A view of Sripada from Maskeliya
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335
kilometres (208 mi).[177] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres
(33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres
(863 ft).[178] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long.[179] Sri Lanka claims
an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7
times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly
productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal
and estuarine seagrasses.[180]
Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.[179] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans
over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in
the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[181] The island is rich in minerals such
as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.[182][183] Existence
of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction
of recoverable quantities is underway.[184]
Climate
Main article: Geography_of_Sri_Lanka § Climate
Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate classification
The climate is tropical and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean
temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the Central Highlands, where frost may
occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-altitude
areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C
(87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25 °F) to 18 °C (32 °F).[185]
The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of
Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands
receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the
east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of
Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47
and 75 in) of rain annually.[186]
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31
to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring
overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island.
Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on
the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[187] An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier
rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure,
utility supply and the urban economy.[188]
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri Lanka
See also: List of mammals of Sri Lanka and List of birds of Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan elephant is one of three
recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. The 2011 elephant census estimated a population of
5,879.[189]
The Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18
global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of
biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[190] Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity
per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups
except birds.[191] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna,
27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic.[192] Sri Lanka
supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of
birds that are known to breed in the country. 33 species are accepted by some
ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and
the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[193] Sri Lanka's protected areas
are administrated by two government bodies; The Department of Forest
Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife
Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature
reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of
Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage
wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher
percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[194]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka
montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub
forests.[195] Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of
the dry-land forests are valuable species such
as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical
evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and
creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish
in the higher altitudes.[196]
The Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is
an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri Lanka.
Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks.
The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the
habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island
has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-
Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[197] Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and
20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed
coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora
is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are
endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings,
has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park
borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for elephants
inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of
elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as
the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range
of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest,
thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[198]
Maha rath mala (Rhododendron
arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare sub-species of Rhododendron arboreum found in Central
Highlands of Sri Lanka.
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the
government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national
parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010.
In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted
rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010. [199]
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Sri Lanka and Constitution of Sri Lanka
This section needs
expansion with: is missing
explication of the
constitutional socialist
nature of the republic that
is reflected in the formal
name of the country:
"Democratic Socialist
Republic of Sri Lanka".
You can help by making an
edit request. (July 2022)
The old Sri Lankan Parliament building, near the Galle
Face Green in Colombo. It now serves as the Presidential Secretariat's headquarters.
Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-
presidential system.[200] Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.[201] Most provisions of
the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment
of certain fundamental features, including clauses on national symbols, religion, term
limits, the reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state, and the entrenchment mechanism
itself, requires both a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval in a
nationwide referendum.[202][203] The Constitution of Sri Lanka officially declares it to be
a socialist state.[204]
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
• Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state; the commander in
chief of the armed forces; chief executive, and is popularly elected for a five-
year term.[205] The president heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from
elected members of parliament.[206] The president is immune from legal
proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be
done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[207] Following the
passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 2015, the president has
two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
• Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member
legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat constituencies and
29 elected by proportional representation.[208] Members are elected by
universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend,
or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament anytime after four and a
half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[209] The
president's deputy and head of government, the prime minister, leads
the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities,
mainly in domestic affairs.
The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo
• Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court—the highest and
final superior court of record,[209] a Court of Appeal, High Courts, and a
number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects
diverse cultural influences.[210] Criminal law is based almost entirely on British
law. Basic civil law derives from Roman-Dutch law. Laws pertaining to
marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[211] Because of ancient
customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law),
the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases.[212] The
president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the
High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the chief justice and
two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court
judges.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Sri Lanka and Elections in Sri Lanka
National symbols of Sri Lanka
Flag Lion Flag
Emblem Gold Lion Passant
Anthem "Sri Lanka Matha"
Butterfly Sri Lankan birdwing
Animal Grizzled giant squirrel
Bird Sri Lanka junglefowl
Flower Blue water lily
Tree Ceylon ironwood (nā)
Sport Volleyball
Source: [213][214]
• v
• t
• e
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by
the centre-left and progressive United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring
of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-
capitalist United National Party (UNP). After 2018, two major political parties split from
these two parties: The Samagi Jana Balawegaya split from the UNP, and the Sri Lanka
Podujana Peramuna split from the UPFA. The third wing party Janatha Vimukthi
Peramuna has gained popularity since 2022.[215]
Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist,
and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political
parties in the country is 67.[216] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP),
established in 1935, is the oldest.[217]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest
single political party.[218] It is the only political group which had representation in all
parliaments since independence.[218] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike in
July 1951.[219] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in
the 1956 Parliamentary election.[219] Following the parliamentary election in July
1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first
elected female head of government.[220]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D.
Bandaranaike,[221] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to
Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V.
Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu
Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political
party in Sri Lanka for the next two decades.[222] The Federal Party advocated a more
aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[223] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the
ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front).
Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s,
these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National
Alliance.[223][224] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party founded
by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political
context.[225] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist
politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[223] Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka
Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[226]
President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year
presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, Maithripala Sirisena,
decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[227] The Rajapaksa family regained power in
November 2019 presidential elections when Mahinda's younger brother and former
wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was later sworn in
as the new president of Sri Lanka.[228][229] Their firm grip of power was consolidated in
the parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party, Sri Lanka
People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a
clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the
new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime
minister.[230]
In 2022, a political crisis started due to the power struggle between President Gotabaya
Rajapaksa and the Parliament of Sri Lanka. The crisis was fuelled by anti-government
protests and demonstrations by the public and also due to the worsening economy of
Sri Lanka since 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka
has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political
arena.[231]
On July 20, 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected as the ninth President via
a parliamentarian election.[232] President Ranil Wickremesinghe was defeated by left-
leaning Anura Kumara Dissanayake in 2024 presidential elections.[233]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces[234] and twenty-
five districts.[235]
Provinces
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status
until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial
councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the
government.[236] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority
of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government
ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[236] but authority over
land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[237][238] Between 1989 and
2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-
East Province.[239][240] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were
handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times.
Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
