Cambridge International AS & A Level

HISTORY 9489/22
Paper 2 Outline study May/June 2025
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 60

Published

This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the
examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the
details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began, which would have
considered the acceptability of alternative answers.

Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner Report for
Teachers.

Cambridge International will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes.

Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2025 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE, Cambridge International A and AS Level components, and some Cambridge O Level
components.

This document consists of 24 printed pages.

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Generic Marking Principles

These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers.
They should be applied alongside the specific content of the mark scheme or generic level
descriptions for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these
marking principles.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 1:

Marks must be awarded in line with:

• the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
• the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
• the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 2:

Marks awarded are always whole marks (not half marks, or other fractions).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 3:

Marks must be awarded positively:

• marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit
is given for valid answers which go beyond the scope of the syllabus and mark scheme,
referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
• marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
• marks are not deducted for errors
• marks are not deducted for omissions
• answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these
features are specifically assessed by the question as indicated by the mark scheme. The
meaning, however, should be unambiguous.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 4:

Rules must be applied consistently, e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed
instructions or in the application of generic level descriptors.

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 5:

Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question
(however; the use of the full mark range may be limited according to the quality of the candidate
responses seen).

GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 6:

Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should
not be awarded with grade thresholds or grade descriptors in mind.

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Annotations guidance for centres

Examiners use a system of annotations as a shorthand for communicating their marking decisions to
one another. Examiners are trained during the standardisation process on how and when to use
annotations. The purpose of annotations is to inform the standardisation and monitoring processes
and guide the supervising examiners when they are checking the work of examiners within their team.
The meaning of annotations and how they are used is specific to each component and is understood
by all examiners who mark the component.

We publish annotations in our mark schemes to help centres understand the annotations they may
see on copies of scripts. Note that there may not be a direct correlation between the number of
annotations on a script and the mark awarded. Similarly, the use of an annotation may not be an
indication of the quality of the response.

The annotations listed below were available to examiners marking this component in this series.

Annotations

Annotation Meaning

Unclear

Unsupported assertion

Analysis

Evaluation

Explanation

Knowledge

Used with other annotation to show extended issues or narrative

Factual error

Narrative

Alternative arguments in part (b)

Arguments in part (b)

Highlighter Highlights a section of the text

On-page Allows comments to be entered in speech bubbles on the candidate response.

comment

Identifying a factor in a response

Judgement

Level 0

Level 1

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Annotation Meaning

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

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Part (a) Generic Levels of Response: Marks

Level 4 Connects factors to reach a reasoned conclusion 9–10

• Answers are well focused and explain a range of factors supported by
relevant information.
• Answers demonstrate a clear understanding of the connections between
causes.
• Answers reach a supported conclusion.

Level 3 Explains factor(s) 6–8

• Answers demonstrate good knowledge and understanding of the demands
of the question.
• Answers include explained factor(s) supported by relevant information.

Level 2 Describes factor(s) 3–5

• Answers show some knowledge and understanding of the demands of the
question. (They address causation.)
• Answers are may be entirely descriptive in approach with description of
factor(s).

Level 1 Describes the topic/issue 1–2

• Answers contain some relevant material about the topic but are descriptive
in nature, making no reference to causation.

Level 0 No creditable content. 0

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Part (b) Generic Levels of Response: Marks

Level 5 Responses which develop a sustained judgement 17–20

• Answers are well focused and closely argued. (Answers show a maintained
and complete understanding of the question.)
• Answers are supported by precisely selected evidence.
• Answers lead to a relevant conclusion/judgement which is developed and
supported.

Level 4 Responses which develop a balanced argument 13–16

• Answers show explicit understanding of the demands of the question.
• Answers develop a balanced argument supported by a good range of
appropriately selected evidence.
• Answers may begin to form a judgement in response to the question. (At
this level the judgement may be partial or not fully supported.)

Level 3 Responses which begin to develop assessment 9–12

• Answers show a developed understanding of the demands of the question.
• Answers provide some assessment, supported by relevant and
appropriately selected evidence. However, these answers are likely to lack
depth of evidence and/or balance.

Level 2 Responses which show some understanding of the question 5–8

• Answers show some understanding of the focus of the question.
• They are either entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or
they may contain some explicit comment with relevant but limited support.

Level 1 Descriptive or partial responses 1–4

• Answers contain descriptive material about the topic which is only loosely
linked to the focus of the question. Alternatively, there may be some explicit
comment on the question which lacks support.
• Answers may be fragmentary and disjointed.

Level 0 No creditable content. 0

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Question Answer Marks

1(a) Explain why the March of the Women, 6 October 1789, happened. 10

Indicative content

• On 5 October there were disturbances among women in the

marketplaces of Paris due to the high price of bread. Most workers spent
nearly half their income on bread.
• On 1 October a lavish royal banquet had been held at Versailles for the
officers of newly arrived troops. At a time of growing austerity, it seemed
an affront to those suffering and was a source of great public outrage.
• Lack of support from the King for reform. The outrage and unrest became
mixed with the activities of revolutionaries seeking liberal political reforms
and a constitutional monarchy. On October 4 Louis XVI had said he had
reservations about the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
• Revolutionary agitators encouraged the women to march on Versailles.
The women believed once the king, his court and the Assembly returned
to Paris the supply of food to the city would become reliable and
affordable.
• The storming of the Bastille in July 1789 had shown that the common
people of Paris had the power to influence political events. There had
been calls for a mass demonstration at Versailles since August.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

1(b) To what extent did the Directory, 1795–1799, restore order? 20

Indicative content

Arguments to show that the Directory was successful in restoring order might
consider how the legislature was bicameral (Council of 500 and Council of
Elders), as events since 1789 had shown how a single chamber did not
support ordered government. It could be argued that the Directory was a
period of comparative calm after the Terror and that the Revolution had been
largely a destructive force before 1795 and as such the Directory genuinely
tried to be constructive and restore order. It also managed a largely
successful war against major enemies, including Britain and Austria, and tried
to tackle issues left behind by previous regimes, such as the currency and the
Church, with a degree of success. By the end of 1795, there was more peace
and stability within France than there had been since 1789. Radicals like
Babeuf were dealt with and a working constitution developed. The
Constitution of 1795 was a remarkable document in the circumstances and
may have been as close to a consensus as was possible in the times.
Competent local government was established, and signs of a workable police
system were emerging.

This view can be challenged. Many saw the Directory as merely a temporary
measure lacking in legitimacy. There were significant royalist and neo-Jacobin
gains in many elections, and these were ominous for future stability and order.
There was an evident lack of consensus about how France should be
governed. Partial bankruptcy and debt repudiation occurred in 1797. Coups
continued, such as 18 Fructidor V, 22 Floreal VI, 30 Prairial VII and the final
one of Brumaire. The Jourdan Law on conscription, passed in September
1798, seemed to presage the undermining of order as the last time that
military service had been imposed there had been an uprising in the Vendée
and civil war, and this had been met with terror. It might be said that by the
end of its life the Directory was bringing the Revolution full circle.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

2(a) Explain why agricultural output had increased by 1800. 10

Indicative content

• A rise in population led to an increase in demand which impacted

agricultural processes.
• Agricultural techniques changed – seed drills, more careful livestock
breeding and use of fertilisers.
• Enclosures enabled more efficient farming, more land was available for
food production and less labour was used. The latter lowered costs and
allowed for continued innovation.
• The increasing profits from food production led to greater investment in
agriculture and further increases in production.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

2(b) ‘The political impact of the Industrial Revolution on Britain in this period 20
was huge.’ How far do you agree?

Indicative content

Arguments to support this view might include how the Industrial Revolution led
to the rise of a dynamic middle class which, after it had gained economic
muscle, went on to demand political power and direction of policy (Reform
Act, 1832 and Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846). Sir Robert Peel, son of a
northern industrialist, was Prime Minister on two occasions. The survival of
trade unions, the creation of cooperative societies and the Chartist agitation
did show a politicisation of the lower classes brought about by the Industrial
Revolution. By 1850 there was a growing acceptance that governments did
have a duty to interfere in areas, hitherto, thought to be beyond their remit, e.
g working and living conditions (Factory Acts/Public Health Act).

However, this can be challenged. Whilst Peel might be the son of an

industrialist Prime Ministers in this period were aristocrats with landed wealth.
There was some extension of the franchise to the new industrial towns, but it
was limited. Middle class businessmen might have control over local affairs,
but they showed no inclination, yet, to enter the national stage via parliament.
Unlike the aristocracy they could not afford an estate manager to manage
their interests whilst they sat as MPs and government ministers. The lower
classes did not have the vote and this was something which both the
aristocracy and the middle classes, for the most part, wished to maintain.
Trade unions did survive in this period, but their membership was limited and
they were hidebound by government legislation, be it Whig or Tory.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

3(a) Explain why there was a march on the Winter Palace in January 1905. 10

Indicative content

• The march was led by Father Gapon, a priest, who was concerned
deeply about the condition of many of the poor and the industrial workers
of St Petersburg in particular.
• The majority of workers lived in appalling conditions and were badly paid
with long hours in dangerous conditions. There was no welfare system at
all.
• Russian workers suffered badly in 1904; the price of essential goods rose
so quickly that real wages declined by 20%.
• The intention was to present a petition to the Tsar, who many still saw as
‘the little father’, a normal practice for the redress of grievances, at the
Winter Palace.
• The petition addressed wider issues facing Russia – an end to the war
with Japan and the right to vote.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

3(b) ‘The Constituent Assembly was dissolved in January 1918 because the 20
Bolsheviks were weak.’ How far do you agree?

Indicative content

Arguments in support of this view might consider how the election results for
the Constituent Assembly (CA) showed that support for the Bolsheviks was
very limited. They had won barely a quarter of the seats to the CA. The fact
that the Bolsheviks resorted to such a drastic measure as dissolution showed
that they were in a precarious position. Argument and debate would not be
enough. There was strong and widespread opposition to them inside the
country. It can be argued that October 1917 was a coup not a popular
uprising. Also, the Allied Powers were set to interfere in Russia should the
new government contemplate making a separate peace.

However, this view can be questioned. The dissolution reflected Lenin’s

philosophy. The Bolshevik Party was created to be capable of seizing power
when the opportunity presented itself. Lenin was never interested in winning
mass support. This is why he had not joined a broad front opposition before
1917 and consistently ruled out cooperation with the Provisional Government
in 1917. The dissolution of the CA reflected Lenin’s understanding of the
historical process. October 1917 was the start of, at the least, a Europe-wide
revolution. Therefore, to be on the right side of this profound historical change
the Bolsheviks could not jeopardise their newly won power by letting elections
to the CA dictate the pace of revolution. Democracy was to be overruled by
party dictatorship.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

4(a) Explain why the US Congress imposed military rule on the South in 10
1867?

Indicative content

The Reconstruction Act of March 1867 re-imposed military rule on the South –
with the exception of Tennessee. The South was divided into five military
districts. This was necessary because:

• Most Southern states had introduced Black Codes in 1865–66, laws

which restricted the freedmen’s legal rights of contract.
• White Southerners were starting to organise themselves into
conspiratorial groups which used violence against blacks, e.g. the Ku
Klux Klan.
• A more explicit Northern rule would help uphold the 14th Amendment
introducing equality before the law, to which many Southerners objected.
• A presidential election was imminent and Northern Republicans had to
offset the likely inclusion of White Democrats by maintaining law and
order, including elections.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

4(b) ‘The Confederacy lost the Civil War because it lacked the necessary 20
resources.’ How far do you agree?

Indicative content

The resources of the CSA were generally lacking compared with those of the
Union. In terms of manpower, the population of the CSA was smaller. The
total population of the Union states was 18 million, compared with 12 million in
the CSA of whom 4 million were slaves. The superiority in numbers meant
that the Union could better sustain the war even though loss of life was a
source of discontent. The Union was also arguably wealthier. Certainly, as the
war progressed, the disruption of cotton exports and the lack of infrastructure
for tax collection meant that, whatever its wealth, the CSA was in a weaker
position in terms of funding the war. The CSA was slower to adopt the
necessary methods of tax collection and was less successful in selling
government bonds to fund the war and the use of paper money. This meant
that supplying its armies was more challenging. In addition, the industrial
resources of the Union were vastly superior. Its railway infrastructure,
essential for moving troops and supplies, was flawed but far more extensive
than that of the South. The capture of key CSA railways/junctions by the
Union was an important way of reducing its power. Most manufacturing,
including all arms production, was concentrated in the north, meaning that the
CSA had to import military hardware. With a tightening blockade, this became
increasingly difficult.

Discussion about other reasons for the CSA’s defeat might consider how it
had enjoyed early military successes and might have been more successful
had it gained the support of foreign powers. However, the CSA failed to gain
the support of the UK, despite the importance of its raw cotton for British
industry. The UK did not recognise the CSA as a country, but rather as
belligerent and other countries followed Britain’s lead in taking a neutral
stance. The lack of centralised government machinery also limited the ability
of the CSA to collect tax and organise supplies and this was exacerbated by
the failure of the CSA leaders to recognise the importance of these aspects of
warfare. Corruption also worsened the situation. Consequently, morale was
weakened in the armies and among civilians. Additionally, Southern support
for secession and the war was strongest in the Deep South. Men in the border
states were less likely to volunteer. Escaping slaves and later freed slaves
decreased the labour force while boosting the manpower of the Union.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

5(a) Explain why many Progressive laws were passed during Woodrow 10
Wilson’s presidency.

Indicative content

• Woodrow Wilson had the backing of a useful range of politicians because

he spoke effectively in Congress and made a point of supporting states’
rights. His appointments had widespread appeal (labour leaders, first
Jewish member of Supreme Court) and this made it more possible for
him to gain support for the laws he introduced.
• Many of his Progressive reforms had the backing of the general public.
For example, they supported laws granting more workers’ rights, support
for labour unions, and an end to child labour as well as anti-trust reforms.
• Woodrow Wilson explained why these laws were needed in a way that
showed he was not attacking individuals’ or states’ rights but realigning
the laws to reflect the changing nature and features of the American
economy. He explained that US laws were out of date because they were
designed to regulate small businesses. He gained more support for his
Progressive laws because he explained why laws needed to be changed.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

5(b) To what extent were trade policies the cause of rapid industrial growth 20
in the late nineteenth century?

Indicative content

Trade policies supported the rapid growth of industry in several ways. Within
the US, government policies designed to open up the US and create better
links within and across the country meant that land was granted to railroad
companies to help finance and support the companies. This helped rapid
industrial growth by improving the transport infrastructure, enabling the fast
movement of raw materials and products. Given that the US was rich in raw
materials, this was an important factor. In addition, government policy helped
American industry by protecting industrial products from foreign competition.
In the late nineteenth-century, the US had some of highest tariffs in the world.
For example, the 1890 Tariff Act which was passed to protect further
American industrial products meant that the average tariff on industrial
imports was nearly 50%. Lack of regulation allowed entrepreneurs to
accumulate vast industrial empires, ensuring their profits through virtual
monopolies.

There were other factors that encouraged rapid industrial growth. American
inventors made technological innovations, for example in communications,
that increased the speed of business activities. Large scale immigration
contributed by providing a large workforce. The new immigrants were different
from earlier waves of immigrants in that they were looking for employment
rather than seeking to make their fortunes by setting up their own businesses
or farming. Although there was some internal migration of people looking for
work in industry, the new immigrants played an important role. The presence
of entrepreneurial industrialists with the characteristics needed to develop
their industrial empires was also essential if industry was to grow rapidly.
Financial institutions existed and had a ready supply of money to invest in
industry.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

6(a) Explain why the conservative right viewed the New Deal as anti- 10
capitalist.

Indicative content

• The New Deal was viewed as anti-capitalist because it interfered with free
working of banks and businesses and with market forces and prevented
them from making profits.
• Conservatives thought that government was taking on too much power
and they likened this to a Socialist dictatorship. For example, the New
Deal introduced regulation of banking, it used government money to
finance big capital projects, it introduced measures creating jobs.
• Business leaders thought that banks and big business were being
scapegoated as the ones who had caused the depression and that they
were, therefore, being undermined and over regulated. They thought that
in a capitalist system, businesses should be allowed more freedom to
operate and that they should be subject to market forces.
• They thought that the way to solve the problems of the depression was to
encourage further investment in businesses. However, in their view the
New Deal had caused a lack of confidence in business and consequently
reduced investment. It was, therefore, anti-capitalist.
• New Deal legislations gave greater rights to workers, e.g. to form trade
unions, and these were seen as restricting the rights of capitalist
employers.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

6(b) ‘The weakness of financial institutions was the main cause of the Great 20
Depression.’ How far do you agree?

Indicative content

The weakness of financial institutions played a major part in causing the Great
Depression. The Federal Reserve Bank had limited regulatory powers. Most
US banks were small and served only their local communities. They had few
reserves, and many were deeply involved in the speculation that led to the
Great Crash, when they collapsed. The weakness of the financial system
meant many banks and other financial institutions collapsed under the
pressure of a drop in the value of the stock market in which they were over-
committed and the run on the banks that resulted from the Great Crash. As a
result, small investors lost their savings and therefore purchasing power. This
reduced their spending power and helped to create the depression. In
addition, banks and other financial institutions sold shares, leading to a lack of
investment in businesses and industry, further exacerbating the depression.
With faith in American institutions weakened, big investors moved their money
and gold out of the US meaning that their wealth was not available to support
and rebuild American businesses.

There were, however, other factors that caused the Great Depression. There
were structural weaknesses in the economy with many Americans living in
poverty throughout the 1920s. Important areas of the economy were already
depressed. Farmers had not adjusted well to changing markets after the First
World War and many were over-stretched with debt. Old industries had also
struggled in the face of competition, for example, from new power sources
and synthetic textiles. The American government system also made the
economy and welfare the responsibility of state and local government. There
had always been tension over the responsibilities of federal vs state
legislation. There was no mechanism within the federal government for
addressing a nation-wide economic crisis. This meant that federal government
response was slow and hesitant with no means of addressing the immediate
welfare needs of the unemployed.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

7(a) Explain why Roosevelt introduced the Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 10
in 1904.

Indicative content

• Roosevelt was re-asserting US pre-eminence in intervention in the affairs

of any of the countries of the Americas.
• Most of Africa had now been claimed by European powers and the US
was worried they might turn their eyes towards the Americas again.
• To reassert the original intention of the Monroe Doctrine which was to
warn Europeans to stay out of the region. The corollary extended this by
threatening armed intervention in any county in Latin America threatened
by external or internal factors. In 1905 marines were sent into the
Dominican Republic to protect US commercial interests.
• The acquisition of remains of Spanish empire after 1898 had given the
US a more direct interest in protecting its territories in the Caribbean in
particular.
• In 1902 the Spooner Act endorsed the purchase of the assets of the
French Panama Canal company and in 1903 with US support Panama
gained independence from Columbia and the US began work on the
project. This also increased US concerns about the security of its interest
in the Caribbean.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

7(b) To what extent did the Second Boer War lead to a change in British 20
relations with other imperial powers?

Indicative content

The Second Boer War exposed weaknesses of British Empire with

overstretched resources. The British army had struggled to beat colonial
farmers which highlighted the military limitations of the British army. The
British had been heavily criticised internationally for its tactics, especially its
treatment of the civilian Boer population. This highlighted the isolation of the
British and together with the other weaknesses exposed in the war, raised
concerns about continuing this policy. The traditional British policy of ‘splendid
isolation’ seemed increasingly untenable.

Discussion of other factors influencing relations might consider the Fashoda

incident, when British and French forces came close to conflict over Sudan
and led to a settlement of outstanding disputes between Britain and France
and an improvement in relations. It may also consider Kaiser Wilhelm’s
search of ‘a place in the sun’ led to a more aggressive policy of acquisition by
Germany (Weltpolitik). Wilhelm resented the fact that other countries,
especially the British, had already claimed much of the ‘best’ territory in Africa
and elsewhere and wanted to change this. Germany also began a programme
of naval expansion with a series of naval laws beginning in 1898 which
intensified with the development of the Dreadnought in 1906. Britain saw this
as a challenge to their global empire’s security which depend on the two-
power standard – having a navy as big as the next two largest together.
In 1904 this changing relationship led to the signing of the Entente Cordiale
with France which settled remaining disputes in North Africa and in which
Britain supported French claims to Morocco. Kaiser Wilhelm immediately
decided to test this and precipitated the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905, but
rather than wrecking the Entente it brought the British and French closer
together.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

8(a) Explain why Lloyd George organised the Genoa conference in 1922. 10

Indicative content

• He was concerned about continuing problems stemming from the

Versailles settlement especially the economic problems facing much of
Europe.
• He invited 30 nations to attend including Germany and Russia as he
believed their inclusion was vital to improving international relations.
• The biggest problem was the reparations issue. Though the reparations
figure had eventually been set at £6.6 billion, the German economy was
in no position to sustain payments. Lloyd George was keen to rebuild the
German economy and improve relations between Germany and France in
particular.
• Some of the successor states were also suffering from economic
disruption due to the borders that were drawn, and it was hoped that an
international conference might improve the economic circumstances of
Europe generally.

Accept any other valid responses.

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Question Answer Marks

8(b) ‘Border disputes were the biggest problem facing the successor states 20
in the 1920s.’ How far do you agree?

Indicative content

Discussion of border disputes might consider Poland which had been

removed from the map at the end of the eighteenth century, its lands divided
between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Recreating Poland was in line with
Wilsonian principle of self-determination but created immense problems. The
war in the east had been ended by the Treaty of Brest Litovsk in which much
of Poland had been handed over to Germany. When the State of Poland was
recreated in 1919 the Poles expected the return of areas of the Ukraine that
they had formerly held and when they got no satisfaction, they launched an
attack on Russia in 1920. A bitter war followed with offensive and counter
offensive but ultimately this was ended in 1921 by the Treaty of Riga which
gave Poland an additional strip of land along the Russian border. At the same
time Poland took the opportunity to lay claim to eastern Lithuania including the
city of Vilna and despite League of Nations intervention, they refused to return
it to Lithuania. Another area of dispute was Upper Silesia which had large coal
reserves, and which straddled the Polish German border. This was subject to
a plebiscite organised by the League in which the western part voted for
Germany and the eastern section for joining Poland. The division was
completed peacefully under League supervision. A third area of border conflict
was around Teschen where rich coal deposits and important industries were
again the main cause of dispute. Again, the League intervened splitting the
area between the two countries. Neither was satisfied but both accepted the
adjudication. At the end of the war Hungary invaded Czechoslovakia to try
and extend its territory, while Yugoslavia became involved in border disputes
with most of its neighbours in the immediate post war era.

Discussion of other problems might consider the distribution of different ethnic

groups throughout eastern Europe which meant that all states had significant
minorities. In Poland only 18 million out of a total of 25 million were Poles.
Germans formed significant and difficult minorities in Poland and
Czechoslovakia. Yugoslavia suffered not just from ethnic differences but from
significant religious minorities. Furthermore, the uneven distribution of
economic resources led to economic weakness and collapse in some
countries notably Austria and Hungary which both required rescue plans
organised by the League of Nations. In terms of politics, minority problems
and economic issues prevented the formation of effective democratic systems
in several countries where dictatorships were eventually established as the
1920s progressed e.g. Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary.

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Question Answer Marks

9(a) Explain why Chiang Kai-shek became leader of the Kuomintang 10

following the death of Sun Yat-sen.

Indicative content

He was not seen by everyone as the automatic successor to Sun and had to
work to establish his control:
• He was leader of the KMT army and as such the most powerful member
of the KMT after Sun. He also had the support of the Soviet Union having
completed his training in Russia.
• CCP influence was destroyed in the Shanghai Massacre. Under Sun the
communists had been able to take up key roles within the KMT
organisation but in a purge known as the ‘White Terror’, Chiang cut all
ties between the KMT and the Communist party. This also lost him the
support of the Soviet Union’s political and military advisors.
• A warlord who supported Chiang crushed the rival Wuhan government.
The leader of this, Wang Ching-wei and his supporters had argued that
Chiang was a power-mad soldier seeking to create a military dictatorship.
This left Chiang in complete control

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Question Answer Marks

9(b) To what extent did the Long March represent a defeat for the Chinese 20
Communist Party?

Indicative content

By the time that the survivors of the Long March reached Yan’an in Shensi
Province, in 1935 they had barely survived, and it did not seem like a
particularly successful manoeuvre – more like a defeat than a victory.
However, in the years that followed this perspective changed.

Discussion of defeat might consider how, in the short term, the Communists
were driven from their base in Kiangsi Province and abandoned thousands of
supporters there. Over 100 000 set out on the journey but it took a month to
break out of the encircling KMT forces. They were subjected to repeated
attacks by KMT forces and in a major battle at Xiang lost over 45 000 men –
over half their army. Early problems were blamed on leadership and the
leaders were replaced by Mao. Mao split his remaining followers into smaller
groups and sent them off on circuitous routes towards their eventual goal at
Yan’an but they still suffered hardships in crossing the difficult terrain and
facing attack from local populations (e.g. the Tibetans) and warlords that had
remained beyond the reach of the KMT. Ultimately only between 10 000 and
20 000 survivors reached Yan’an.

However, for Mao it was a personal success, and it confirmed his leading
position in the CCP. Along with some of his strongest supporters like Zhou
Enlai, he began to develop his own interpretation of what the party stood for
and dealt ruthlessly with anyone who disagreed with him. The surviving group
were able to link up with other local communist groups and begin rebuilding
the party. Mao concentrated particularly on winning the support of the peasant
population who had played such a critical part in the success of the Northern
Expedition 10 years earlier. Soviet propaganda was widely employed to paint
an idyllic picture of life in the Yan’an Soviet. Furthermore, since Yan’an was
so isolated it was difficult for the KMT to continue their attacks. The KMT were
already under pressure for their failure to respond more actively to the
Japanese seizure of Manchuria. The Xi’an incident and creation of the
Second United Front further strengthened the position of Mao and the
Communists.

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