Group 3: CMA - Critical Metaphor Analysis

Presentation Outline

No Task Core text Presenter

1 Metaphor background and theory Charteris-Black, J. Phạm Trang Thu

Critical approach to metaphor (2004) - Part 1
(CDA + Corpus Linguistics)

2 Critical Metaphor Analysis Frame Charteris-Black, J. Vũ Việt Tú

The Discourse Model of Metaphor (2004) - Part 5
Metaphor and Subliminal meaning
CMA and Personal Empowerment

3 Game (Review concept) Phạm Trang Thu

Vũ Việt Tú

4 Critical Metaphor Analysis: A Imani, A. (2022) Vũ Thị Huệ

systematic step-by-step guideline + Nguyễn Thị Thu Thuỷ
Examples

5 Review of CMA articles (3 articles) Article 1: CMA of the Phan Hoàng Thuỳ Linh
Problems of CMA Khalifa (leader)
Article 2: CMA of
disability and identity
ideology
Article 3: A CMA of
Malaysia’s Gazetted
metaphor
Rethinking of CMA
Metaphor and Thought
1. Metaphor, Ideology and Thought
Metaphors are not simply linguistic flourishes—they are ideological mechanisms embedded
within thought. According to Charteris-Black (2004), metaphors allow speakers to link abstract
domains (such as justice or democracy) to concrete experiences (such as balance, light, or
journeys), making them more cognitively accessible and rhetorically persuasive.

Example 1: In Vietnamese discourse, economic transition is often framed as “mở đường phát
triển” (clearing the way for development), which naturalizes the hardships of change as
necessary for progress.

Example 2: In Europe, metaphors like "Brussels is the heart of Europe" present the EU as a
living organism with a central command, reflecting a biopolitical ideology (Fairclough, 1995).
These metaphors guide perception by shaping what is foregrounded and what is hidden, making
them powerful tools of ideological naturalization.
 2. Metaphor and Pragmatic
From a pragmatic perspective , metaphors function at the level of utterance meaning what the
speaker intends given the context—not just literal word meaning. Searle (1979) emphasized that
metaphors operate beyond truth conditions; their function is to evoke inference.

Example 1: When a media outlet describes inflation as “cơn bão tài chính” (a financial storm),
the metaphor frames inflation as an uncontrollable force of nature. This may mitigate blame and
reduce public critique, transferring agency away from policymakers. The metaphor is not just
descriptive—it is ideologically strategic.
Example 2: In European policy discourse, metaphors such as “economic battlefield” or “war
chest for recovery” frame economic intervention as a military endeavor, promoting urgency,
sacrifice, and unity, while implicitly discouraging dissent or delay.

Thus, metaphors in pragmatic use act as rhetorical vehicles that strategically manage public
emotions and perception (Charteris-Black, 2004).

3. Cognitive semantics and conceptual metaphor

Cognitive semantics (ngữ nghĩa học nhận thức) explores how meaning arises from mental
models. Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) posits that our thinking is
structured metaphorically. Metaphors like:

ARGUMENT IS WAR → “She attacked his point”

TIME IS MONEY → “I can’t waste any more time”

These are not just expressions but ways of structuring experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).
Charteris-Black (2004) extends this with CMA (Critical Metaphor Analysis), linking cognitive
patterns to social power structures.

Example: In Vietnam, “ánh sáng tri thức” (light of knowledge) illustrates KNOWLEDGE IS
LIGHT—a deeply embedded metaphor in educational discourse.

Imani (2022) formalizes metaphor analysis through a step-by-step guideline that links metaphor
to:

- Cognitive schema
 - Discourse roles
- Sociopolitical contexts

This structured approach is vital in unpacking the layered functions of metaphor in different
cultural settings.

4. Conventional and creative metaphors

Charteris-Black (2004) distinguishes between:

● Conventional metaphors (ẩn dụ quy ước): e.g., “price is climbing” (MARKET

MOVEMENT IS VERTICAL MOTION)
● Creative metaphors (ẩn dụ sáng tạo): e.g., “a concrete forest” to describe urban
overdevelopment

Conventional metaphors are often invisible yet carry heavy ideological reinforcement. For
example, phrases like “cleaning up corruption” assume that political decay is dirt, which must be
scrubbed away—naturalizing the idea of moral hygiene (Charteris-Black, 2004).

Creative metaphors, on the other hand, challenge dominant frames.

Example 1: In Vietnamese media, an urban development project described as “Nấm bê tông”

(concrete mushroom) invokes critique rather than affirmation.

Example 2: In European green politics, “degrowth as detox” reframes economic contraction

positively—subverting dominant growth narratives.
This contrast highlights how metaphor functions both as a stabilizer and as a disruptor of
ideology.

5. Defining metaphor

A robust definition of metaphor must account for its:

Cognitive function: mapping between domains

Linguistic realization: metaphorical expression

Pragmatic purpose: rhetorical intention

Charteris-Black (2004, p. 21) defines metaphor as:

“a linguistic representation that results from the activation of a metaphorical thought

pattern and that achieves its rhetorical effect through the mapping of one conceptual
domain onto another.”

This means metaphor is not just a wordplay but a structured mode of thought, shaped by
intention and context. Imani (2022) further stresses that metaphor analysis must consider social
power, not just textual structure.
 6. Metaphor and theory construction

Metaphors are not only tools of expression—they are engines of theory. Many core social and
economic theories are metaphorically grounded:

THE MARKET IS A LIVING BODY → “the economy is ailing”

CRIME IS A DISEASE → “crime is spreading”

These metaphors influence how problems are diagnosed and how solutions are proposed.

Example: In Vietnam, public discourse during COVID-19 framed the response as “chiến dịch
chống dịch” (a campaign against the disease), which guided public behavior toward collective
mobilization, often mirroring militarized models.

Thus, metaphors help construct conceptual universes, upon which entire policy paradigms or
academic frameworks are built (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Charteris-Black, 2004).

Summary

Metaphor is at the intersection of thought, language, power, and action. It:

- Structures cognition (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)

 - Operates contextually and rhetorically (Searle, 1979; Levinson, 1983)
- Embeds and challenges ideology (Charteris-Black, 2004; Fairclough, 1995)
- Shapes theoretical and policy frameworks

Critical Approaches to Metaphor

Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) is a methodological synthesis that combines theories from
cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to study how
metaphors do ideological work. As Charteris-Black (2004) emphasizes, metaphors are not
merely stylistic devices—they are strategic instruments that help legitimize authority, frame
reality, and mobilize public sentiment.

I. Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) provides the epistemological foundation for CMA. Scholars
like Fairclough (1995) and van Dijk (1998) assert that language is not neutral: it is always
embedded in relations of power and control. CDA studies how discourse contributes to the
(re)production of dominance.

In this framework, metaphor is understood as:

- A tool to shape social cognition

- A means to control interpretation through imagery

Examples: “Giặc nội xâm” (“The internal enemy”)

Context: In Vietnamese political discourse, corruption is often metaphorically framed as “giặc

nội xâm” (internal invaders/enemies).
Metaphor:

- “Giặc” (enemy/invader) evokes the image of a dangerous, destructive force.

- Nội xâm” (internal invasion) implies an insidious threat from within, more dangerous
than foreign enemies.

CDA Analysis:

- This metaphor frames corruption not merely as a bureaucratic issue, but as a threat to
national security.
- It constructs a social cognition where fighting corruption becomes a moral and patriotic
duty.
- It steers interpretation away from systemic or institutional root causes and instead
emphasizes individual moral failings.
- The metaphor legitimizes top-down authority and control in the name of national defense.
These metaphors are not just descriptive—they carry value-laden assumptions about political
agency and legitimacy.

II. Corpus linguistics

Corpus linguistics (ngôn ngữ học khối liệu) enriches CMA by introducing empirical precision.
Using large bodies of texts (corpora), analysts can:

- Identify frequently occurring metaphors

- Study collocational patterns
- Measure semantic prosody (emotional or evaluative tone)

Charteris-Black (2004) applied corpus methods to political speeches to show how metaphors are
strategically repeated to frame leadership as strength or morality.

Cross-cultural examples:

1. Vietnam: “The one steering the ship of the nation” (Lái con thuyền đất nước)

Corpus-Based Insights (from Vietnamese political texts):

- Common metaphorical expressions include: “người đứng đầu” (the top leader), “lãnh
đạo kiên định” (steadfast leader), and “chèo lái con thuyền đất nước” (steering the
ship of the nation).
- Collocational patterns: often found with words like “firm,” “wise,” “guiding,”
“weathering storms.”
 - Semantic prosody: strong positive tone – leadership is portrayed as calm, resilient, and
morally upright.

Metaphorical Framing:

- Leadership is metaphorically conceptualized as a helmsman or captain, steering the

nation through turbulent waters.
- This metaphor emphasizes control, direction, and unity, reinforcing an image of steady
leadership without explicitly addressing transparency or institutional checks and
balances.
- It supports a Confucian-style hierarchical view of governance – moral strength, patience,
and harmony.

2. United States: “Commander-in-Chief” / “Fight for the soul of the nation”

Corpus-Based Insights (drawn from Charteris-Black 2004 and campaign speeches):

- Repeated metaphors include: “Commander-in-Chief,” “battleground,” “fight for

freedom,” “light vs. darkness,” and “restoring the soul.”
- Collocational patterns: cluster around words like “courage,” “defend,” “lead,”
“restore,” “values.”
- Semantic prosody: dramatic and emotive – invoking urgency, righteousness, and
polarization.

Metaphorical Framing:

- Leaders are framed either as military figures defending democracy or as moral

guardians rescuing national identity.
- For example, Biden’s 2020 campaign frequently used the metaphor “battle for the soul
of America” to frame his leadership as a moral mission to restore justice and unity.
 - These metaphors often emerge during times of crisis (e.g., post-9/11, COVID-19,
political division), and serve to mobilize and polarize public opinion.

Cross-Cultural Comparison Table

Feature Vietnam United States

Leadership Navigator / Helmsman (“steering Warrior / Moral Guardian

Metaphor the ship”) (“fighting evil”)

Corpus Focus Harmony, resilience, collectivity Urgency, morality, individual

strength

Semantic Prosody Calm, unified, idealized Intense, polarized, dramatic

Cultural Values Confucian hierarchy, social Judeo-Christian ethics, liberal

Reflected harmony democracy

Thus, corpus linguistics provides the quantitative backbone of CMA.

Critical Metaphor Analysis Framework (Tú)

1. Hierarchical Structure (Charteris-Black, 2004)

 - Conceptual Keys: Highest level of abstraction (e.g., LIFE IS A STRUGGLE FOR
SURVIVAL)
- Conceptual Metaphors: Mid-level abstractions (e.g., POLITICS IS CONFLICT)
- Surface Metaphors: Specific linguistic expressions (e.g., "election battles")

2. Key Distinction from Cognitive Semantics

- Cognitive semantics explains how metaphors are interpreted

- Critical Metaphor Analysis explains why particular metaphors are chosen in specific
discourse contexts (Charteris-Black, 2004)

The Discourse Model of Metaphor

1. Individual Resources (Charteris-Black, 2004)

● Cognitive & Affective: experiential meaning

● Linguistic: knowledge of lexical fields
● Pragmatic: contextual effectiveness

2. Social Resources

- Ideology: political/religious viewpoints

- Culture: group identity markers
- History: collective memory and experience

Example: Cultural Metaphor Differences

American Politics: "Beacon of hope," "Light of democracy," "Burning desire for change"

- Fire/light = positive (reflects revolutionary heritage, "land of liberty")

British Politics: "Grassroots movement," "Seeds of change," "Fertile ground for reform"

Plant growth = positive (reflects gardening culture, gradual cultivation)

Why This Matters: Same concept (positive political change) uses completely different source
domains based on cultural history

Metaphor and Subliminal meaning

Definition and Unconscious Processing
1. Subliminal Function

- Definition: The covert, unconscious role of metaphor in influencing emotions and

cognition without the decoder's awareness
- Hierarchy Principle: "The higher up the metaphor hierarchy we go in the direction of
top-level conceptual keys, the more unconscious, or covert, metaphor use becomes"
(Charteris-Black, 2004)

2. Etymological Connection

- Motion-Emotion Link: Both terms share roots in movement - emotion from French
movoir (motion)
- Metaphor as Movement: Greek meta (bearing) + pherien (across) = bearing across
- Implication: Metaphors literally "move" or transport the hearer emotionally

Contextual Variation in Awareness

1. Overt Persuasion Contexts

- Advertising: Metaphor use is expected and recognized as persuasive

- Political Speeches: Clear rhetorical intent makes metaphor role obvious
- Awareness Level: Higher consciousness of metaphorical manipulation

2. Covert Persuasion Contexts

- Financial Reporting: Market as active agent (THE MARKET IS A PERSON)

- Religious Discourse: JESUS/ALLAH IS THE LIGHT

Characteristic: "The metaphor IS the discourse rather than just a way of communicating it"
(Charteris-Black, 2004)

Ideological Implications and Real-World Impact

1. Global Language Power and Word Warfare

English as language of global capitalism = "powerful instrument for influencing people's

outlooks and beliefs"

Example: The Language of Conflict (Charteris-Black, 2004)

"Potential terrorist" vs. "Living martyr"

Same person, completely different moral evaluation

 First emphasizes threat/danger; second emphasizes sacrifice/heroism

"Political assassination" vs. "Targeted killing"

First sounds illegal/criminal; second sounds military/justified

"Illegal combatant" vs. "Prisoner of war"

First removes legal protections; second grants international rights

Why This Matters: The metaphor/term chosen literally determines legal, moral, and political
treatment

Media Manipulation Through Metaphor

- COVID-19 Coverage Examples:

"War against the virus" → Military response, blame for "losing"

"Living with the virus" → Acceptance, adaptation, normalization

"Defeating the pandemic" → Temporary battle with clear victory

Each frame creates different policy expectations and public responses

Dehumanization Through Sports Metaphors in War

- Current: "Eliminate targets," "Score a hit," "Game changer weapon"

- Effect: Killing becomes achieving points, strategy becomes playbook
- Hidden consequence: "Metaphors may overlook the humanity of others and represent
dying as necessary or even desirable" (Charteris-Black, 2004)
- Alternative: Medical metaphors would emphasize healing, preventing casualties, treating
causes

Critical Metaphor Analysis and Personal Empowerment

Definition and Empowerment Concept

1. Critical Awareness

Definition: Conscious examination of metaphor motivation and the ability to identify what is
suppressed vs. highlighted by metaphorical choices

Goal: To "challenge the metaphor and to propose an alternative way of thinking about the topic"
(Charteris-Black, 2004)
2. Freedom Through Metaphor Choice

Core Principle: "Having the right to select our metaphors gives us the right to present
alternative ways of thinking and feeling about the world and is a fundamental aspect of human
freedom" (Charteris-Black, 2004)

Mechanisms of Empowerment

1. Exposing Hidden Assumptions Through Corpus Analysis

Method: Analyzing thousands of texts reveals systematic patterns

Example Analysis: Business metaphors in education

"Students as customers," "Knowledge as product," "Schools as factories"

Hidden assumption: Education is commodity exchange, not human development

Alternative revealed: Education as cultivation, growth, enlightenment

Empowerment: Recognizing the metaphor allows teachers/students to resist

commodification

2. Creating Alternative Frameworks Through Domain Inversion

Example: Religion ↔ Politics Reversal

Standard: POLITICS IS RELIGION

Politicians have "vision," "mission," "faith," "beliefs"

Policies become sacred, questioning becomes heresy

Inverted: RELIGION IS POLITICS

Religious communities "vote" on doctrine, "elect" leaders, "canvass" for converts

Makes religious authority seem democratic rather than divine

Empowerment Effect: Shows neither domain is inherently more fundamental

Practical Applications and Transformative Examples

1. Transforming War Discourse

Current Dominant Metaphor: WAR IS SPORT

Alternative Metaphor: WAR IS DISEASE

Empowerment: Citizens can resist war rhetoric by refusing sports metaphors

2. Reclaiming Economic Discourse

Current: ECONOMY IS MACHINE

Alternative: ECONOMY IS ECOSYSTEM

Personal empowerment: Individuals can reject growth-at-all-costs narratives

Broader Implications for Intellectual Freedom

1. Cognitive and Communicative Enhancement

Real-World Example: Climate Change Discourse

Failed Metaphor: CLIMATE CHANGE IS WAR

Successful Alternative: CLIMATE CHANGE IS HEALTH

Communication Skill Development:

Balance Needed: Convention vs. creative manipulation

Example: Effective speakers know when to use familiar metaphors (for clarity) vs. new ones (for
impact)

Language Proficiency: Understanding metaphor motivation = more persuasive communication

2. Resistance to Manipulation - Practical Steps

Identifying Manipulation in Media:

Question: What metaphors are being used repeatedly?

Example: "Immigration flood," "Wave of migrants," "Tide of refugees"

Metaphor: IMMIGRATION IS NATURAL DISASTER

Effect: Makes immigration seem overwhelming, uncontrollable, destructive

Hidden assumption: Immigrants are forces of nature, not people with agency

Resistance: Recognize the metaphor, consider alternatives

 "Immigration as journey," "Seeking new homes," "Building communities"

Corporate Language Awareness:

Common Metaphor: EMPLOYEES ARE RESOURCES

Alternative Recognition: EMPLOYEES ARE COMMUNITY MEMBERS

Political Speech Analysis:

Technique: Listen for repeated metaphorical patterns

Example: "Draining the swamp" (politics as contaminated water)

Implication: Current system is diseased, needs complete replacement

Alternative: "Renovating the house" (politics as structure needing repair)

Different implication: System needs improvement, not destruction

DEFINITION:
Critical Metaphor Analysis is an approach to metaphor analysis that aims to reveal the covert
(and possibly unconscious) intentions of language users.

Charteris-Black (2004) clarified the methodological foundation of Critical Metaphor Analysis

(CMA) based on Halliday’s (1985) functional linguistics and comprises the methodology of
CDA.

=> A four-level Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) framework is adapted from Charteris-Black
(2004) and systematized by Imani (2022). While Charteris-Black outlines three key stages—
identification, interpretation, and explanation—Imani introduces a preliminary stage, Pre-
Metaphor Analysis, to foreground contextual factors such as producer, audience, and purpose.
This expanded model ensures both textual and contextual depth in metaphor analysis.

LEVEL 1: PRE-METAPHOR ANALYSIS

The ‘Pre-Metaphor Analysis’ includes the identification of seven main features of the text
before the analysis.
=> aims at providing a clear understanding of the text under study by answering various
questions regarding the text. => who, why, to whom, and under what conditions the text was
produced
This level includes identification of the ‘producer, audience, context, length, main topic, tone,
and purpose’.
1. Producer
The producer is the actor responsible for the content of the text. This can be:

● An individual (e.g., a speaker or writer),

● A group (e.g., editorial boards),
● An institution (e.g., government, media).

Even if a speech is not personally written by the speaker (e.g., a prime minister), it represents
the speaker’s voice because it must be reviewed and approved by them.

According to van Dijk (2001:117), the producer can be locally defined (as an individual) or
globally (as a group or institution), depending on the scope of influence and authorship.
Key questions: Who is the producer of the text? Whose voice, ideologies, and power status does
the text reflect?

Example: In Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches, even if parts were drafted by advisors, the text
reflects his ideological stance, political position, and national vision. Therefore, he is still
considered the producer of the discourse.

2. Audience
Audience refers to all the individuals, groups, organizations, or institutions that are present as
well as all those who are absent yet are addressed by the text.
Audience Types (Fairclough, 1992):
1. Addressees – Directly addressed (e.g., “Dear citizens”)
2. Hearers – Not addressed directly, but implicitly included
3. Overhearers – Not officially addressed, but expected to consume the text (e.g., media,
opposition, international observers)
Members of the audience can belong to various groups such as public people, heads of states, or
experts.
Key questions: Who is the audience? Who is the text addressed to?

3. Context
Context refers to the social, cultural, and historical context of the study (Fairclough, 1992; 1995;
Wodak & Meyer, 2009)
=> Understanding context is essential because it directly influences why certain metaphors are
chosen, how they are understood, and what effects they are intended to have.
Key questions: What is the context of the text? What is the social, cultural, political, and
historical background of the
text?
Example:
In Mahathir Mohamad’s speeches delivered in 2000, the context was Malaysia’s recovery from
the 1997 Asian financial crisis. This context likely influenced the use of metaphors related to
economic rebuilding, survival, and national resilience, as his speeches addressed both
domestic and international audiences during key economic and diplomatic events.
- Economic resilience as battle, struggle, or construction (e.g., Malaysian businesses
must “venture abroad,” “compete,” and “rebuild.”)
- Self-reliance as a pioneering spirit: He referenced stories like Mickey Mouse’s “Go
West, young man” as a metaphor for national courage and exploration.

4. Length
Length refers to the number of words in a text or transcription which can be used to measure
metaphor density across different texts.
Key questions: What is the length of the text? What is the number of the words in the text?

5. Main topic
Main Topic refers to the main topics/central ideas discussed in a text. In written discourse, each
paragraph typically revolves around one main idea—often introduced in a topic sentence
(usually the first sentence, but not always).
Key questions: What are the text main topics?
What is each paragraph topic sentence?
What are the text main topics?

Identify Main Topics (Imani, 2022):

- Step 1: Read each paragraph and locate the topic sentence.

- Step 2: Combine the topic sentences across multiple paragraphs to determine the
broader main topic of the section or whole text.

6. Tone
Tone refers to the tone in written text, i.e., the way a topic is introduced and the producer’s
attitude towards it, as revealed through word choice, sentence structure, and rhetorical
strategies. It reflects how the producer feels about the issues they discuss—whether that’s
critical, persuasive, optimistic, cautionary, etc. (Kuta, 2008).
Key questions: What is the tone of the text? What is the text producer’s attitude toward or idea
about the main topics?
Example from Mahathir’s Speech: Paragraph 21: “I think it is about time that Malaysian
contractors venture abroad.”

This sentence shows:

● A persuasive and encouraging tone

● Use of assertive modality (“it is about time”)

● Implies urgency and motivation

In this speech, the tone supports metaphors that frame overseas business expansion as a
necessary challenge or heroic mission.

7. Purpose
Purpose refers to the reason behind production of a text, or here behind delivering the selected
speech.
Speech purpose can be implied by referring to the speech main topic(s) and tone(s).
Key questions: What is the purpose of the text? What is the reason behind the text? What is the
producer’s message to
the audience?

LEVEL 2: METAPHOR IDENTIFICATION

CHARTERIS-BLACK'S APPROACH (2004) Example

Charteris-Black’s process for metaphor identification includes “Crusade Against Terror”

two main stages Context:
→ identify semantic tensions + metaphorical Used by George W. Bush after
context = detect metaphors the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

Stage 1: Method: Dual Meanings of Crusade:

Identifying - Literal: Medieval Christian
Candidate Carefully read sample texts (e.g., political military campaigns to reclaim
Metaphors speeches, newspapers). the Holy Land.
- Metaphorical: A passionate
Look for words used in unfamiliar ways— campaign for reform or justice
i.e., when they shift domains. (e.g., “crusade against
corruption”).
Focus on cases where a word evokes a
figurative interpretation due to semantic *Problem:
tension. While Bush likely meant the
figurative sense, many in the
Muslim world interpreted it
- Metaphors arise from incongruity between: literally, due to the word's
+ Source domain (literal/original domain) religious-historical baggage.
+ Target domain (new topic being described)
Resulted in perceptions of the
Tension can be: “War on Terror” as a religious
war, triggering political
+ Linguistic (e.g., strange word combinations) backlash.
+ Pragmatic (unusual usage in a social setting)
+ Cognitive (unexpected domain mapping)

=> Words frequently used metaphorically

become metaphor keywords.

These are candidate metaphors for further

testing.

Stage 2 Corpus Analysis (Bank of

Corpus-Based Use corpus tools to: English):
Qualitative - “Crusade against” often
Verification ● Search for the metaphor keyword collocated with: Corruption,
across texts (e.g., “crusade”). poverty, crime, slavery,
● Examine the surrounding context of communism, etc.
each usage. - These metaphorical uses frame
social issues using religious
Literal or metaphorical? struggle metaphors.
- However, semantic tension
remains because crusade comes
● Words like crusade, battle, or war are from a religious domain, and is
 now applied in secular reform
often conventional metaphors, so their contexts.
metaphorical status must be tested
case-by-case.
● Without semantic tension, repeated
metaphor use becomes literalized and
loses ideological power.

=>Charteris-Black’s approach is careful and context-sensitive. It stresses that:

- Not all uses of metaphor keywords are metaphorical.

- Analysts must check each use in its context for semantic tension.
- This ensures accurate classification and helps uncover covert ideological meanings,
especially in conventional metaphors that people may no longer notice consciously.

IMANI’S FOUR-STAGE FRAMEWORK (2022) Example

Imani builds on Charteris-Black by proposing a clearer, more The biggest conglomerates in

structured four-stage process for metaphor identification, ASEAN are ants compared to
which integrates both qualitative and corpus-based methods. these elephants: megamergers.

Stage 1: - Identifying “words or groups of Metaphorical words: ants,

Identify words that are used with a metaphoric elephants
Metaphorical sense or meaning” via a close reading
Words and of the text (Pragglejaz Group’s MIP,
Expressions 2007)
- Focus on semantic tension—a clash
between literal meaning and actual
usage (Charteris-Black, 2004).
- Look for deliberate metaphors used to
express ideology, power, or persuasion.

Tip: Check your interpretations using:

● Inter-rater validation

● Corpus-based verification

● Native speaker consultation

→ to address the subjectivity

Stage 2: - find out ‘what is similarized to what’
Identifying by the metaphorical expression. ● Target: The biggest
Metaphorical conglomerates in
Expressions Identify: ASEAN
Source and ● Source: ants
Target ● Target: the real-world concept being
talked about.
“Western megamergers
● Source: the metaphorical image it's are elephants”
compared to.
● Target: Western
“TARGET IS SOURCE” megamergers

● Source: elephants

Stage 3: There are 5 steps to identify:

Identifying Step 1: Identifying features of target “TARGET IS SOURCE”:
Conceptual represented by source ASEAN conglomerates are ants
Metaphors Step 2: Identifying target domain
Step 3: Identifying source domain Step 1: Weak and vulnerable
Step 4: Grouping metaphorical expressions Individually but strong if united
based on their source and target domains and hardworking
Step 5: Identifying conceptual metaphor
Step 2: Economic Organisations

Step 3: animal

Step 4:

+ Sources refer to an
animal such as ants,
elephants, predators,
preys.
+ Targets refer to an
economic organization,
such as megamergers,
corporations, banks, and
conglomerates

Stage 4: Based on 3 steps Step 1: Economic

Identifying - Step 1: Grouping conceptual metaphors organizations are
Conceptual - Step 2: Identifying conceptual animals
Keys metaphors entailments Step 2: These metaphors entail
- Step 3: Identifying conceptual key three animal features:
(i) necessity of survival;
 (ii) cruelty and lack of
humanity; (iii) mutually
beneficial existence
Step 3:Economic development
is survival in animals’ kingdom

LEVEL 3: METAPHOR INTERPRETATION

- While ‘Metaphor Identification’ provides more general information regarding in-text
features, Metaphor Interpretation and Explanation provide more specific in-depth
information regarding out-of-text features that are ‘speech topics, context, and
audience’.
- “Audience, context, and topic” => 3 main axes behind metaphor use => highly
determined and influenced by the orator or the author’s ideological stances and
power relations. (figure 1)

=> (i) Metaphor is always used with certain audience in mind

(ii) The aim of metaphor is to create an image of certain topics in the audience’s mind;
(iii) The features of the topics that are reflected by metaphor is based on the context in
which metaphor use occurs.
- Metaphor Interpretation consists of four stages according to the four main questions
proposed in Table 1.
 + Stage 1: Interpreting Conceptual Metaphor Tones => Conceptual metaphor TONES
are determined based on the CONTEXT of the text and the TONE of the paragraphs
where the metaphorical expressions have been employed.
Example: The speech by Dr. Mahathir Mohamad delivered at the Opening of the Malaysian
Structural Steel Association on April 11, 2000, after the Post-1997 financial crisis (khi thuyết
trình thì show từng phần & có kết hợp phân tích)

Metaphorical Expression Conceptual Metaphor Audience Tone

“Against all the giants our Economic ASEAN/ Cảnh báo, lo lắng
own corporations and banks organizations are International – Gợi cảm giác
will be easy meat. They would animals – Local leaders – The khẩn cấp, nhấn
be swallowed up.” businesses are depicted metaphor targets mạnh sự yếu thế và
(Trước các “gã khổng lồ”, các as prey (easy meat), policymakers or nguy cơ bị “nuốt
doanh nghiệp và ngân hàng while competitors are regional decision- chửng”.
của chúng ta chỉ là miếng mồi portrayed as “giants” or makers.
dễ xơi. Họ sẽ bị nuốt chửng.) predators.

“The raids by foreign Economic ASEAN/ Cảnh báo, lo lắng

predators are made less organizations are International – Mang tính cảnh
costly.” animals – Foreign leaders – The báo về việc mở cửa
(Các cuộc đột kích của những companies are described metaphor targets thị trường khiến
kẻ săn mồi nước ngoài giờ ít as predators, easily policymakers or doanh nghiệp trong
tốn kém hơn.) taking over others & regional decision- nước dễ bị thâu
dominate the market. makers. tóm.

“The biggest conglomerates Economic ASEAN/ Cảnh báo, lo lắng

in ASEAN are as ants in organizations are International – Cho thấy sự
comparison with these animals – ASEAN leaders – The chênh lệch lớn và
elephants: megamergers.” companies are “ants” metaphor targets khả năng bị lấn át.
(Các tập đoàn lớn nhất ở (small), while foreign policymakers or
ASEAN chẳng khác gì những megamergers are regional decision-
con kiến so với các “con voi” “elephants” (huge), makers.
sáp nhập khổng lồ.) emphasizing the size
gap.

+ Stage 2: Interpreting Conceptual Metaphor Purposes: based on the identified speech

purposes in the Pre-Metaphor Analysis Level. In other words, the identified speech
purposes are used as a guideline to determine the conceptual metaphors’ purposes.
Example:

+ Stage 3: Interpreting Conceptual Metaphor Mappings : (Mapping’s definition: =>

source domain (miền nguồn - gần gũi, dễ hình dung): concrete ideas >< target domain (miền đích
- more abstract, khó hiểu) => make the abstract target domain more concrete)
=> Some notes are to be taken into consideration:

Mapping Notes Examples

(CM: Economic challenges are diseases)

Metaphor mapping refers to a one-to-one

mapping of the respective elements of 1. The causes of economic challenges are viruses
the target and source domains
2. Identifying the causes of economic challenges is
diagnosis
Metaphor mapping is unidirectional
3. Economic policies are remedies or cures

4. National policies are home-grown remedies

Mappings are partial, which means that
only a part of the source domain is 5. Recovery from an economic challenge is recovery
mapped onto the target domain, and from a disease
mapping all source features onto the
target would be at the risk of over- 6. Government is a trustworthy doctor
interpretation.

Metaphor mapping includes both ‘the

features of the source that could be
mapped onto the target’ as well as ‘the
attributed qualities to the target by the
source’.

Mapping Notes Example & Analysis

(Economic challenges are diseases)

(i) One-to-one mapping ✔ Virus = Cause of economic crisis

Each element in the source domain ✔ Diagnosis = Identifying the root economic
(disease) maps to one element in the problem
target domain (economy). ✔ Remedy = Economic policy
✔ Doctor = Government

(ii) Unidirectional We use “disease” to explain “economic problems”,

Mapping flows from source → target, not the other way around. We say: "The economy
not vice versa. needs a cure", but we don’t use “the economy” to
explain illness.
(iii) Partial mapping We borrow key traits like uncontrollable,
Only relevant features are mapped; not spreading, and requiring treatment, but do NOT
all properties are transferred. map irrelevant aspects (e.g., fever, pain, physical
symptoms). That would be over-interpretation.

(iv) Source features + attributed The metaphor attributes qualities of a doctor (fair,
qualities knowledgeable, trustworthy) to the government,
Metaphor includes both what is implying the public should trust their economic
transferred and what is implied about the “treatment.”
target. Also, the economy is framed as something
uncontrollable, requiring expert management.

+ Stage 4: Interpreting Conceptual Metaphor Topics: The conceptual metaphors are

grouped based on their topics:
(a) to identify the topics that are of importance to the orator;
(b) to understand how the same topic is perceived and framed by the orator via
various metaphors.
Example:

=> It illustrates that “economic development” was of great importance to Mahathir in

the year under study. As a result, the conceptual metaphor topic of ‘economic
development’, as one of the most dominant topics in Mahathir’s speeches in the year
2000, was portrayed via various metaphors.

LEVEL 4: METAPHOR EXPLANATION

- Explaining Ideological Stances and Power Relations is the last and the most in-depth
level, requiring a detailed consideration of the context of the metaphors
- Two different conceptual metaphors, even though they refer to the same topic, reveal
different ideological motivations.
=> For example:
Economic Development As A Journey Economic Development As A War

Refers to the process of economic development as Refers to the immediate action required
a slow and goal-oriented process that requires against the economic challenges that requires
patience and staying committed to the goal. full active cooperation of all audience.
- Metaphor Explanation Level consists of explaining the ideological stances and power
relations behind metaphors, which is carried out by taking into consideration the
sociocultural context.
For example:
+ Framing ECONOMIC CHALLENGES AS DISEASES not only puts the government, as
a doctor, at a more authoritative and powerful position, and therefore, necessitates
public support of and active cooperation with the government’s policies, framed as
remedy, but also takes the responsibility of economic challenges off the government,
as no doctor is to be blamed for the occurrence of a pandemic
+ The high usage of health metaphors (i.e., ECONOMIC CHALLENGES AS
DISEASES) can be considered as one of Mahathir’s discourse features. In this regard,
we can argue that Mahathir’s professional background of working as a medical
doctor has influenced the way he perceives economic issues as a politician

—----------------------
Current studies in CMA

Article 1: "A Critical Metaphor Analysis of the Khilafa as Conceptualized by Members of

Hizb ut-Tahrir in the UK" by Amir H. Y. Salama.

Objective: The study investigates how members of Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT) in the UK
metaphorically conceptualize the Khilafah (Caliphate) in their political-religious discourse.

Framework: It uses Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA), a framework combining Conceptual

Metaphor Theory (CMT) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).

Data: The analysis focuses on the HT-authored book "The Method to Re-establish the Khilafah
and Resume the Islamic Way of Life" (2000).

Key findings: Metaphors are used to frame the Khilafah as both a divinely inspired system and
a strategic political goal.

The study identifies five major source domains used metaphorically to conceptualize the
Khilafah: Strategic Planning, Relic, Building, Interrupted Activity, War Target.
—----------------------------------------------------------------------
1. RE-ESTABLISHING THE KHILAFAH IS STRATEGIC PLANNING

Step 1 – Identification

“The method to re-establish the Khilafah”

“Islamic methodology for establishing the Khilafah”
“Prophetic method”

Step 2 – Interpretation (Source → Target Mappings)

Planners → Muslim activists and scholars

Strategy → Prophet Muhammad’s model
Obstacles → Secularism, modern politics
End goal → Islamic governance (Khilafah)

Step 3 – Explanation
This metaphor reframes the Khilafah as a well-organized political process. It appeals to
Muslim audiences in the West who are familiar with strategic thinking and planning
frameworks, enhancing the political credibility of Hizb ut-Tahrir. It legitimizes their cause by
aligning religious goals with a modern professional discourse.

2. THE KHILAFAH IS A RELIC

Step 1 – Identification

“Re-establish the Khilafah”

“Re-establishment of the Khilafah”

Step 2 – Interpretation (Source → Target Mappings)

Historic object → Caliphate as lost institution

Restoration → Political revival of Islamic rule
Sacred value → Legitimacy through tradition

Step 3 – Explanation
This metaphor evokes nostalgia and reverence. It portrays the Khilafah as a sacred legacy
from the Islamic golden age that was unjustly lost. It emotionally appeals to Muslims by
suggesting that restoring it is both an act of justice and a religious obligation.
3. THE KHILAFAH IS A BUILDING

Step 1 – Identification

“Establish the Khilafah”

“The foundations of the Khilafah”
“Builders of the Khilafah”

Step 2 – Interpretation (Source → Target Mappings)

Structure → Islamic political system

Foundation → Islamic faith and law (Shari'ah)
Builders → Today’s Muslim community

Step 3 – Explanation
This metaphor suggests collective construction and structured political action. It emphasizes
that the Khilafah is not abstract or utopian—it’s a realistic and buildable system, grounded in
faith. The metaphor activates a sense of agency and responsibility among Muslims.

4. THE KHILAFAH IS AN INTERRUPTED ACTIVITY

Step 1 – Identification

“Resume the Khilafah”

“Resumption of the Islamic way of life”

Step 2 – Interpretation (Source → Target Mappings)

Ongoing activity → Khilafah as lived system in history

Interruption → Fall of the Ottoman Caliphate (1924)
Resumption → Restoration as religious/moral duty

Step 3 – Explanation
This metaphor frames the Khilafah as a project unjustly interrupted by colonialism and
secular reforms. It delegitimizes the current secular status quo, casting the restoration of
Khilafah as a resumption of divine order. It morally charges the audience to complete the
mission.

5. THE KHILAFAH IS A WAR TARGET

Step 1 – Identification

“Destruction of the Khilafah”

“Mustafa Kemal destroyed the Khilafah”

“Attack on the Khilafah”

Step 2 – Interpretation (Source → Target Mappings)

Attackers → Western imperialists, Atatürk

Destruction → Abolition of Shari’ah and Caliphate
War zone → The global political landscape

Step 3 – Explanation
This metaphor constructs a narrative of victimhood and aggression, portraying the Khilafah as
under deliberate attack. It demonizes secular reformers and external actors, especially
Atatürk, and frames political Islam as a defensive response to violence. It stirs emotion,
outrage, and solidarity among believers.

Summary of Context and Ideology

- These metaphors are embedded within both socio-historical contexts (e.g., the fall of the
Ottoman Empire and secular reforms in Turkey) and religious symbolism (the Prophet
and rightly-guided caliphs).
- The metaphors serve to rally support by connecting historical-religious identity with
contemporary political movements, framing revival as a strategic, constructive, and
urgent task.

Conclusion
Each metaphor mapped onto the target concept of the Khilafah within a specific source domain,
employing linguistic cues such as verbs (rebuild, plan, destroy, pause, relax) and nouns (relic,
target, building) to conceptualize and communicate ideological positions. These metaphors serve
to motivate, legitimize, and shape perceptions of the Khilafah’s importance, potential, and the
ongoing struggle to restore it.

Article 2: “A Critical Metaphor Analysis of Disability Identity and Ideology in the Thai
Undergraduates’ Home for Children with Disabilities Website Project” by Melada Sudajit-
apa.

Objective: Analyze how 13 Thai undergraduates used metaphors to construct the identity of the
Baan Nontapum Foundation (BNF) and of children with disabilities in their English website
project.
Framework: The study applies Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) to uncover how metaphors
reflect participants’ values, beliefs, and ideologies.
Key Finding: Participants portrayed disability as socially constructed and dynamic, not
biologically fixed. Children with disabilities are framed as capable of transformation and self-
sufficiency, with proper support.

Dominant Metaphor Themes:

1. FAMILY

2. JOURNEY/PATH

3. OBJECTS

4. HOPE

Ideological Insight: Metaphors were used to construct empathy, challenge Thai cultural
stigmas (e.g., karma-based views), and promote a social model of disability (oppression, not
impairment, is the issue).
Interview Findings: Students largely blamed Thai society for discrimination, not the children
themselves. They rejected karma-based stigmatization and advocated for inclusion, support,
and equal opportunity.

—---------------------------------

1. FAMILY Metaphor (11 instances)

Identification - Linguistic Evidence:

"For more than 45 years, our organization has been a warm family, welcoming children with
special needs"

"We, like other parents, want to ensure that our children will grow up strong"

"We, as a family, have the duty to provide them with a place where they can live happily"

Interpretation: BNF is a FAMILY

- Source Domain: Family structure, parent-child relationships

- Target Domain: Institutional care, organizational identity

Explaination: This metaphor transforms a professional service relationship into an intimate

familial bond, reflecting Thai cultural values that prioritize family hierarchy and caregiving
roles. The metaphor serves to legitimize the BNF's authority while portraying it as naturally
nurturing rather than institutionally obligated.

2. JOURNEY/PATH Metaphor (8 instances)

Identification - Linguistic Evidence:

-"providing them with a stepping stone towards great opportunities and a stairway to help them
reach their full potential"

- "We always stay by our children's side...help them solve any hard problem that they may
encounter"

- "overcome any obstacles that they may face in their future paths"

Interpretation: DISABILITY DEVELOPMENT IS A JOURNEY

- Source Domain: Physical movement, travel, navigation

- Target Domain: Personal development, rehabilitation process

Explaination: This metaphor constructs disability as a temporary state that can be "overcome"
through guided movement toward "normality." It implies that with proper assistance (the
"stairway"), children can reach predetermined destinations of independence and social
integration.

3. OBJECTS Metaphor (5 instances)

Identification - Linguistic Evidence:

"This is the place where 'Love' and 'Future' are being formed"

"We give our children warmth and love"

"officers, who will give them true care and love"

Interpretation: LOVE AND FUTURE ARE OBJECTS

Source Domain: Concrete, transferable objects

Target Domain: Abstract emotions and concepts (love, care, future)

Explanation: This metaphor commodifies emotional support, reducing complex care processes
to simple transactions. It reflects contemporary social expectations for "instant results" while
concealing the actual labor and complexity involved in caregiving.

4. HOPE Metaphor (4 instances)

Identification - Linguistic Evidence:

"opportunity for a brighter future"

"It gives our children new lives"

"Love and Future are being formed"

Interpretation: DISABILITY RECOVERY IS HOPE / RENEWAL

Source Domain: Light/darkness, rebirth, construction

Target Domain: Future possibilities, transformation

Explaination: This metaphor suggests that disability can be "illuminated" or transformed

through institutional intervention, reflecting Buddhist concepts of rebirth and karma while
promising redemption through proper care.

—--------------------------------------------

Conclusion

The study illustrates how metaphor functions ideologically, not just linguistically:

- It constructs identities, legitimizes BNF’s mission, and reframes disability through

compassionate, empowering lenses.
 - CMA reveals how young people resist dominant Thai discourses (e.g., karmic
punishment) and promote inclusive, hopeful alternatives.

Article 3: A Critical Metaphor Analysis on Malaysia’s Gazetted Metaphors amid the

Movement Control Order: A COVID-19 Episode” by Angela Rumina Leo & Maya Khemlani
David (2020).

Objective: To investigate gazetted metaphorical expressions used by Malaysian mainstream

English newspapers during the Movement Control Order (MCO) in the COVID-19 pandemic.

Framework: The study applies Charteris-Black’s (2004) Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA)

Data Source: News from The Star, New Straits Times, Malay Mail, etc.

Key Findings: Metaphors appeared across ten conceptual mappings, including: Health is War;
Economy is Movement; Society is Space; Government is Direction; Emotion is Movement

These metaphors served to:

- Simplify complex social realities

- Frame the pandemic as a battle or journey

- Persuade and emotionally mobilize the public

- Reinforce national identity and collective responsibility

1. HEALTH IS WAR

Step 1 – Identification:

“Fight COVID-19”
“Break the chain of transmission”
“Frontliners”
“Jihad against the virus”
“Beat the virus”

Step 2 – Interpretation:
Source: WAR
Target: Public health / COVID-19 crisis
Enemy → Virus
Soldiers → Medical staff, government officers
Battle → Containing the outbreak
Victory → Recovery, flattening the curve

Step 3 – Explanation:
This metaphor dramatizes the pandemic, intensifying urgency and solidarity. It promotes
discipline, sacrifice, and national unity, while elevating medical staff as heroes. Ideologically,
it legitimizes government restrictions and encourages public compliance.

2. ECONOMY IS MOVEMENT

Step 1 – Identification:

“Soft landing for economy”

“Currency system will crumble”
“Stimulus packages to drive recovery”
“Flatten the curve, then revive the economy”

Step 2 – Interpretation:

Source: Movement / Travel

Target: Economic activity

Movement → Financial growth or collapse

Crash / landing → Market downturn or stability
Curve → Economic indicators

Step 3 – Explanation:
These metaphors frame the economy as a dynamic object in motion. They enable politicians
and journalists to visualize economic health, justify interventions, and normalize instability as
navigable. They appeal to citizens' desire for predictable recovery.

3. EMOTION IS MOVEMENT
Step 1 – Identification:

“Inject humour to reduce stress”

“Stress baking”
“Holed up for weeks”

Step 2 – Interpretation:

Source: Movement
Target: Emotional/psychological state
Inject → Insert happiness
Movement → Change in mood
Holed up → Mental burden of confinement

Step 3 – Explanation:
These metaphors recognize the mental health impact of lockdown. They convey stress,
anxiety, and need for relief in physical terms. Ideologically, they normalize emotional struggles
while urging personal coping strategies (e.g., humour, baking).

4. GOVERNMENT IS DIRECTION

Step 1 – Identification:

“Left-field advice from ministry”

“Guidance for safe reopening”
“Green light to resume weddings”

Step 2 – Interpretation:

Source: Direction/Navigation
Target: Government decisions
Left-field → Unexpected policy
Green light → Approval, permission

Step 3 – Explanation:
These metaphors frame the government as a navigator or regulator of movement, highlighting
its role in guiding citizens safely. They also allow criticism (e.g., “left-field” = unorthodox), thus
reflecting public skepticism or endorsement.
5. SOCIETY IS SPACE / ANIMATION

Step 1 – Identification:

“Saving grace of home workouts”

“Doraemon-like tone” (used to instruct wives)
“Tabligh cluster” (as spatial unit of contagion)

Step 2 – Interpretation:

Source: Physical space / animation

Target: Social dynamics

Space → Public health zones or psychological relief

Animation → Gendered communication norms
Cluster → Social configuration of risk

Step 3 – Explanation:
This metaphor expresses social containment, domesticity, and behavioural norms. The
Doraemon example was used to criticize patriarchal gender messaging, while “saving grace”
suggests coping spaces. The metaphor reveals how cultural narratives shaped social
expectations under crisis.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that during COVID-19, Malaysian media used metaphors to:

- Mobilize public support

- Reinforce nationalism
- Frame institutional roles (e.g., doctors as soldiers, government as pilot)
- Communicate uncertainty with clarity
- Expose ideological tensions (e.g., gender roles, social obedience)

CMA reveals that metaphors are not neutral — they frame perception, influence emotion, and
carry persuasive power rooted in national culture, political ideology, and social memory.
Problems of CMA

Problem Description Suggested Solution

1. Discourse Type Focused too heavily on politics; Apply CMA to education,

Bias excludes other domains. health, religion, etc.

2. Subjectivity in Relies on analyst’s intuition; Use standardized methods

Identification inconsistent results. like MIP (Pragglejaz, 2007).

3a. Focus Tension CMT = cognitive, CDA = Acknowledge dual

(CMT vs. CDA) ideological/contextual. influences: both cognitive
and social.

3b. Motivation CMT = experiential, CDA = strategic Consider metaphors as

Tension choice. context-sensitive choices.

3c. Direction of CMT: conceptual → linguistic; CDA: Integrate using Conceptual

Influence linguistic → conceptual. Blending Theory.

4. Fragmented CMA lacks internal coherence Theorize a unified model

Theoretical between components. combining all layers.
Framework