Spirit of Complexity
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Spirit of Complexity
Chris Lucas
clucas@calresco.org
CALResCo Group (Complexity & Artificial Life Research), Manchester U.K.
Abstract
We investigate the value of spiritual concepts in the context of our evolutionary
fitness, and attempt to bring together science and spirit under the common viewpoint
of complexity theory. Within such a paradigm, we show spiritual ideas to be
perhaps the most valuable and neglected aspects of our education, and give some
complexity based criteria for the evaluation of religious systems. The idea of
spirituality as a worldly asset permits us to re-evaluate many of the assumptions
lying behind traditional science and religion, and allows us to move to a viewpoint
integrating both spiritual and scientific processes into the psychology of the mind.
Introduction
In our supposedly material world, the cultivation of spiritual excellence is often
regarded as at best irrelevant or at worst a psychotic delusion. Complexity Science
however can throw a very different light on this subject, revealing spiritual
development to be not only advantageous, but perhaps the most valuable asset
currently available to the human race.
We do however need to be quite clear about the difference between spirit and
religion and between spirit and instinct. A religion is a belief system, a set of
structured concepts, generally (but not always) related to a deity. It comprises
several dimensions: Ritual, Mythological, Doctrinal, Ethical, Social and
Experiential [Smart, pp15]. Most of these dimensions vary greatly between the
various religions, but the last, the experiential dimension, seems common to all
religions [Huxley]. This includes that aspect we call spirit. The external trappings of
religion can be regarded as simply alternative ways in which to package the internal
spiritual meaning, so they will take a back seat for our purposes here. Our study will
instead concentrate on the wider aspects of spirit, considering not just the religious
manifestations, but also the artistic, philosophical and scientific aspects of the
concept.
When we were young children we had many dependencies upon our parents. Those
psychological needs for protection and support are deeply embedded within our
evolutionary instincts, and it is natural for us to project such needs onto a parent
substitute as we grow (the security blanket syndrome - a desire to return to the
stressless safety of the womb) [Freud, pp72]. Many aspects of our Gods show this
instinctive or cultural personification, yet these archetypes [Jung, pp105] are not
spirit, and appear to be simply overlays upon it, patterns based upon our historical
or genetic predispositions.
Complexity Theory deals with those systems outside the scope of reductionist or
statistical techniques, and takes a connectionist approach in which the
interconnections are more important than the composition of the parts. Generally
these systems are composed of many interacting variables, arranged in such a way
as to be non-linear, non-deterministic, non-equilibrium and composed of extensive
feedback loops, allowing self-organization. Such ideas merge the systems approach
of technology, the evolutionary approach of biology and the phase transitions of
physics to obtain a methodology of considerable scope [Lucas98]. These complex
adaptive systems operate, for greatest efficiency, at a delicate dynamic balance
between static and chaotic modes of operation, which we call the 'edge of chaos'. At
this point the system exhibits considerable structure at many inter-related emergent
levels. For a popular overview of this new science see [Waldrop] or [Lewin], and
for an introduction to the complexity concepts used in this paper and their relation
to social systems see [Lucas97].
Spirit and Science
Spirit is often defined as an immaterial animating force, something surviving bodily
death, a God given life-force, soul or the essence of our character. The most general
definition would be that spirit includes all the non-material states of being. All these
terms seem alien to the concepts of science, yet this is not so. Modern science
contains many such immaterial concepts, e.g. gravity, electromagnetism, energy,
fields and the quantum vacuum. None of these have substance, they are detectable
only in relative ways, in their observable effects, but are concepts that prove very
useful in practice and are regarded by scientists as 'truths' nethertheless.
Treating spirit as just another immaterial concept allows us to discard the
metaphysical 'meaning' (the theology and philosophy) and concentrate on the
usefulness of the idea itself in dealing with the wider world in which we live. Can
we claim that spiritual ideas actually have effects ? The preponderance of religious
thought in all cultures and the actions of the believers leaves no doubt as to this. In
all aspects of life our beliefs affect our behaviour and this is true regardless of the
type of belief. The difference, if any, between scientific beliefs and those relating to
other areas (mathematics, art or religion say) is in how we evaluate utility or value.
It is in this area that we will look to integrate the various forms of belief that drive
our lives.
Levels of Reality
Complexity Theory puts much emphasis on emergence, on the generation of new
higher levels of structure from the interactions of the parts that comprise them
[Goodwin, Holland, Kauffman]. We are most familiar with this in our investigations
of the material world. It is now apparent that organic molecules are made up of
atoms, that cells in turn comprise such molecules, that animals and plants are built
from cells, and that ecosystems are composed of plants and animals. In a similar
way we can identify levels other than the material, for example processes (chemical
bonding, cell metabolism, brain activity, choral singing). These emerge within the
physical world but are not in themselves physical (the material constituents are
largely unchanged whether the process happens or does not). Our mental concepts,
for example, have no physical reality in themselves, a thought of a 'table' hasn't a
one to one correspondence with any physical object, it is a generalisation of many
potential properties that are socially agreed to constitute the word 'table'. Whether a
particular external object qualifies for this designation is always contextual, and this
is true of all our concepts [Wittgenstein]. Extending this idea of generalisation, we
can create concepts that are altogether beyond the material world, for example
mathematics, abstract art or ethics. Although we can apply these concepts to the
world in various ways, none of them refer to physically existing objects, they exist
(if the term is valid) in a different (Platonic) world, an alternative non-physical
reality.
Science, by concentrating almost exclusively on visible (material) emergence, has
neglected the hidden (process) equivalents. Spirituality in essence is such an internal
concept, as are most of the aspects of mind that so far elude scientific explanation
(e.g. emotions and consciousness). That there are multiple levels here also is evident
from our own experience, our ability to 'stand back' mentally from our actions, to
observe ourselves from a distance as it were, what might be called a meta-
consciousness. Add to this dreams, hypnosis, drug states and other altered and
partially conscious states and we have a whole hidden world of emergent
possibilities available. These states are occasionally studied in philosophy
[Flanagan] and psychology [Grof, p95], but many spiritual writings go far beyond
this, and identify several other levels of awareness and abilities (including the
paranormal) on the road to enlightenment or total understanding [Sangharakshita,
p120]. From a complexity science viewpoint, all such levels are equally possible,
and it is an empirical question as to which exist and what effects they have on our
views of reality, modes of operation or fitness.
How far we wish to pursue this is however a matter of taste. From a purely
scientific viewpoint we may be content to consider only those levels available to
everyone (these themselves go quite a way beyond a purely materialist science, and
include many of the psychological levels that we use in daily life). Taking a less
restrictive approach allows us to consider forms of interaction beyond the self, and
this takes us into the realms of the paranormal, but this can still be within the
general world view in which all that occurs is 'natural'. The most controversial areas
however allow for a much wider remit, one that is closer to the traditional religious
viewpoint. Here we can consider the possibility that there are genuine levels of
reality far beyond the more mundane levels of which we are normally aware.
Evidence for such levels, at least so far, depends on experiential accounts from
mystical experiences, often contradictory (biased by personal beliefs), yet frequent
enough in all cultures to leave the possibility open that they reflect a genuine form
of higher reality. Nethertheless, for our purposes here, we will concentrate on the
more mundane areas of spirit.
Quality of Life
Few people would regard life as very worthwhile if they were restricted only to
material necessities, the animal survival kit. Which extras we consider valuable
however, beyond this minimum, depends to a large extent on our education and
experience. We grow over time, physically and mentally. As adults, our interests
transcend those simple satisfactions we enjoyed as young children. If we pursue a
hobby (say) we develop constantly our expertise and knowledge. Sometimes
material possessions play some part in this, yet these too tend to relate to immaterial
ideas (e.g. money is a mental concept, not a physical one, and similarly, for all
collectibles, value is in the mind of the beholder).
In the religious forms of spiritual development we typically see a move away from
the material world and into the mental - exactly the same move as is seen in the
development of 'self' in those fields that we label artistic, scientific, humanitarian or
just 'growing up'. The material aspects (physical skills) take second place to abstract
ones (decision skills). Thus we can regard spiritual growth as having the same basis
as any other form of growth, and can evaluate it accordingly, in terms of its
contribution to our quality of life.
This quality of life is a multi-level idea, there are many needs to be considered. It is
not however the maximisation of just material goods (as is often assumed in modern
society) but includes also artistic levels, social levels and (we would suggest)
spiritual levels. Any measure of quality must include contributions from all these
possible levels of reality, including our higher mental development (educational
depth and width).
Fitness and Progress
Just after birth, a child is largely governed by those survival instincts inherited from
our animal past and passed down through the genes. These instincts, as in all
creatures, are the residues of trial and error selection over many aeons. Some
possible behaviours are useful, some are not. Those organisms adopting useful
behaviours (e.g. running away from predators) will be more likely to survive and
reproduce than those that adopt unproductive ones (e.g. jumping off cliffs). Humans,
however, are pre-programmed not only with such instincts but with the ability to
learn, to generate our own dynamically changing categories and behaviours - an
internal model of the world and how to behave in it.
As we are taught (by parents, friends, teachers, experiment) we mould our world
into a very complex place, each new morsel of knowledge adding to the detail in
our world view. The information we retain is that which proves useful (e.g. balls
aren't edible, running into doors hurts). Each new category is an option, a new
decision point in our life, a widening of the possibilities open to us, or (in complex
system terms) an expansion of our state space. Progress and evolution could be said
to depend on this process of expansion, the exploration of novelty. Quality of Life,
on the other hand, depends upon choosing the right path through the maze of
possibilities - those providing the highest fitness or value within our individual
world concept (defined as an internal mental perception rather than as an external
utilitarian result). But we do not operate in a vacuum, our actions take place in an
environmental and social context. As we act, we add in turn to the possibilities for
others, we create spirals of change, inter-twined ladders that can provide a ratchet
of self-reinforcing feedback, driving us all onward (for better or worst, depending
upon the particular paths chosen and whether the results agree with the expectations
of our model).
The fitness we experience is thus dependent not only on ourselves but on how our
viewpoint relates to those around us. A behaviour that is fit in one circumstance
(e.g. wearing fancy dress, at a party) may be highly disadvantageous in another
context (e.g. meeting a business client). But we must recall that fitness is not a
single dimension, multiple aspects of any situation will contribute to the overall
fitness (in the same way that multiple genes contribute to any trait). For a body, say,
to be fit, the chemistry must be fit (in balance), the cells must be fit (not infected),
the organs must be fit (functioning correctly) and so on. Thus our fitness is a multi-
level concept, including levels both internal and external to the body. Fitness is then
that holistic state that gives maximum success in any particular context.
Diversity of Knowledge
Each individual on the planet has a unique upbringing, our experiences are different,
the things we are taught vary with culture. It is not surprising therefore that our
categories, values and preferences similarly cover a wide range. That we have,
nethertheless, many common beliefs and practices suggests that these have proved
valuable in our lives. If the pursuit of spiritual concepts is taken to be one of these
common themes, then it behoves us to take seriously its adaptive significance.
Nobody can doubt the benefits of science, in terms of efficient machines and
processes; or the benefits of the arts in terms of beauty and entertainment; or the
benefits of societies in terms of trade, mutual support and diversity. Yet the possible
benefits of spirituality are often ignored. The pursuit of spiritual growth can
however also be a valid form of knowledge acquisition, so what sort of knowledge
might this be ?
Essentially it is the knowledge of ourselves (a looking inward), the way we think,
behave and react, our positive and negative aspects, and our values in relation to the
whole. It involves bringing into consciousness our unconscious motivations, beliefs,
feelings and predispositions, so that we can evaluate their part in our overall fitness
(in complexity terms, so that we can change the neural ruleset based on connections,
and thus the attractors). The psychological benefits of this seem clear, in the
reduction of internal stress or errors and in more constructive interactions with the
world around us. The process is that of better integrating the various aspects of our
personality with each other and with the rest of the Universe, something badly
neglected in our current educational systems [Adler, Ch15]. But when we do this we
often find more, glimpses of another universe (or world view), an alternative reality
or altered state of consciousness. Such experiences (described in religion as
mysticism) traditionally form the higher levels of spiritual development, reached
through meditation techniques. These techniques however need not have a religious
slant, but can simply be used to restore balance and to enhance creativity [Gawler,
Kabat-Zinn]. Their success, even on a mundane level, indicates the value of such
spiritual introspection in revealing new ways in which to view and integrate our
world.
Labels and Belief
Before we can fully bring together scientific and spiritual development, however,
we need to look into the philosophical background of our science. In investigating
the world we must distinguish what is there from what is not, in other words we
need to categorize or label our discoveries. In complex systems there are many ways
of doing this (based upon the various emergent levels), but since Aristotle
[Bambrough, Logic] we have traditionally regarded 'substance' (existence) as more
primary than 'quality' (appearance). Substance (the inherent, non-subjective,
properties of an object) suggests the questions: 'Where ?', 'When ?' and 'How Much
?'. 'Where' presupposes a space in which to exist (location), 'When' presupposes a
time (duration) and 'How Much' a measure of extent (matter). These three basic
categories of position, momentum (mass times velocity) and time, run throughout
science, so much so that some physicists seem to regard them as the self-evident
basic properties of the Universe (e.g. Laplace claiming that, given such initial
conditions, all of reality could be deterministically predicted - a viewpoint still held
by many reductionist scientists).
To see that this is not the case, we need to look into quantum theory, which is
recognised as being more accurate and fundamental than the classically based
theories that still pervade almost all science. In Quantum Electrodynamics
[Feynman], for example, matter largely reduces to an exchange of photons,
electromagnetic 'particles' which have no mass, 'waves' that have no position, a
dynamic relativistic interchange between 'particle' and 'wave' where time has no
simple meaning. Thus the idea of objective substance itself is seen to be no more
than an emergent property of interactions between ephemeral and transcendental
constituents. The non-substances that surround it (time and space) are likewise
emergent concepts of our belief system (logical necessities due to our dualist mode
of thought), dependent upon our assumptions of direction, our labels, and the desire
to 'ground' our concepts in a fixed framework, to have foundations to our world.
If we accept that any concept of scientific reality is arbitrary (which we can see in
the co-existence of both quantum and classical versions for different purposes), we
must ask what other concepts could we use ? From a complexity theory viewpoint it
is not a matter of replacing our physical views, but of supplementing them, by
adding new layers that target purposes currently neglected in a material perspective.
The material world is only one level in what is perhaps a continuum of emergent
levels, that form the whole of reality. Even on a material level we can use different
paradigms to evaluate different sub-levels, e.g. in physics (quanta), biology
(evolution) and technology (systems) terminologies. The labels we use for these
different levels are not, on a complexity viewpoint, interchangeable, this means that
a reduction to the lowest level is invalid. We must treat the emergent properties of
each level as self-contained and discrete, yet recognise that the levels do interact (in
both directions). Our labels are, in essence, relations, that allow us to tie together
diverse aspects of our reality, e.g. the word 'planet' contains within itself links to
multiple concepts, other associated labels. These labels can exist at many levels,
including their symbolic and metaphoric uses in poetry and myth. All such
categories (divisions of our world) are seen ultimately to be creations of mind and
not inherent in reality.
Appearance and Spirit
The categories we perceive (appearances or 'secondary qualities' [Locke,8:10])
include other forms of labelling, for example colour, properties said to depend upon
the observer and not to be inherent in the substance of the object. We see however
that from the quantum viewpoint no properties are independent of the observer, so
the distinctions made by Aristotle and Locke were false ones. By artificially
separating one set of emergent properties (appearance) from another (substance), a
barrier was created that has isolated mind and matter and created a strongly dualist
philosophy behind science. By re-integrating, under the complexity viewpoint, the
continuity of emergent levels, we can seamlessly move from object, via subject, to
spirit, recognising these labels themselves as no more than arbitrary stepping stones
along the way, relating to our level of abstraction.
Spirit is thus seen as another form of the categorization of that which concerns us, a
way of viewing the world that we can suppose increases our ability to exist
successfully. Recognising the equivalence of different abstract concepts enables us
to discard the historical barriers between them (for example the view that
mathematical abstraction is fundamentally different from metaphysical abstraction).
We see that all such abstractions are emergent properties going beyond the level of
our more physically related concepts. Spirit, in this view, can be regarded "as the
operational definition of who he or she really is; what they give their highest
priorities to; what their values are; how they behave towards other people, towards
God, towards creation" [Jeeves, p100]. It is an integrated (holistic) view of our
being - body, soul, spirit, intellect, emotion (even society, nature and God) are one
not many.
Meaning and Values
To enquire about the meaning of something is to ask how it can contribute to our
quality of life, what is its value. One of the problems we have in science is the lack
of value judgements inherent in its methodology. Many scientists even reject the
concept of 'meaning' in science - nature is just what we measure [Bohr, p179,
Hawking, p121]. This states that no available metaphysical context adds to the
utility or practical value of the scientific observation or fact. Yet meaning abounds
in our lives, in poetry, novels, art, as well as in religion and social behaviour. So to
reject it in just one field is to perform an error of omission. Can we then re-
formulate science to include the concept of value ?
To some extent we already have. The principle of natural selection in biology
assumes that what is selected is a difference in fitness, or the value to an organism
of a particular trait. This concept runs widely throughout our lives (even if, by itself,
it is inadequate within a complexity viewpoint [Wesson]). Yet in evolutionary
terms, even scientific formulae are fitness related, we choose them based on their
truth value in prediction (an arbitrary criterion [Kolakowski, p79]), and we see that
this is itself a value judgement based upon what we want to predict. We can, in
principle, extend these ideas easily to select theories based on other, wider, criteria,
including for example their contribution to our quality of life. Doing this we find
that science ceases to be an isolated, pseudo-objective, enterprise but instead
become a formalised tool tacked on to our evolutionary brain, a better way of
relating to the world and increasing our fitness. In the same way the spiritual aspects
of our being can also give meaning or value to the whole, but these increase fitness
in different ways than those we value in our science.
If we generalise all these terms (fitness, value, meaning, prediction) we see that all
relate to improvement or adaptations in the context of our lives and the world we
live in. We are multi-faceted creatures operating in many different realities [Ram
Dass, pp20]. We expect (and find) that these improvements come in many forms,
yet it would be a brave person to claim that one form was superior to another. It
seems clear that eating is of value only when we are hungry, and science (perhaps)
only when we need to predict. Value is a relative term, but maybe spirituality is at
its greatest value when we need to choose between alternatives, in evaluating just
which selection criteria we should use. This takes a view of spirit as a higher level
of reality, a sort of meta-value system concerned with putting into perspective the
alternatives available at the lower levels.
Applied Spirituality
Few would suggest that abstract concepts are meaningless, the benefits of
mathematical ideas, for example, seem obvious, applications are encountered daily.
Can we say the same about the application of spiritual ideas ? Let us proceed by
identifying some of the more common spiritual beliefs and relating them to modern
complexity thinking and fitness.
Oneness, God in Everything
A totality comprising all connected things could be taken to have the
emergent universal property often referred to as God. As in any emergent
property, the parts experience only a little of the higher property at best. Thus
the difficulty in man comprehending his God relates to the part experiencing
the whole, in the same way that individuals only partly understand the whole
of the society of which they are members. As in any highly connected system,
each choice we make has subtle effects on our neighbours in the network, and
they affect others in turn, until the whole is encompassed and the effects
return to act on the cause - this is similar to the concept of karma [Motoyama,
pp28]. Thus there is closure of the system, the fitness of the one relates to the
fitness of the all, so similarly any 'God' influence that we allow would be felt
throughout the Universe.
Love One Another
Viewing all as parts of the one, is analogous to considering the relationships
between the parts in a machine. If one part destroys another the machine
stops. In our more redundantly constructed living systems the efficiency is
degraded instead, but there is a progressive tendency to loss of function, to
chaos. For a human society the same applies, individuals fighting individuals
retards the fitness (quality of life) of each, reducing the value of the whole.
Seeing God as in the world, not separate from it, removes the religious
tendency to claim love of God, yet hate neighbours (pure selfhood
[Kierkegaard, p7]). In an integrated view, God and Neighbour are connected,
so love must be universal and apply to both ("love God and love your
neighbour as yourself" Luke 10:27). In the same way that one part of our body
fearing another would be nonsensical, the fear and hate of other humans (in
the context of the whole) is thus seen as self-defeating and illogical.
Heaven and Hell
These can relate to our view of the world's perceived fitness - an amalgam of
'out-there' and 'in-here' (Heaven presumably being idyllic and Hell diabolical
in nature). By changing 'in-here' we can perhaps transform perceived Hell
into Heaven [Amritanandamayi, pp432], thus spiritual development (which
targets the 'in-here') complements materialist changes (which affects the 'out-
there'). These are two valid ways in which to achieve the same end, but
whereas changing the outer world affects only one present situation, changes
to the inner perceptions affect all future situations, and are thus far more
powerful and fit [Tart, pp279, Brunton, pp374].
Divisions are Illusions
Categories are simple snapshots, just different views of a complex whole. To
see the whole truth we must merge all possible views, but when we do this we
see that no clear divisions exist, the whole is seamless, with detail at all levels
(fractal structure [Mandelbrot]). Thus complexity thinking and spiritual
teaching seem to say the same thing. Science too at the quantum level denies
inherent properties, yet it is so natural for us to create divisions, to divide up
our world. The usefulness of this is clear in everyday life, where we only
employ simplified views, concentrating on just one aspect (view) at a time.
We need to realise however that such simplifications (however strongly we
cling to them [Krishnamurti, pp34]) are only an evolutionary technique for
fast survival decisions or choices and not reflections of ultimate reality or the
full picture. When we need to choose on a different level (e.g. artistic), then
quite different ways of thinking are usually needed and the previous divisions
become redundant. In the sense often (obscurely) employed in religious
thinking, any material only viewpoint is an illusion, in that what it excludes
exceeds by far what it includes. By letting go of our attachment to divisions,
except where they are necessary (i.e. fitness enhancing), we can develop an
awareness of the whole, a more balanced viewpoint [Krishnamurti, pp67].
God as Being
Wisdom resides in the whole, the depth of knowledge available at all levels.
We can transfer this metaphorically to a personified God (in the Greek
tradition of Zeus perhaps), a substitute for the whole, or sometimes to many
such substitute Gods, each standing for a particular quality. Yet to assume
that a limitless whole can take the form of a limited part is inadequate (this
being the same reductionist methodology as is often employed in science),
thus the projection can only be a simplified analogy. Further, it is one that
often attributes qualities (e.g. sex) to a being supposedly existing at an higher
emergent level than such categories possess meaning. Whilst complexity
thinking would reject such a concept as structurally illogical, nethertheless it
can have utility for an individual, allowing them to relate more easily to wider
issues. We see the same process in the personification of Nations, animals and
things - the analogy helps us to feel closer and more involved, which is
beneficial. But emergence requires instead that we view God not as
something separate, but integrating and penetrating the whole (an immanent
theology [Underhill, pp529]) and this proves to be basic to the esoteric
aspects of all religious traditions [Perry, pp855].
Timelessness of God
God is regarded as outside time, eternal and unchanged, whilst the world
changes. Yet time is just the measure of a change (e.g. movement of a clock
hand) and in science too various qualities are unchanging, they are conserved.
These include energy and momentum. An analogy is the sea, where waves
constantly come and go in all forms and shapes, yet the water is unchanged.
Eternal versus temporal is thus a change in viewpoint not a qualitative
difference, e.g. when we regard individuals as living and dying, but the
society of which they are a part as unchanging - yet both consist of the same
elements. God is simply the same idea viewed over an infinite timescale, a
view at a different emergent level than that we usually employ. Another way
of looking at this is in the context of the 'Eternal Now', often employed by
adepts, where the attachment to past and yearning for future are both
discarded, freeing the sage to enjoy the bliss of pure timeless existence
[Perry, pp838].
Eternal Life of the Soul
Life dissipates in one form yet returns in another, it flows, being a process not
an entity. Once we die we are recycled into many other lifeforms and these
into higher ones until, perhaps, we are reabsorbed by humans and reborn as
children. An unusual notion of being resurrected or reincarnated perhaps, yet
in such a science based view of evolution, learning is passed on (in chemistry,
genes, books, conversation, all forms of interaction). The assumption of a
personal immortality (not part of all religions) in the context of complex
systems is problematical, since these are never constant, so which version is
the self ? From a systems point of view, function (personality) is passed on in
interactions, knowledge is distributed in the whole, our effect on the world
about us. We can see this in the structure of our body, the cells die and are
replaced, but the higher functions persist and grow. We are constantly
physically reborn. In a similar way our 'personality' or 'self' is largely a
meaningless construct [Parfit, Ch10], being just a mirror of our place in the
wider social world - dynamic bubbles of being floating through the cosmic
sea, until they burst with death and reform elsewhere. Negation of 'self' as
illusion is a common theme underlying spiritual development [Perry, pp143,
pp205]. Death, in spiritual terms, could be said to be the expansion of the one
into the many [Levine, pp552], a process also commonly seen in Near Death
Experiences [Moody, p9] and Hypnotic Regression [Whitton, p29].
Experience of such an alternative higher reality is perhaps also available
during life, to those sufficiently spiritually enlightened [Sangharakshita,
p195].
Reward in Heaven
Religion often preaches that our reward is not to be expected in this life but in
the next. We can relate to this in terms of emergent levels, in that the benefits
of the higher level are not apparent in terms of the lower. Thus material
reward is less valuable than psychological (a higher level of reality) and that
in turn less valuable than spiritual (as a more Universal view). Viewing
Heaven as an internal concept is compatible with this [Mitchell, pp839], and
suggests that passivity (waiting to be 'redeemed') is not the meaning intended,
instead an active development of non-material levels is being encouraged.
This sort of indifference to the material world is often found in adepts [Perry,
pp139].
Grace
This is Universal spirit or love, manifested in each of us as soul. Relating this
to the physics view that energy is fundamental in the Universe, and to the
complexity view that structure or form results from the interaction of the
constituents (given a source of energy to escape equilibrium), we can suggest
that creativity also derives from the same source (whether artistic, scientific or
other forms), thus this is a positive viewpoint similar to that taken in religious
teachings [Rinpoche, pp349, Sri Aurobindo, pp499]. It is largely a matter of
attitude whether we use such energy constructively or destructively, spiritual
teachings stress the importance of the former, expressed as compassion and
selfless love to all of creation and this seems fitness related, in the complexity
sense of enhancing the whole.
Good and Evil
Our actions or applied energy if they are positive in fitness terms are Good
(creative, knowledge enhancing, mutually beneficial); but if negative, are Evil
(destructive, ignorant or censorial, divisive). These evaluations apply to the
multi-level whole, not just to the individual ego (as in capitalism), nor just to
the state ego (as in communism), but to the Universe with its complexity of
viewpoints and groupings. In spiritual terms, we can view ourselves as part of
God and the Universe as a whole as God [Kitaro, pp153]. We are here
charged with developing ourselves (increasing our fitness) but not at the
expense of the whole (in fact recognising our identity to the whole is said to
be part of the purpose of spiritual development). Thus the net result of our
actions should be positive-sum for God as a whole, a very different mode to
our usual behaviour where selfish progress so often means impoverishment
for nature and other humans (overall negative-sum).
Value of Prayer
Generally this is goal directed, so we can regard it as a deliberate perturbation
or stress of the system. If this perturbation is maintained as a constant fitness
aim we would expect success eventually, stress needs to be released.
Psychologically, confidence generates success, whether based on actual or
imagined support. In complex systems (close to chaos) small influences can
cause massive effects, which we could attribute to God's influence, this
assuming a teleological goal for what is unpredictable, even in science. Often
lack of success is written off as "God knows best", but time limited
perturbations do die out, swamped by other factors. For a global God, the
failure can also be attributed to the system self-balancing to prevent the
attempted change (a form of homeostasis), which amounts to the same thing -
rejection of a part preference. Due to the large number of influences in
complex systems and their interactions, it is not generally possible in any case
to distinguish between random and teleological instigations of happenings,
except in simple instances.
Worship of God
This encourages the widening of a narrow selfish viewpoint towards a larger
system view, a form of surrender to a greater entity. Taking into account
other needs than our own is a form of personal development necessary to all
living in a society. Including God simply extends this to the whole, giving us
a Universal framework in which to evaluate fitness, as opposed to the more
secular worship of limited goals (e.g. money, fame). It unites the parts with
the totality, an essential action in maximising the value of the whole system
and this is fitness enhancing. To the extent that we understand and relate to
the whole, our basis for fitness decisions is enhanced, we have more
knowledge. This applies in all situations, such knowledge improves our power
to make the optimum fitness decision. Communal worship also has clear
value in binding together groups under a common social viewpoint, giving a
sense of belonging and integration [Steindl-Rast, p417].
Morality and Law
The systems of morality in religious thought tend to be static in presentation,
in the form of rules (prohibitions or commandments), often formalised in the
justice system as laws of the land. These systems tend to be rigid, they are
based on the past, often on precedents and the status quo. Creativity in
interpretation or re-balancing to modern conditions is not encouraged, such
systems are sensitivity deadening, conformity enforcing and growth
suppressing. In complexity thinking context is very important, the correct
action must be determined by the options available at the time, taking into
account the novelty of the situation. This is the idea that no two contexts are
the same and that, since modern contexts bear little relation to those of the
past, they may in fact require opposite 'ethical' decisions to achieve the
optimum fitness. We can see the failure of rigid systems in the need to
reverse their ethics to promote killing, in so called 'justified' wars, and the
associated imprisonment of those unable to accept this forced illogic
(conscientious objectors). Social systems that can adapt to changes are needed
to maximise overall fitness [Rauschenbush, pp586], but since behaviour is an
inner drive we can see that no set of external rules suffices, ultimately our
internal viewpoint is the only law that is effective. In so far as spiritual
development can internalise the wisdom embodied in our laws (if such there
be), or that obtained from other sources, it will improve our judgement and
thus prove fitness enhancing.
Faith and Free Will
Salvation through belief or faith ("Thy Will be done" Matthew 6:10) seems to
suggest that action takes place outside ourselves, that we can passively expect
to reap the benefits without effort. Free Will on the other hand suggests that
we only get what we instigate ourselves. Both, from a complexity point of
view, are true. In any complex system what fitness we experience depends
both on others and on ourselves. Fitness is a collective property. We are
neither totally free, nor totally impotent. If we try to be passive (only
receiving) we do not develop, that requires change in ourselves; if we are
active however we must expect that the world around us will change in such a
way as to feedback on our actions (opposing if negative, enhancing if
positive). Faith, in this sense, is a trust that God (the whole) will have the
same global fitness aim, and thus will act in our best interests as well as His
own. At a lower level, society could not operate without such a concept of
trust being valued (at least in some cases). In the Taoist ('The Way')
viewpoint [Graham] this relates to not forcing events, trusting that things will
occur in the right way and at the right time, and using opportunities as they
arise (taking advantage of what is sometimes called synchronicity or
serendipity) [Wing, pp12]. This also relates to complex systems, in that
changes (fluctuations) are happening constantly, so waiting for the right
moment (analogously 'a break in the clouds') allows achievement without the
major disruption to the system that would result from any forced attempt to
achieve a goal (analogously 'changing the weather' - which causes major
repercussions).
Religious Frameworks
If we accept such a fitness related role for spiritual belief systems, then we need to
understand also how different religions implement these ideas. Here we encounter a
problem however. In many forms of religion even to question the concepts being
promulgated is regarded as heresy or blasphemy, punishable by exclusion or death
(e.g. the Salman Rushdie case). These are closed systems. To a lesser extent we find
the same reluctance to question standard views in the sciences and social systems,
yet without such questioning at all levels our search for 'truth' is frustrated. We
should recall, however, that only error needs to fear enquiry [Freud, pp72].
The complexity viewpoint asks searching questions about many of the views we
hold most dear, and religion is no exception. We must apply the same criteria to
religious systems as to any other complex systems. These questions include:
What connectivity is used ?
The essence of complexity theory. What influences are allowed (analogous to
the physical interactions affecting matter - gravitation, electromagnetism,
information etc.). Beliefs in karma, atonement, sin, prayer, sacred texts,
leaders, paranormal action and so on. The parts and the relationships
comprising the religion.
Is there holistic awareness ?
To what extent is the self transcended in the whole. Do the actions and
practices pertain to the interests of the parts or to any wider viewpoint. Are
values beyond the vocabulary of self visible.
What are the emergent levels ?
These are the dimensions of the religion: thoughts, actions, symbols, artefacts,
including the aspects of their God and levels of attainment. Some religions
concentrate on only selected aspects, yet for a full understanding all aspects
need to be integrated in the study of complex systems.
Is the system static, dynamic or chaotic ?
Rule driven, value driven or individual driven modes of operation. The first is
restrictive and static, the last free but irresponsible to the needs of the whole.
The value (or fitness) driven mode however allows all levels of the system to
be integrated, to maximise overall development.
Does co-evolution occur ?
Growth, a progression, relates to the spiritual development of the members.
Do they help each other to improve or hinder one another ? Are alternative
views welcomed as a method of growth (creativity) or opposed and
eliminated (censorship). Does the religion learn from outside itself.
Is there a power law distribution ?
This is the hierarchical structure of the religion. For example in the participant
levels of spirituality, many believers are low down the development path, a
few are highly spiritually developed; also in levels of involvement in the
running of the organisation most do little, but a few do much of the work.
This need not relate to the power structure, as these hierarchies are not static
and do not all start with the same point or individual. If the distribution
follows a straight line power law then the religion may have self-organized to
the optimum evolutionary state (edge of chaos).
What attractors exist ?
Where is the religion heading. Is there more than one simultaneous aim (e.g.
power, afterlife, conversion, material acquisition, freedom, equality, morality,
status, enlightenment, union). Does it try to fix the attractors (a Utopian
viewpoint) or allow them to change as development proceeds. Are goals at
multiple levels present, suitable for different stages of spiritual development.
Optimum fitness ?
Paradise can be identified with the best possible state, thus the optimum result
should be associated with the fittest belief system. What is the overall value
of the religion, compared to other belief systems. Are there clear advantages
to adopting each of the beliefs included. Does fitness exist at all levels or just
some. Can we imagine a better result than what exists, and if so how can the
religion achieve it, without fitness loss.
Climbing The Same Mountain
When we adopt a belief we require it to be consistent with the other things we
believe. This is a positive thing, with obvious fitness benefits in avoiding conflict in
our decisions. But there is a drawback, previous beliefs constrain our freedom, they
force our path, blinding us to other options. We see this in the Newtonian view of a
flat Euclidean space and an independent time, and also in the assumption of a
personal God, separate from the universe. To take assumptions as 'truths' either in
science or religion is to adopt a naive viewpoint, a reduction of the complexity of
the world to a child's vision, unexamined and unchallenged. The world is multi-
dimensional, not in the space and time sense only, but in ways that go far deeper. To
say of a person that she is a Scientist or that he is a Christian is to deny by
implication that they are anything else, and to reduce them to a single dimension, in
exactly the same manner as people are reduced to the single dimension of 'market
value' in economics..
This is even more true within Religious thought. All believers share a large number
of concepts, so the views of different sects are not totally disjoint. The transcendent
can be regarded simply as another form of personal growth, and religions as just
different dies used to stamp the same precious metal, that of spirit. A useful
metaphor is to regard God as the top of a mountain. We wish to approach God, so
we climb the mountain. How many ways can we do this ? In principle there are
infinite ways. Some may take the long path, some try to go up the cliff face, some
the north ascent, some the south, some go part way up but it becomes difficult and
they are forced to descend and try another way. Religious sects are these paths, each
a different route to the same end [Dalai Lama, p432] - we all climb the same
mountain. This is analogous to searching for knowledge by studying physics or
biology or sociology, all contribute, but none have all the answers. Given the vast
differences in education, experience and interests amongst humans, to insist on a
single method of spiritual study [Smart, Ch11] can only be regarded as misguided,
rather like claiming Chinese symbolism is meaningless because we speak English.
Generalising, the scientific and religious aspirations of people are all just different
paths to the same end-point, that of complete truth or Enlightenment (although some
ways may certainly be more efficacious than others for particular people).
Even within a tradition we must be aware that we are initially spiritually ignorant
and only develop our expertise over time. Those concepts (myths, stories) suitable
for our development early on the path (often as children) may need to be discarded
as we gain in perception and spiritual depth. Generally we start with external
actions, the moral and behavioural (worldly becoming) aspects of religion. Those
that take it further later turn inward, developing the contemplative (otherworldly
being) aspect, but that is still not the end of the path, a further stage of integration is
possible, requiring further insight and development beyond self, generally fully
attained only by a few adepts or saints (mystic beginning). On a more simplistic
level, we can relate this to the common belief in the three integrated stages of
physical fitness, mental control and spiritual unity in such techniques as Karate and
Yoga [Hewitt, Ch3]. The lack of balance between these stages is responsible for
much of the antagonism caused to, and by, religion in our societies [von Hugel,
pp498]. But having found one path that works well for us does not mean that other
viewpoints are invalid, nor that a better fitness cannot be found by a quantum jump
in starting point (similar to the evolutionary technique of crossover in sexual
recombination). Our next section explores such a leap in viewpoint.
The Paranormal
Dismissal of paranormal ideas is often a gut reaction by scientists, and acceptance
an equally unthinking assumption by spiritualists. Yet what do we mean by
paranormal ? The word tells us - beyond normal. The normal knowledge of any
individual is trivial compared to the sum total of Universal knowledge, at all levels
of humanity and nature. To dismiss unknown forms of knowledge due to our own
lack of development is analogous to dismissing mathematical calculus because we
cannot do it personally. Before we can learn to do anything we must study it and
listen to teachers. The normal in mental life is just those abilities common to all,
instinctive or generally taught. Other abilities (e.g. juggling) are less common, some
extremely rare (e.g. photographic memory) and not perhaps amenable to being
taught, yet rarity itself isn't a reason to dismiss any phenomenon. What is
'paranormal' or 'magic' can be simply what our education omits to teach us [Watts,
pp714].
Traditional science studies repeatable phenomena, in other words the 'normal'. One-
off happenings are usually ignored (or dismissed as 'experimental error'). Yet they
do exist, volcanoes erupt suddenly, planes crash, people meet unexpectedly, genius
occurs. All science can say about these is that they are unpredictable, not that they
are impossible or inexplicable ('after the event' theories are often widespread).
Complexity theory concentrates on those areas of the world where this sort of
unpredictability is usual - the edge of chaos. Small affects here conspire to create
large changes, in just such a way as is often seen in studies of the paranormal where
(presumably) tiny influences are said to change matter as in psychokinesis, other
minds as in telepathy or our own as in ESP [Swann, p1]. The often quoted objection
to 'action at a distance' is quite invalid, since this occurs as a matter of course both
in classical science, in terms of gravity and electromagnetism, and in quantum
theory (e.g. the Aspect experiments [Baggott, pp139] and the recent developments
in quantum computation and teleportation [Buchanan]).
The world around us is full of these small causes. Radio stations broadcast all the
time, electricity pylons generate low frequency waves, the earth emits radioactive
particles, cosmic rays arrive from space, brains create low intensity fields, gravity
affects all molecules, quantum fluctuations abound. All these 'scientific' affects (and
any others not yet discovered) are theoretically capable of causing a one-off
happening of any magnitude, indeed in complexity theory such 'power law'
fluctuations would be expected to occur generally, with diminishing frequency as
the magnitude increased (as for example in earthquakes [Bak, pp88]). These effects
are often seen (e.g. pendulum clocks on a wall synchronize with each other). There
need be no division here between science and religion, they are merely opposite
ends of a continuum of happenings, from 'commonplace' to 'miracle', the latter
needing only a system to exist in a critical state such that a minor change can cause
a rare cascade of effects. In principle, any form of communication of such a change
can suffice, so there could be many simultaneous 'paranormal' (or normal)
mechanisms operating at various emergent levels.
Our view of reality is highly simplistic (a shadow world [Plato, VII:7]), we miss out
many subtleties in our everyday life and science. Alternative realities, or
viewpoints, may allow access to profound knowledge, for example in distressed or
drugged states (where normal functioning is transcended) [Laszlo]. Our usual lives
are filled with noise and sensory overload, so access to this more delicate
information may require the quiet states to be found in meditation, sleep or just
empty 'being'. Silence also seems to be required to achieve concentration, to allow
subtle connections to be made, and for learning, creativity and vision. There can
also be many ways of experiencing the same truths - as we see in quantum theory,
where we see a particle if we look for one, or a wave if searching for that, but never
both at the same time (our mode of looking constrains what we can see - rationality
itself closes down many avenues, eliminating the other possibilities). Yet these
alternative viewpoints are taken to be complementary, aspects of the same ultimate
truth (and modelled by the same Schrodinger equation).
In a similar way matter and mind may also be complementary views of a more basic
reality, as some thinkers suggest [Bohm, pp196], merging and expanding both
objective and subjective viewpoints. Science and Religion ultimately speak the same
language, but perhaps both just suffer from the 'not invented here' syndrome ?
Allowing that both systems of knowledge are valid, and are capable of being pulled
together by the ideas of complexity theory, leaves the possibility for a full
integration of the fields. To do this however we must transcend some of the
restrictive dogmas of both, their claims to already have the ultimate truth in
whatever form [Whitehead, pp216, Kolakowski, pp196].
Future of Humanity
Where do we go from here ? If we regard humanity as evolving (non-
deterministically [Popper, pp105]) to ever greater heights, then in what direction
should we move ? It seems clear that, despite all the material progress achieved over
the last two centuries or so, the average human mental state today is little different
to that of our remote ancestors, material prosperity has not made us happy. People
that win the lottery or are rich in other material ways are often less content than a
peasant in the fields or a monk in a monastery. In the sense that a spiritual or
religious belief improves the perceived world of the believer then it must be fitness
enhancing, yet we can judge religious systems also by their wider effects and sadly
it is here that they often reduce fitness for others, so proving to be overall negative-
sum.
Many of these problems relate to a inherited viewpoint that takes all things as
separate. War, greed, hate, starvation and similar evils can only occur if we regard
others as not-us (and therefore irrelevant to our fitness). Both the complexity
viewpoint and that of traditional spirituality reverse this imagined discontinuity.
Whilst complexity science can analyse the inter-relationships of existing and
possible systems it cannot change the values we place on not-self. If we are to
defeat the negativity that besets our world then we need to employ a new set of
values, values that relate to wholeness and not to parts. It is here that spiritual
development may hold the key, in educating people to see beyond the fitness of
self, to the fitness of the multi-level whole, and in coming to appreciate that our
own fitness is extensively linked both to that of our environment and of our society,
in both their external and internal aspects. In this respect even a single spiritual
experience (a satori moment) can be enough to show what is possible and to
encourage further study [Maslow, pp526]
One obvious feature of saints, adepts and those rare masters who have attained the
highest levels of spiritual awareness is their contentment and involvement (e.g.
Mother Teresa of Calcutta). They gain what the rest of us seem to seek. From a
complexity viewpoint they enhance the whole with every action, positively
influencing those around them. Compare the fitness of this to our own actions, too
often we behave negatively, hurting not only others but ourselves also in the
process. If we have an asset for the future, then that of spiritual development would
seem the most valuable, enabling us to re-direct all that wasted conflict energy
[Lucas97] to more useful purposes and enhanced fitness
Conclusion
Taking a view of God and spirit as a worldly and fitness related concept, and not as
some 'beyond the Universe' future utopia, does not conflict with the deepest
understanding of religious adepts. In any field of study we require to learn simple
things initially, before moving on to the deeper issues. Perhaps only in Religion
does the view seem to prevail that a shallow understanding is adequate and
development can stop at that point. The problems caused by this in the past are
immense, attachment to self, single minded values and the limited vision associated
with such views have led to domination based religions, imposed external (static)
systems not discovered internal (dynamic) ones [Gregory, Religion]. The fitness of
these (certainly in terms of the human parts) has often been very low, more sub-
animal in nature (as in persecutions) than Godlike - due perhaps to their attachment
to the packaging rather than the content. Spirituality however does not require belief
in any particular form of deity (e.g. the Buddhist viewpoint). Attachment to a
personal God or Guru is certainly one way of approaching truth, but ultimately
perhaps can be discarded or transformed as the believer gains enlightenment [Bibel,
p283], thus allowing us to restore the (now untainted) missing element of spirit to
our world view. Even if this is not accepted (and we allow for the presence of a
traditional God), the lower levels of spiritual development can still give obvious
utility in fitness terms.
In complexity thinking all emergent levels are important, and so collectively must
have their fitness maximised. In human terms this applies to the internal as well as
the external aspects of our being. The spirit of complexity can be defined as that
emergent level concerned with integrating the particular (self) with the universal
(not-self), bridging the subjective/objective duality. Spirit in this sense goes far
beyond just the religious aspects and takes into itself the higher levels of artistic and
emotional truths, as well as those of ontological origin. We need to extend our
specialist tunnel vision to encompass the whole, in all its variety [Lucas98] and this
includes all the emergent levels, especially the non-material. In essence, this means
to recognise that the different worlds we inhabit (physical, mental and spiritual)
must be in balance. A useful analogy is the colour wheel, white light is made up of
equal amounts of red, green and blue. An excess of any colour gives an imbalance -
our colour perception is then distorted. If we relate red to material aspects, green to
living and blue to spiritual, we can perhaps see that in the remote past these were in
a better balance, the world was a dim white (e.g. in Ancient Greece or China). Our
recent material development has strengthened the red contribution until it now
dominates the whole, we are unbalanced. Current ecological movements are
attempting to grow the green to partly compensate, but there is a long way yet to go
here. In contrast the blue 'spirit' component is being diminished, rather than
enhanced, and this needs to be addressed to restore to our society those higher
values of wisdom, harmony and imagination whose development is lacking today
[Griffiths, pp686]. To synthesize, in other words, a new more 'brilliant white' whole.
The achievement of this new balance requires changes to our general approach to
life, especially in our economic ideas [Schumacher, Ch4]. It is here that the complex
systems approach may help, by showing us that those systems approaches that work
well in the material world may also be translated to operate, in the same way, in any
system having the same connectivity, and this means in the higher level realms of
life and mind. We may thus already have the expertise to develop the psychological
and holistic maturity we lack, within a scientific viewpoint. We must be aware
however that we cannot do this with certainty, small influences preclude
deterministic prediction in such complex systems (at the edge of chaos). A
probabilistic approach may need to be employed, to achieve an incremental (step by
step) readjustment to both our external world and our internal nature. This may not
be quite as difficult as it may appear. We are not looking here to calculate
(intellectually) an absolute fitness for every action (as in a utilitarian system), but
simply to choose (intuitively) our best guess as to what will improve (or at least not
reduce) fitness at all levels, by balancing the relative (probabilistic) values of the
choices available to us at the present time. For example, by recognising that the self
is just one level of choice, and that family, society, ecosystem and planet are other
equally valid levels, we can perhaps re-evaluate our attitude to pollution, seeing that
any personal gain in fitness is associated with greater losses for other levels
(ecosystem, society), whilst some levels (family, planet) may be neutral to this
choice. Merging the levels we get a negative-sum, a clear indication that this is the
wrong choice. If we all choose like this consistently (as specific cases not as general
rules, and more by a spiritually developed holistic feeling than by divisive
simplification), then the Heaven we seek may be found to have been here all the
time - as the sages have been saying for thousands of years [Merton, p132,Vardey,
Ch14].
As a species we have embarked first upon the simplest form of knowledge, the
dimensions of external reality (the 'out-there'), with the flowering of our science.
The next stage, investigation of the dimensions of internal reality (the 'in-here') is
underway, but is still at a primitive (and over-objectified) stage. Study of the final
integrative dimensions of knowledge (which are both 'out-there' plus 'in-here' and
not 'out-there' nor 'in-here' [Chang, pp98]) has yet to begin for the majority of us.
Here, we would suggest, complexity theory can complement traditional spiritual
approaches and help bring the higher dimensions of reality within our collective
grasp. Humanity seems however to have a considerable journey ahead of it still,
both to extract what spiritual knowledge still remains within our religious systems,
and to develop and apply this, especially to world views and educational systems
that increasingly neglect the wider issues, in favour of commercial specialisms and
individuality.
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