon hybrid tailor-folding honeycomb struc-
ture [15] was evaluated by adopting the hierarchical core configuration mode. Compared
with the conventional hexagonal structure honeycomb, the structure shows a different
mechanical response pattern to the impact load along the edge regardless whether the load
is applied in the concave hexagonal area. This is due to the unique negative Poisson’s ratio
characteristics of the concave hexagon. The results of this study are proposed to have utility
in energy-absorbing applications such as brake pads.
The performance of prepreg composite honeycombs is summarised Table 2. In the pre-
vious studies, it can be found that the debonding failure of honeycomb structures is an
important factor affecting the performance. Figure 13 shows the delamination behaviour
of honeycomb structures induced by different loads. These failures are due to the fact that
the W-direction joints of the honeycomb are bonded only by the cohesive layer in classic
continuous fibre composite honeycombs. However, in the real situation, various factors lead
to shear between the honeycomb walls, which in turn causes the cohesive layer failure and
triggers honeycomb crash. The joints must be reinforced effectively. Although it has been
possible to use ultrasonic welding and other methods to reinforce the joints, such methods
also lead to damage fibres, which reduces the potential performance of honeycomb [43, 44].
How to reinforce honeycomb joints with low cost and low damage have become a challenge
nowadays. For this reason, researchers have shifted their goals from 3D textile technology

13
2036 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Fig. 12 3D mechanism diagram of sandwich composites (a) failure mechanism diagram and (b) structural
optimisation design [42]

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2037

Table 2 Performance of prepreg composite honeycombs

Method Shape Test mothed Damage stress
Interlocking Square Out-of-plane compression [8, 9, 49] 30–45 MPa (Static)
method 7.5–20 MPa (Dynamic)
In-of-plane compression [50] 4.8 MPa
Triangle 2.7 MPa
Kagome 13.8 MPa
Hot press Hexagon Low-velocity impact [33] Penetrates more than 60 J
moulding Hexagon Out-of-plane compression [39] 13–15 MPa (Static)
method (Jute fibre)
Square Out-of-plane compression [41] 25–35 MPa (Static)
Hexagon 40–55 MPa (Static)
Corrugated 45–55 MPa (Static)
Hybrid-hexagon Out-of-plane compression [15] 1-1.5 MPa (Static)
(Polyamide fibre)
Tailor-folding Hexagon In-of-plane compression [61] 48–70 MPa
method Bending [42] ~ 150 MPa
Origami - Out-of-plane compression [49] 6–8 MPa (Dynamic)
method In-face shear [16] ~ 150 MPa

Fig. 13 Delamination in different loads under (a) compression [10] and (b) bending [63]

structures to inter-fibre layer connections. It is used to improve the honeycomb W-direction

tear resistance.

4.2 Performance of the Liquid Moulding Composite Honeycombs

As a filling structure, the load-bearing performance of one-piece forming composite hon-

eycombs are the primary concern. Lyu et al. [23, 24] prepared triangular, quadrilateral,
and hexagonal 3D weaving honeycomb structure composite materials with hybrid yarns
and tested their bending properties. They proposed that the bending failure mode of the
composites is consistent with the common mode of fibre-reinforced composites, while no
structural delamination was found, which reflects its good interlaminar performance. This
structure was found to have speed-sensitive characteristics. Chen et al. [20, 21] conducted
a low-velocity drop weight impact test. The results show that reducing the θ angle of the
honeycomb structure and the ratio of free wall and bonding wall are conducive to improve
the modulus and strength. Constructing large-sized unit cells and low-density honeycombs

13
2038 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

are conducive to buffering. The increasing load velocity is beneficial to the overall load
bearing of composites.
Using finite element analysis, Chen et al. [52] achieved accurate simulation of carbon
fibre 3D weaving honeycomb structure composite, further clarified the damage mechanism,
and achieved prediction of the maximum strength of the honeycomb. It can be concluded
from Fig. 14 that the honeycomb reinforced with 3D textile structure did not produce
debonding among the walls. Failure of the honeycomb is associated with tearing behaviour
at the Y-node location, which represents a full exploitation of the properties of the honey-
comb wall. The application of this technology has greatly promoted the damage mechanism
of 3D weaving honeycomb structure composites.
Fiber type greatly influences damage of honeycomb structure. To extend the application
of 3D weaving honeycomb structures, Geerinck et al. [26] prepared 3D weaving honey-
comb fabrics using different type tows and filled the internal pores with concrete and foam.
Figure 15 shows effect of fibre type on the damage behaviour. Compared to glass fibres,
more wall folds are produced in honeycomb with PET and aramid and the failure mode is
more like ductile metals. This is due to the better ductility of PET and aramid fibres, which
provides the composite honeycomb with better energy absorption, meaning that the use of
these fibres will be more suitable for applications with high energy absorption. On the other
hand, glass fibres have typical brittle fracture characteristics, which means that this type
would be preferable for applications with high stiffness requirements.
In a recent study, systematic experimental analysis of a glass fibre hexagonal 3D weaving
honeycomb was conducted [25, 66, 67]. Different shape, side length ratio, unit size, opening
angle and load direction clearly influence the three-point bending, plane compression and

Fig. 14 Study on the failure mechanism with finite element analysis with (a) honeycomb experimental
results, (b) homogenisation modelling and (c) joint modelling [52]

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2039

Fig. 15 The failure progress for the three different yarn types, aramid, PET, and glass fibres [26]

low-velocity impact properties of the structure. Compared with aluminium honeycomb and
aramid honeycomb [68], the 3D weaving honeycomb structure has best three-point bend-
ing and lateral compression properties in the weaving warp direction [69, 70]. In the weft
direction, it has best plane compression and low-velocity impact resistance. The influence
of opening angle and weaving shape on material properties was further confirmed [26]. El-
Dessouky et al. [71] functionally utilised special-shaped honeycomb structures. 3D weaving
honeycomb structures with hybrid structures and auxetic effects were developed and tested.
In addition, 3D weaving honeycomb structure composites with density gradient hole struc-
tures have been developed and tested [40]. By utilising changes in honeycomb pore size,
the structure realises the design concept of gradient absorption of impact energy. Zhang et
al. [72, 73] used this design concept to prepare density gradient honeycomb absorbing com-
posites, as shown in Fig. 16, this study achieved an electromagnetic wave absorption of up
to nearly − 25 dB and bending load of 8.3 kN.
Mechanical properties of one-piece forming composite honeycombs such as shear and
impact resistance and damage mechanism are still unclear, further in-depth research is
needed. A summary of some existing studies is provided in Table 3.

5 Conclusions and Prospects

Compared with aluminium honeycomb and aramid honeycomb, fibre reinforced composite
honeycomb not only has high specific strength and specific stiffness, but also has good ther-
mal morphological stability, corrosion resistance, and fatigue resistance. This study focuses
on the development of composite honeycombs with the capability of large-scale manu-

13
2040 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

Fig. 16 Functional one-piece forming FRCH. (a) multi-size honeycomb [72] and (b) hybrid structure
honeycomb [71]

Table 3 Performance of one-piece forming FRCH

Ref Structure type Content Main findings
Chen et al. Weaving Experimental analysis Reducing θ of the honeycomb structure and the
[20, 21] honeycomb of honeycomb ratio of free wall and bonding wall are condu-
structure design and cive to improve the modulus and strength.
parameters
Chen et al. Weaving Experimental analysis The twisting and folding of the honeycomb
[52] honeycomb and FEA of honey- walls lead to severer damage during quasi-static
comb structure compression.
Tripathi Weaving Experimental analysis Compared to aluminium and aramid honeycomb,
et al. honeycomb of honeycomb struc- woven honeycomb has the best load-bearing
[25, ture parameters and capacity in the weave direction. Controlling the
66–70] performance aspect ratio or opening can change the honey-
comb properties.
Geerinck Weaving Experimental analysis Adding a foam or concrete to the 3D honeycomb
et al. [26] honeycomb of honeycomb hole can retard structural buckling and improve
structure energy absorption and compressive capacity.
Lyu et al. Weaving Experimental analysis Woven honeycomb with variable cell size
[72–75] honeycomb of honeycomb struc- enables the hourglass effect. An integrated wave-
ture and electromag- absorbing and load-carrying material is obtained.
netic absorption
Zhu et al. Weaving Experimental and Diameters of weft yarn and fabric layer have
[76] honeycomb FEA analysis of buffer influences on the compression property of hon-
performance eycomb. The thicker yarn leads to stronger cell
walls, resulted in the compression resistance of
honeycomb composite.
Li et al. Braiding Experimental analysis Based on the principle of the 3D braiding ‘four-
[29, 30] honeycomb of the formation and step’ method, the separation and combination of
performance of braid- honeycomb walls can be controlled. By doubling
ing honeycomb and tripling the cell rows at similar areal density,
the load capacity can be improved to 2.5 and 3.8
times.
Hassanza- Knitting Experimental analysis The knitting parameters such as carriage speed,
deh et al. honeycomb of the formation and loop yarns and pressure of fabric take-down
[32] performance of knit- system significantly affect the properties of the
ting honeycomb final honeycomb.

facturing and large-size components. The honeycomb structure, preparation process and
performance are reviewed. The preparation technology of fibre reinforced composite hon-
eycomb using novel 3D textile technology is analysed. Although 3D printing technology in
recent years has provided an alternative method for manufacturing composite honeycombs

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2041

and has made considerable progress in flexible manufacturing, there are inherent shortcom-
ings regarding the current 3D printing technology such as low fibre volume contents, high
porosity, and poor inter-layer adhesion among the printed layers, and there is a notable lack
of structural forming scale and formation efficiency. The textile structure reinforced fibre
composites are still primarily considered currently.
Although fibre reinforced composite honeycomb have excellent performance and practi-
cal potential, there are still some issues that need to be solved. In particular, limitations on
the scale of honeycomb moulding severely restrict the applicability of composite honey-
combs in large-scale structural applications. Developing a universal, low-cost, large-scale
composite honeycomb fabrication process is a huge challenge currently. The internal pores
and defects of composites are often important factors that affect the performance of com-
posites. As a complex structure, the identification of internal defects in honeycomb struc-
tures is difficult. Although non-destructive testing technologies such as XRM and ultrasonic
flaw detection are available, it is still difficult to detect defects in the W-direction wall of
complete honeycombs, and it is impossible to effectively identify and maintain targeted
maintenance of internal defects in large-scale honeycomb structures. This seriously restricts
the evaluation of the actual service life of honeycomb structures and causes waste of
resources. Except honeycombs prepared by 3D textile technology, the connections between
the W-direction walls of fibre reinforced composite honeycomb are mainly based on the
bonding effect of adhesive or matrix. The connections along the W-direction lack enhanced
fibres. As this result, honeycomb W-direction debonding and delamination occur frequently
during service, which seriously restricts the performance of fibre reinforced composite hon-
eycomb. Reinforcing the W-direction connection performance of composite honeycombs is
one of the mainstreams of future research. Advanced testing techniques such as DIC, in-situ
CT can provide more sophisticated approaches on the damage evolution behaviour and
performance prediction of honeycomb structures. Furthermore, while the static mechan-
ics of fibre reinforced composite honeycomb are well-documented, research on dynamic
loading remains insufficient. The damping and fatigue characteristics of fibre reinforced
composite honeycomb are crucial, as they importance influence both the cost-efficiency and
performance of fibre reinforced composite honeycomb. To broaden the application of fibre
reinforced composite honeycomb, it is imperative to increase the prevalence of dynamic
loading studies.

Author Contributions Ao Liu, Liwei Wu and Youhong Tang provided conceptualization and wrote the manu-
script draft. Aoxin Wang prepared all Figures. Aoxin Wang and Qian Jiang helped on data curation. Yanan
Jiao provided resources. Liwei Wu and Youhong Tang reviewed and edited the final manuscript. Ao Liu
obtained all the copyright permission of Figures used in the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding Y Jiao, Q Jiang and L Wu acknowledge the financial support provided by National key research
and development plan (2022YFB3706100), Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin (23JCYBJC00740) and
Program for Innovative Research Team at the University of Tianjin (TD13-5043).

Data Availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethical Approval Not applicable.

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

13
2042 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

References
1. Osa-uwagboe, N., Silberschimdt, V.V., Aremi, A., Demirci, E.: Mechanical behaviour of fabric-rein-
forced plastic sandwich structures: A state-of-the-art review. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 25(5), 591–622
(2023). https://doi.org/10.1177/10996362231170405
2. Bi, G.J., Yin, J.P., Wang, Z.J., Jia, Z.J.: Micro fracture behavior of composite honeycomb sandwich
structure. Materials. 14(1), 135 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010135
3. Mertani, B.M.B., Keskes, B., Tarfaoui, M.: Experimental analysis of the crushing of honeycomb cores
under compression. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 28(3), 1628–1638 (2019). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​0​7​/​s​1​1​6​6​5​-​0​
1​8​-​3​8​5​2​-​2​​​​​​​
4. Roy, R., Park, S.-J., Kweon, J.-H., Choi, J.-H.: Characterization of Nomex honeycomb core constituent
material mechanical properties. Compos. Struct. 117, 255–266 (2014). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​
t​r​u​ct​​.​2​0​1​4​.​0​6​.​0​3​3​​​​​​​
5. Tripathi, L., Behera, B.K.: Review: 3D woven honeycomb composites. J. Mater. Sci. 56(28), 15609–
15652 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06302-5
6. Chen, Y., Ye, L.: Designing and tailoring effective elastic modulus and negative Poisson’s ratio with
continuous carbon fibers using 3D printing. Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manufac. 150, 106625 (2021).
https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.composi​tesa.202​1.106625
7. Dou, H., Ye, W.G., Zhang, D.H., Cheng, Y.Y., Wu, C.H.: Comparative study on in-plane compression
properties of 3D printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced composite honeycomb and aluminum alloy
honeycomb. Thin-Walled Struct. 176, 109335 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2022.109335
8. Park, S., Russell, B.P., Deshpande, V.S., Fleck, N.A.: Dynamic compressive response of composite
square honeycombs. Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manufac. 43(3), 527–536 (2012). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​
1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​o​s​i​t​e​s​a​.​2​0​1​1​.​1​1​.​0​2​2​​​​​​​
9. Russell, B., Deshpande, V., Wadley, H.: Quasistatic deformation and failure modes of composite square
honeycombs. J. Mech. Mater. Struct. 3(7), 1315–1340 (2008). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​2​1​4​0​/​j​o​m​m​s​.​2​0​0​8​.​3​.​1​
3​1​5​​​​​​​
10. Xiang, J.X., Tao, J., Yang, F.N., Li, H.G., Chen, X., Lin, Y.Y., Yuan, L.L.: Joint interface optimization
of all-CFRTP composite honeycomb prepared by ultrasonic multi-spot welding. Compos. Sci. Technol.
248, 110456 (2024). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compsci​tech.202​4.110456
11. Song, S.J., Xiong, C., Yin, J.H., Zhang, S.: Mechanical property of all-composite diamond honeycomb
sandwich structure based on interlocking technology: Experimental tests and numerical analysis. Mech.
Adv. Mater. Struct. 31(5), 973–989 (2022). https://doi​.org/10.108​0/15376494.​2022.212​8123
12. Niu, B., Li, S.J., Yang, R.: Manufacturing and mechanical properties of composite orthotropic Kagome
honeycomb using novel modular method. Front. Mech. Eng. 15(3), 484–495 (2020). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​
1​0​0​7​/​s​1​1​4​6​5​-​0​2​0​-​0​5​9​3​-​3​​​​​​​
13. Liu, Z.X., Zhang, R.B., Wang, S.J., Zhao, W.K., Yu, G.C., Wu, L.Z.: Design and fabrication of an
all-composite ultra-broadband absorbing structure with superior load-bearing capacity. Compos. Sci.
Technol. 240, 110094 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compsci​tech.202​3.110094
14. Chen, X.J., Yu, G.C., Wang, Z.X., Feng, L.J., Wu, L.Z.: Enhancing out-of-plane compressive perfor-
mance of carbon fiber composite honeycombs. Compos. Struct. 255, 112984 (2021). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​
1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​t​r​u​c​t​.​2​0​2​0​.​1​1​2​9​8​4​​​​​​​
15. Hou, Y., Neville, R., Scarpa, F., Remillat, C., Gu, B., Ruzzene, M.: Graded conventional-auxetic Kiri-
gami sandwich structures: Flatwise compression and edgewise loading. Compos. Part. B: Eng. 59,
33–42 (2014). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.composi​tesb.201​3.10.084
16. Heimbs, S., Cichosz, J., Klaus, M., Kilchert, S., Johnson, A.F.: Sandwich structures with textile-rein-
forced composite foldcores under impact loads. Compos. Struct. 92(6), 1485–1497 (2010). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​
o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​t​r​u​c​t​.​2​0​0​9​.​1​1​.​0​0​1​​​​​​​
17. Liu, Z.X., Zhao, W.K., Yu, G.C., Wu, L.Z.: Fabrication and mechanical behaviors of quartz fiber com-
posite honeycomb with extremely low permittivity. Compos. Struct. 271, 114129 (2021). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​
g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​t​r​u​c​t​.​2​0​2​1​.​1​1​4​1​2​9​​​​​​​
18. Liu, L.S., Wang, P., Legrand, X., Soulat, D.: Investigation of mechanical properties of tufted compos-
ites: Influence of tuft length through the thickness reinforcement. Compos. Struct. 172, 221–228 (2017).
https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2017​.03.099
19. Yu, H.P., Chen, H.J., Liang, B.Y., Sun, Z., Gou, X.: Bending behaviors and toughening mechanism of
carbon fiber-aluminum honeycomb sandwich structures with stitched fiber belts. Compos. Part A: Appl.
Sci. Manufac. 180, 108072 (2024). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.composi​tesa.202​4.108072
20. Chen, X.G., Sun, Y., Gong, X.Z.: Design, manufacture, and experimental analysis of 3D honeycomb
textile composites part I: Design and manufacture. Text. Res. J. 78(9), 771–781 (2008). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​
1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​0​0​4​0​5​1​7​5​0​7​0​8​7​8​5​5​​​​​​​

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2043

21. Chen, X.G., Sun, Y., Gong, X.Z.: Design, manufacture, and experimental analysis of 3D honeycomb
textile composites, part II: Experimental analysis. Text. Res. J. 78(11), 1011–1021 (2008). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​
r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​0​0​4​0​5​1​7​5​0​7​0​8​7​6​8​3​​​​​​​
22. Chen, X.G.: Mathematical modelling of 3D woven fabrics for CAD/CAM software. Text. Res. J. 81(1),
42–50 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517510385168
23. Lyu, L.H., Zhu, L.M., Cui, J.R., Guo, J., Ye, F.: Bending property of honeycombed 3D woven compos-
ites with quadrilateral cross section. AATCC J. Res. 7(2), 7–12 (2020). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​4​5​0​4​/​a​j​r​.​7​.​2​
.​2​​​​​​​
24. Lv, L.H., Huang, Y.L., Cui, J.R., Qian, Y.F., Ye, F., Zhao, Y.P.: Bending properties of three-dimensional
honeycomb sandwich structure composites: Experiment and finite element Method simulation. Text.
Res. J. 88(17), 2024–2031 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517517703602
25. Tripathi, L., Behera, S.K., Behera, B.K.: Numerical modeling of flatwise energy absorption behav-
ior of 3D woven honeycomb composites with different cell structures. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 24(7),
2047–2064 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1177/10996362221122047
26. Geerinck, R., De Baere, I., De Clercq, G., Daelemans, L., Ivens, J., De Clerck, K.: One-shot production
of large-scale 3D woven fabrics with integrated prismatic shaped cavities and their applications. Mater.
Design. 165, 107578 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.107578
27. Gong, X.Z., Li, R.X., Wei, X.L., Hu, X.R., Liu, L.S., Pei, P.Y.: The design of cellular fabrics with graded
cell distribution. Appl. Compos. Mater. 29(1), 173–185 (2021). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​0​7​/​s​1​0​4​4​3​-​0​2​1​-​0​9​9​
6​0​-​5​​​​​​​
28. Xiao, Y., Han, F., Liu, W., Wan, F., Peng, K.: Analysis of tension instability and research on stability
control strategy in the process of rapier loom weaving. IEEE Access. 10, 31922–31933 (2022). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​
d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​0​9​/​a​c​c​e​s​s​.​2​0​2​2​.​3​1​5​9​6​8​7​​​​​​​
29. Li, Q.Q., Zhang, H.H., Mosleh, Y., Alderliesten, R., Li, W.: Development and analysis of a three-dimen-
sional braided honeycomb structure. Text. Res. J. 93(9–10), 2078–2094 (2022). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​
/​0​0​4​0​5​1​7​5​2​2​1​1​3​9​5​7​8​​​​​​​
30. Li, Q.Q., Mosleh, Y., Alderliesten, R.C., Zhang, H.H., Li, W.: Effects of different joint wall lengths
on in-plane compression properties of 3D braided jute/epoxy composite honeycombs. J. Reinf. Plast.
Compos. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1177/07316844231167898
31. Hamouda, T.: Complex three- dimensional-shaped knitting preforms for composite application. J. Ind.
Text. 46(7), 1536–1551 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/1528083715624260
32. Hassanzadeh, S., Hasani, H., Zarrebini, M.: Thermoset composites reinforced by innovative 3D spacer
weft-knitted fabrics with different cross-section profiles: Materials and manufacturing process. Com-
pos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manufac. 91, 65–76 (2016). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.composi​tesa.201​6.09.017
33. Deng, Y.F., Hu, X.Y., Niu, Y.J., Zheng, Y.M., Wei, G.: Experimental and numerical study of composite
honeycomb sandwich structures under low-velocity impact. Appl. Compos. Mater. (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​
r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​0​7​/​s​1​0​4​4​3​-​0​2​3​-​1​0​1​9​0​-​0​​​​​​​
34. Wei, X.Y., Xue, P.C., Wu, Q.Q., Wang, Y., Xiong, J.: Debonding characteristics and strengthening
mechanics of all-CFRP sandwich beams with interface-reinforced honeycomb cores. Compos. Sci.
Technol. 218, 109157 (2022). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compsci​tech.202​1.109157
35. Feng, L.J., Yang, Z.T., Yu, G.C., Chen, X.J., Wu, L.Z.: Compressive and shear properties of carbon fiber
composite square honeycombs with optimized high-modulus hierarchical phases. Compos. Struct. 201,
845–856 (2018). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2018​.06.080
36. Zhao, L., Zheng, Q., Fan, H.L., Jin, F.N.: Hierarchical composite honeycombs. Mater. Design. 40,
124–129 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.03.009
37. Shi, S.S., Chen, B.Z., Sun, Z.: Equivalent properties of composite sandwich panels with honeycomb–
grid hybrid core. J. Sandw. Struct. Mater. 22(6), 1859–1878 (2018). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​1​7​7​/​1​0​9​9​6​3​6​2​1​
8​7​8​9​6​1​5​​​​​​​
38. Song, S.J., Xiong, C., Yin, J.H., Deng, H.Y., Cui, K.B., Han, C.: Flexural behavior, failure analysis, and
optimization design of a hybrid composite Kagome honeycomb sandwich structure. Thin-Walled Struct.
187, 110743 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.110743
39. Stocchi, A., Colabella, L., Cisilino, A., Álvarez, V.: Manufacturing and testing of a sandwich panel
honeycomb core reinforced with natural-fiber fabrics. Mater. Design. 55, 394–403 (2014). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​
r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​m​a​t​d​e​s​.​2​0​1​3​.​0​9​.​0​5​4​​​​​​​
40. Liu, J.L., Liu, J.Y., Mei, J., Huang, W.: Investigation on manufacturing and mechanical behavior of all-
composite sandwich structure with Y-shaped cores. Compos. Sci. Technol. 159, 87–102 (2018). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​
d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​c​i​t​e​c​h​.​2​0​1​8​.​0​1​.​0​2​6​​​​​​​
41. Pehlivan, L., Baykasoğlu, C.: An experimental study on the compressive response of CFRP honey-
combs with various cell configurations. Compos. Part. B: Eng. 162, 653–661 (2019). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​
.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​o​s​i​t​e​s​b​.​2​0​1​9​.​0​1​.​0​4​4​​​​​​​

13
2044 Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045

42. Wei, X.Y., Wu, Q.Q., Gao, Y., Xiong, J.: Bending characteristics of all-composite hexagon honeycomb
sandwich beams: Experimental tests and a three-dimensional failure mechanism map. Mech. Mater.
148, 103401 (2020). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.mechmat​.2020.10​3401
43. Xue, P.C., Wei, X.Y., Li, Z.B., Xiong, J.: Face-core interfacial debonding characterization model of
an all-composite sandwich beam with a hexagonal honeycomb core. Eng. Fract. Mech. 269, 108554
(2022). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.engfrac​mech.202​2.108554
44. Li, H., Liu, Y., Shi, X.J., Wang, Z.Y., Wang, X.P., Xiong, J., Guan, Z.W.: Nonlinear vibrations of all-
composite sandwich plates with a hexagon honeycomb core: Theoretical and experimental investiga-
tions. Compos. Struct. 305, 116512 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2022​.116512
45. Rus, D., Tolley, M.T.: Design, fabrication and control of origami robots. Nat. Reviews Mater. 3(6),
101–112 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-018-0009-8
46. Fan, L., Liang, J., Chen, Y., Shi, P., Feng, X.D., Feng, J., Sareh, P.: Multi-stability of irregular four-
fold origami structures. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 268, 108993 (2024). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.ijmecsc​i.2024.1​
08993
47. Ye, H.T., Liu, Q.J., Cheng, J.X., Li, H.G., Jian, B.C., Wang, R., Sun, Z.C., Lu, Y., Ge, Q.: Multimaterial
3D printed self-locking thick-panel origami metamaterials. Nat. Commun. 14(1), 1607 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​
o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​3​8​/​s​4​1​4​6​7​-​0​2​3​-​3​7​3​4​3​-​w​​​​​​​
48. Chen, Y., Xu, R.Z., Lu, C.H., Liu, K., Feng, J., Sareh, P.: Multi-stability of the hexagonal origami hypar
based on group theory and symmetry breaking. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 247, 108196 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​
0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​i​j​m​e​c​s​c​i​.​2​0​2​3​.​1​0​8​1​9​6​​​​​​​
49. Heidenreich, B., Koch, D., Kraft, H., Klett, Y.: C/C–SiC sandwich structures manufactured via liquid
silicon infiltration. J. Mater. Res. 32(17), 3383–3393 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2017.208
50. Wei, X.Y., Xiong, J., Wang, J., Xu, W.: New advances in fiber-reinforced composite honeycomb materi-
als. Sci. China Technological Sci. 63(8), 1348–1370 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-020-1650-9
51. Vitale, J.P., Francucci, G., Xiong, J., Stocchi, A.: Failure mode maps of natural and synthetic fiber rein-
forced composite sandwich panels. Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manufac. 94, 217–225 (2017). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​
o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​o​s​i​t​e​s​a​.​2​0​1​6​.​1​2​.​0​2​1​​​​​​​
52. Chen, H.Y., Liu, X.Y., Zhang, Y.L., Xiao, C., Zhang, T.Y., Zhang, Y.A., Hu, Y.B.: Numerical investiga-
tion of the compressive behavior of 2.5D woven carbon-fiber (2.5D-CFRP) honeycomb and experimen-
tal validation. Compos. Struct. 312, 116858 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2023​.116858
53. Yu, G.C., Feng, L.J., Wu, L.Z.: Thermal and mechanical properties of a multifunctional composite
square honeycomb sandwich structure. Mater. Design. 102, 238–246 (2016). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​
m​at​​d​es​ ​.​2​0​1​6​.​0​4​.​0​5​0​​​​​​​
54. Song, S.J., Xiong, C., Yin, J.H., Kang, X.Y.: Fabrication and mechanical behavior of an all-composite
interlocked triangular honeycomb sandwich structure: Experimental investigation and numerical analy-
sis. Polym. Compos. 44(2), 833–849 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27135
55. Song, S.J., Xiong, C., Yin, J.H., Yang, Z.S., Han, C., Zhang, S.: Cell-filling reinforced materials for
improving the low-velocity impact performance of composite square honeycomb sandwiches: Poly-
methacrylimide foam vs. aluminum foam. Alexandria Eng. J. 78, 543–560 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​
1​6​/​j​.​ae​ j​​.​2​0​2​3​.​0​7​.​0​3​4​​​​​​​
56. Jeon, M.H., Cho, H.J., Lee, M.Y., Kim, Y.J., Kim, I.G.: Compressive strength prediction of composite
lattice structure using compression test results of subelement specimens. Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct.
1–15 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.108​0/15376494.​2023.217​5082
57. Lin, Y., Yang, Z.Y., Wang, X.D., Zuo, X.B., Li, Z.S., Guan, Z.D., Li, J.X., Jiang, Y.: The design of
continuous carbon fiber composite honeycombs and study on its properties. J. Compos. Mater. 56(24),
3729–3747 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1177/00219983221121885
58. Li, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, H.Y., Qin, Z.Y., Wang, Z.Y., Deng, Y.C., Xiong, J., Wang, X.P., Sung, K.H.:
Amplitude-dependent damping characteristics of all-composite sandwich plates with a foam-filled
hexagon honeycomb core. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 186, 109845 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​d​o​i​.​o​r​g​/​1​0​.​1​0​1​6​/​j​.​y​
m​s​s​p​.​2​0​2​2​.​1​0​9​8​4​5​​​​​​​
59. Li, Z.L., Li, H., Ren, C.H., Deng, Y.C., Cao, J.C., Xiong, J., Zhou, B., Bai, H.S., Zhang, H.Y., Wang,
S.M., Wang, X.P., Cao, H., Han, Q.K., Guan, Z.W.: Low-velocity impact resistance of all composite
cylindrical shell panels with a foam filled honeycomb core: Theoretical and experimental investigation.
Int. J. Impact Eng. 182, 104765 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.ijimpen​g.2023.1​04765
60. Sun, Y., Guo, L.C., Wang, T.S., Yao, L.J., Sun, X.Y.: Bending strength and failure of single-layer and
double-layer sandwich structure with graded truss core. Compos. Struct. 226, 111204 (2019). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​
i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​t​r​u​c​t​.​2​0​1​9​.​1​1​1​2​0​4​​​​​​​
61. Zhu, X., Xiong, C., Yin, J., Yang, Z., Sun, H., Deng, H., Cui, K., Zou, Y.: Four-point bending behaviors
of CFRP trapezoidal corrugated sandwich plates. Compos. Struct. 312, 116884 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​
0​.​1​​0​1​6​/​j​.​c​o​m​p​s​t​r​u​c​t​.​2​0​2​3​.​1​1​6​8​8​4​​​​​​​

13
Applied Composite Materials (2024) 31:2019–2045 2045

62. Zhu, X.J., Xiong, C., Yin, J.H., Zhou, H.R., Zou, Y.C., Fan, Z.Y., Deng, H.Y.: Experimental study and
modeling analysis of planar compression of composite corrugated, lattice and honeycomb sandwich
plates. Compos. Struct. 308, 116690 (2023). https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2023​.116690
63. Mei, J., Liu, J.Y., Huang, W.: Three-point bending behaviors of the foam-filled CFRP X-core sand-
wich panel: Experimental investigation and analytical modelling. Compos. Struct. 284, 115206 (2022).
https://doi​.org/10.101​6/j.compstr​uct.2022​.115206
64. Shirzadifar, M., Marzbanrad, J.: Bending characteristics of CFRP hexagon honeycombs stiffened with
corrugated cores under transverse quasi-static impact loading. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Mech. Eng.
47(2), 779–808 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40997-022-00550-9
65. Wei, X.Y., Wu, Q.Q., Gao, Y., Yang, Q., Xiong, J.: Composite honeycomb sandwich columns under in-
plane compression: Optimal geometrical design and three-dimensional failure mechanism maps. Eur. J.
Mech. A. Solids. 91, 104415 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechsol.2021.​​104415
66. Tripathi, L., Behera, B.K.: Flatwise compression behavior of 3D woven honeycomb composites. J. Ind.
Text. 52, 1–24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1177/15280837221125483
67. Tripathi, L., Neje, G., Behera, B.K.: Geometrical modeling of 3D woven honeycomb fabric for manu-
facturing of lightweight sandwich composite material. J. Ind. Text. 51(3suppl), 4372S–4389S (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1528083720931472
68. Tripathi, L., Behera, B.K.: Comparative analysis of aluminium core honeycomb with 3D woven Kevlar
honeycomb composite. Mater. Sci. Technol. 39(14), 1697–1708 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​8​0​/​0​2​6​7​0​8​
3​6​.​2​0​2​3​.​2​1​8​0​6​0​1​​​​​​​
69. Tripathi, L., Behera, B.K.: Comparative analysis of the mechanical performance of 3D woven honey-
comb composites produced in warp and weft directions. J. Text. Inst. 115(4), 667–678 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​
o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​8​0​/​0​0​4​0​5​0​0​0​.​2​0​2​3​.​2​1​9​1​2​9​7​​​​​​​
70. Tripathi, L., Chowdhury, S., Behera, B.K.: Low-velocity impact behavior of 3D woven structural hon-
eycomb composite. Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct. 1–16 (2023). ​h​t​t​p​s​​:​/​/​d​o​i​​.​o​r​g​/​​1​0​.​1​​0​8​0​/​1​5​3​7​6​4​9​4​.​2​0​2​3​.​2​1​
9​9​4​1​5​​​​​​​
71. El-Dessouky, H.M., McHugh, C.: Multifunctional auxetic and honeycomb composites made of 3D woven
carbon fiber preforms. Sci. Rep. 12(1), 22593 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26864-x
72. Zhang, H.W., Zhou, X.H., Gao, Y., Wu, L.W., Lyu, L.H.: Microwave absorption and bending proper-
ties of three-dimensional gradient honeycomb woven composites. Polym. Compos. 44(2), 1201–1212
(2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27164
73. Zhang, H.W., Zhou, X.H., Gao, Y., Wang, Y., Liao, Y.P., Wu, L.W., Lyu, L.H.: Electromagnetic wave-
absorbing and bending properties of three-dimensional gradient woven composites with triangular sec-
tions. Polymers. 14(9), 1745 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091745
74. Yao, W.B., Zhang, H.W., Zhou, X.H., Gao, Y., Wu, L.W., Lyu, L.H.: Electromagnetic wave absorbing
and bending properties of 3D gradient structured woven composites: Experiment and simulation. J. Ind.
Text. 53, 1–21 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1177/15280837231159136
75. Wang, R.R., Liu, W.D., Zhou, X.H., Gao, Y., Wu, L.W., Lyu, L.H.: Electromagnetic wave absorption
and bending properties of double-layer honeycomb 3D woven composites: Experiment and simulation.
J. Text. Inst. 1–11 (2023). https:​​​//d​oi.​or​g/10​.1080/00​4050​00.20​23.2206085
76. Zhu, C.H., Mori, T., Miyamoto, T., Osaki, S., Shi, J., Morikawa, H.: Compression property of three-
dimensional honeycomb-structured fabric composites. Appl. Compos. Mater. 29(1), 373–385 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-021-09965-0

Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a
publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manu-
script version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

13